GOD’S LOVE

IN OUR LIVES
DIVINITY NOTES FOR TANZANIAN HIGH SCHOOLS
BY BRO. RIKARDO MARIA
MARIA, UNWA (2018 EDITION)

ATTENTION, PLEASE: YOU HAVE BEEN SENT A “BIBLE BANGER”...

You may say: “I am too tired”. You may say: “I am afraid”.

But the Lord says: “I will give you rest” (Mt 11:28). But the Lord says: “Every hair on your head has
been counted. So there is no need to be afraid”
You may say: “I cannot go on”. (Mt 10:30-31).
But the Lord says: “My grace is enough for you”
(2Cor 12:9). You may say: “I am always frustrated”.
But the Lord says: “Don’t worry about
You may say: “I cannot figure things out”. tomorrow” (Mt 6:34).
But the Lord says: “I am the way” (Jn 14:6).
You may say: “I cannot forgive myself”.
You may say: “I am not able”. But the Lord says: “My child, your sins are
But the Lord says: “God is perfectly able to enrich forgiven” (Mk 2:5).
you with every grace, so that you always have
enough for every conceivable need” (2Cor. 9:8). You may say: “I feel all alone”.
But the Lord says: “I shall not fail you or desert
You may say: “I cannot manage”. you” (Heb 13:5).
But the Lord says: “Give, and there will be gifts for
you” (Phil 4:19). You may say: “Nobody really loves me”.
But the Lord says: “You must love one another
You may say: “I am not smart enough”. just as I have loved you” (Jn 13:34).
But the Lord says: “You exist in Christ Jesus, who for
us was made wisdom from God” (1Cor. 1:30). You may say: “It is impossible”.
But the Lord says: “Things
hings that are impossible by
human resources are possible for God” (Lk
18:27).
OBJECTIVES
• To deepen the awareness of the religious dimension of life as contained in God’s revelation and
Christian history.
• To hold Gospel values as basis for judgments and choices in living in a changing world.
• To better understand the Christian faith, knowing how God revealed himself in human history and
appreciating his powerful love present in the Church.
• To develop the capacity to deeply communicate with God.
• To help good relationships within the society, putting into practice what acquired from the studies.
• To prepare for a model life according to God’s word and plan on men and women.
• To lay an adequate academic foundation to those who will pursue religious studies at higher levels.

TEXT
The Revised Standard Version Bible (RSV) remains the main text recommended for the subject.

NOTES
These notes are only a help to understand the biblical text according to its origin and environment.
They keep to essentials and give you a general idea. They are not concerned to involve you in every
detail but to show your way around. You can always come back according to your set time.
How to use them:
1. First humbly pray in order to understand God's word.
2. Read attentively questions and answers in the introductions to every book.
3. Re-read their most important concepts: to help you in identifying them, they are written in bold font.
4. Pay particular attention to the lateral boxes.
5. Read one by one the observations which help read the text of the relevant book of the Bible.
6. Read the quotation itself in the Bible.
7. Re-read its interpretation.
8. Try to narrate what you have read.
9. Think how you and we all should apply the relative message in daily life.
10. After ending all the important quotations of a biblical book with their interpretation, re-read its
introduction's questions and answers.
11. Try to summarise the answers.
12. Attempt at least one relevant study question among those proposed at the end.
How to answer the questions:
In answering a question which wants you to comment a quotation, first you have to fully identify its
statement, for example who, when, where, why and to whom it was spoken. Then remark what is special
with it and its place in the whole Bible's teaching on the matter. Finally, explain your opinion on its relevance
or application to today’s similar situations, without going to much far from the words' context.
In answering a question which refers to the teaching of a whole book from the Bible, you have to express
it in the best way in relation to its time of composition, destination, purpose, themes etc. Then remark what
is special with it and its place in the whole Bible's teaching on the matter. Finally, explain your opinion on its
relevance or application to today’s similar situations, without going to much far from its context.
Be always precise in using religious terms.

NATIONAL EXAMINATION
The examination will test the candidates’ ability to:
• comment on biblical texts and concepts
• recall important events applicable to Christian daily life
• use biblical examples and teachings in solving problems so to live the principles that govern the
persons and the community
The examination will comprise two papers, namely: 114/1 Divinity 1 and 114/2 Divinity 2.

Divinity 1 will be of 3 hours duration and will consist of two sections:

Section A will consist of three (3) essay questions from Historical Books, out of which the
candidates will be required to answer two (2) questions. Each question will carry twenty (20) marks.
Section B will consist of five (5) essay questions from Prophetic Books, out of which the candidates
will be required to answer any three (3) questions. Each question will carry twenty (20) marks.

Divinity 2 will be of 3 hours duration and will consist of two (2) parts:
Part I will focus on the Four Gospels and will consist of four (4) essay questions, out of which the
candidates will be required to answer three (3). Each question will carry twenty (20) marks.
Part II will focus on the Apostolic Age and will consist of three (3) essay questions, out of which
the candidates will be required to answer two (2). Each question will carry twenty (20) marks.

2
BIBLIOGRAPHY
The African Bible
The New Jerusalem Bible
Christian Community Bible
Compendium of the Catechism of the Catholic Church
The Interpretation of the Bible in the Church by the Pontifical Biblical Commission
The Bible and Morality by the Pontifical Biblical Commission
Jesus of Nazareth by Pope Benedict XVI
The Jerome Biblical Commentary
The New Jerome Biblical Commentary
How to Read the Old Testament by Etienne Charpentier
How to Read the New Testament by Etienne Charpentier
The Gospel of John – A Commentary by M. Mullins
Messengers of God - Divinity One by G. Fihavango
Christ and Christianity - Divinity Two by G. Fihavango & J. A. Simalenga

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

PAPER ONE: THE OLD TESTAMENT

Settings
Israel’s faith and life
Prophecy and prophets
Some historical books (1210-560 BC)
The book of Judges: Uneven leaders for God’s unshaped people
The books of Samuel: The rise of the kingdom
The books of Kings: From glory to ashes
Some books named after prophets (760-518 BC)
The book of Amos: God’s demand of social justice
The book of Hosea: Bonds of God’s faithful love
The book of Isaiah: Faith and history
The book of Jeremiah: Kind prophet called to root up and tear down
The book of Ezekiel: The new society on God’s land
The Second Isaiah: God’s servant and the new exodus
The books of Haggai and Zechariah: The task of restoration

PAPER TWO: THE NEW TESTAMENT

Settings
Jesus’ life and message (6 BC – 30 AD)
Jesus’ origins
Jesus’ words and deeds
Jesus’ identity
Jesus’ last days in Jerusalem
Jesus’ resurrection
The apostolic age (30-100 AD)
The four Gospels
Some material common to all Gospels
Some material peculiar to each Gospel
The Gospel of Mark: Jesus, the Christ, Son of God
The Gospel of Matthew: Jesus, new Moses who taught his Church the true perfection
The Gospel of Luke: Jesus, kind but rejected prophet come to save everyone
The Gospel of John: Jesus, God’s Wisdom become our way, truth and life
John’s Gospel compared to the Synoptics
Acts of the Apostles: The Church’s witness for all peoples to the end of time
Some epistles by Paul
Paul
First letter to the Thessalonians: Waiting for the Lord
Letter to the Galatians: From slavery to freedom
First letter to the Corinthians: Christian life in a multinational city
Letter to the Romans: Salvation through faith in Christ

AT THE END OF OUR COURSE

3
 INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
“In this the love of God was made manifest among us, that God sent his only Son into the
world, so that we might live through him. In this is love, not that we loved God but that he
loved us and sent his Son to be the expiation for our sins” (1Jn 4:9-10).

◊ What is the plan of God for man?

God, infinitely perfect and blessed in himself, in a plan of sheer goodness freely created man to make
him share in his own blessed life. In the fullness of time, God the Father sent his Son as the Redeemer
and Saviour
ur of mankind, fallen into sin, thus calling all into his Church and, through the work of the Holy
Spirit, making them adopted children and heirs of his eternal happiness
happiness.

◊ Why does man have a desire for God?

God himself, in creating man in his own image, has written upon his heart the desire to see him. Even if
this desire is often ignored, God never ceases to draw man to himself because only in God will he find and
live the fullness of truth and happiness for which he never stops searching. By nature and by vocation,
therefore, man is a religious being, capable of entering into communion with God. This intimate and
vital bond with God confers on man his fundamental dignity.

◊ How is it possible to know God withth only the light of human reason?
Starting from creation, that is from the world and from the human person, through reason alone one
can know God with certainty as the origin and end of the universe, as the highest good and as infinite truth
and beauty.

◊ Is the light of reason alone sufficient to know the mystery of God?

In coming to a knowledge of God by the light of reason alone man experiences many difficulties. Indeed,
on his own he is unable to enter into the intimacy of the divine mystery. This is why he stands in
need of being enlightened by God’s revelation, not only about those things that exceed his understanding,
but also about those religious and moral truths which of themselves are not beyond the grasp of human
reason, so that even in the present
esent condition of the human race, they can be known by all with ease, with
firm certainty and with no admixture of error.

◊ What does God reveal to man?

God in his goodness and wisdom reveals himself. With deeds and words, he
reveals himself and his plan of loving goodness which he decreed from all eternity
in Christ. According to this plan, all people by the grace of the Holy Spirit are to share in
the divine life as adopted “sons” in the only begotten Son of God.

◊ What are the first stages of God's Revelation?

Re
From the very beginning, God manifested himself to our first parents, Adam and Eve,
and invited them to intimate communion with himself. After their fall, he did not
cease his revelation to them but promised salvation for all their descendants. After
the flood, he made a covenant with Noah, a covenant between himself and all living Adam and Eve
beings. ashamed after
original sin.
◊ What is the full and definitive stage of God's Revelation?
The full and definitive stage of God’s revelation is accomplished in his Word made flesh, Jesus Christ, the
mediator and fullness of Revelation. He, being the only
only-begotten
begotten Son of God made man, is the perfect and
definitive Word of the Father. In the sending
sending of the Son and the gift of the Spirit, Revelation is now
fully complete, although the faith of the Church must gradually grasp its full significance over the course of
centuries.

◊ Why and in what way is divine revelation transmitted?

God “desires all men to be saved and to come to the knowledge of the truth” ((1 1 Tim 2:4), that is, of
Jesus Christ. For this reason, Christ must be proclaimed to all according to his own command, “Go forth
and teach all nations” (Mt 28:19). And this is brought about by Apostolic
Apos Tradition.

◊ What is Apostolic Tradition?

Apostolic Tradition is the transmission of the message of Christ, brought about from the very beginnings
of Christianity by means of preaching, bearing witness, institutions, worship, and inspired writings. The
apostles transmitted all they received from Christ and learned from the Holy Spirit to their
successors, the bishops, and through them to all generations until the end of the world.

◊ In what ways does Apostolic Tradition occur?

curs in two ways: through the living transmission of the word of God (also
Apostolic Tradition occurs
simply called Tradition) and through Sacred Scripture which is the same proclamation of salvation in written
form.
◊ What is the relationship between Tradition and Sacred Scripture?
Scripture
Tradition and Sacred Scripture are bound closely together and communicate one with the other.
Each of them makes present and fruitful in the Church the mystery of Christ. They flow out of the same
divine well-spring
spring and together make up one sacred depositt of faith from which the Church derives her
certainty about revelation.

◊ To whom is the deposit of faith entrusted?

The Apostles entrusted the deposit of faith to the whole of the Church. Thanks to its supernatural sense
of faith the people of God as a whole, assisted by the Holy Spirit and guided by the Magisterium of
the Church, never ceases to welcome, to penetrate more deeply and to live more fully from the gift of
divine revelation.

◊ Why does Sacred Scripture teach the truth?

Because God himself is the author of Sacred Scripture. For this reason it is said to be inspired and to
teach without error those truths which are necessary for our salvation. The Holy Spirit inspired the
human authors who wrote what he wanted to teach us. The Christian faith, however, is not a “religion of the
Book”, but of the Word of God – “not a written and mute word, but incarnate and living” (Saint Bernard of
Clairvaux).

◊ How is Sacred Scripture to be read?

Sacred Scripture must be read and interpretedted with the help of the Holy Spirit and under the
guidance of the Magisterium of the Church according to three criteria: 1) it must be read with attention
to the content and unity of the whole of Scripture; 2) it must be read within the living Tradition of
o the
Church; 3) it must be read with attention to the analogy of faith, that is, the inner harmony which exists
among the truths of the faith themselves.

◊ What role does Sacred Scripture play in the life of the Church?
Sacred Scripture gives support and nd vigour to the life of the Church. For the children of the Church, it
is a confirmation of the faith, food for the soul and the fount of the spiritual life. Sacred Scripture is the soul
of theology and of pastoral preaching. The Psalmist says that it is “a lamp to my feet and a light to my path”
(Ps 119:105). The Church, therefore, exhorts all to read Sacred Scripture frequently because “ignorance of
the Scriptures is ignorance of Christ” (Saint Jerome).

◊ How does man respond to God who reveals himself?

Sustained by divine grace, we respond to God with the obedience of faith,
which means the full surrender of ourselves to God and the acceptance of his truth
insofar as it is guaranteed by the One who is Truth itself.

◊ Who are the principal witnesses of the obedience of faith in the Sacred Scriptures?
There are many such witnesses, two in particular: One is Abraham who when put
to the test “believed in God” ((Rom 4:3) and always obeyed his call. For this reason
r he
is called “the Father of all who believe” (Rom
( 4:11-18).
18). The other is the Virgin Mary
who, throughout her entire life, embodied in a perfect way the obedience of faith: “Let
“
The Virgin Mary,
it be done to me according to your word”
word (Lk 1:38).
woman of faith.
◊ Why is there no contradiction between faith and science?
Though faith is above reason, there can never be a contradiction between faith and science
because both originate in God. It is God himself who gives to us the light both of reason and of faith.

◊ Why is faith
aith a personal act, and at the same time ecclesial?
Faith is a personal act insofar as it is the free response of the human person to God who reveals himself.
But at the same time it is an ecclesial act which expresses itself in the
proclamation, “We believe”.
ieve”. It is in fact the Church that believes: and thus by
the grace of the Holy Spirit precedes, engenders and nourishes the faith of each
Christian. For this reason the Church is Mother and Teacher.

◊ In what way is the faith of the Church one faith alo

alone?
The Church, although made up of persons who have diverse languages,
cultures, and rites, nonetheless professes with a united voice the one faith that
was received from the one Lord and that was passed on by the one Apostolic
Tradition. She confesses one God d alone, Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, and points Diagram of the relationships
to one way of salvation. Therefore we believe with one heart and one soul between the only God’s
all that is contained in the Word of God, handed down or written, and three Persons.
which is proposed by the Church as divinely revealed.

◊ What does Bible mean?

Christians have called Bible (from the Greek word “Βιβλια”, Biblia, meaning “Books” “Books”; when this
plural noun was taken over into Latin, it became singular as it is in many modern language)
language the collection of
73 books accepted by the Church as inspired by God, i.e. written through the Holy Spirit’s help. Many
Protestants accept 66 of them, but not 7 books of the OT and some sections
of a few others (in the 16th century they were printed at the back of the
others books; by the 19th century they disappeared at all). In the Bible itself
this collection is better called “Scripture” or “Scriptures”. This means that it is
God’s word written for us, but there can be word words of God which are
not written, like the events happened or the words spoken before its
composition. It was the ancient Church discerned these very different
books as unique. In doing so she was also defining her own identity: identity they
were to function as a mirror in which she could continually rediscover herself
and assess the way she responds to Jesus’ message and transmits it.

◊ How have we to understand the Bible?

These books are the shared treasure of all believers. The authors did not
write as private, independent subject
subjects, but as members of a living faith
community, in a historical movement led forward by God. The Scriptures
emerged from within the pilgrim people of God and within this same subject
they are always in the present. That's why their interpretation takes place
in the Church and within her traditions of faith. The meaning of any
passage can never be a purely academic affair: it becomes most intelligible in
those humans s who have been totally seized by it. So, the saints are the One of the Bible’s oldest
Bible’s true interpreters, because they have lived and suffered through it. it existing texts: a papyrus of
Dialogue with the faith’s understanding of earlier times, must be matched by around 200 BC.
a dialogue with today’s men and women in o order to grasp how the biblical
message responds to current issues. Privileged hearers of God’s word are
lowly people,, for their lack of power and human resources force them to trust
in God alone and in his justice. But in the last resort, it is the Church’s
Church’
authority which has the duty of securing the authentic interpretation.

◊ What were the languages used to write the Bible?

The languages used to write the Bible were Hebrew, Aramaic and
finally Greek. The first texts date before 1000 BC, the last ones date around
100 AD. Sadly, the material was not resistant; so we now have no original,
but copies. The oldest existing scripts date from around 250 BC. Starting in
the 5th centuryy BC, Hebrew texts were translated orally into Aramaic, and
An OT scroll as it is still used by
this language was used to write few original parts. Later both languages’
Jews in worship.
texts began to be translated in written form at Alexandria (Egypt) around 285
BC. This version, which is often an adaptation more than a literal
translation, reread the OT bringing it up to date, adjusted Jewish belief to
Greek culture and provided a language to express it. C Called Septuagint
(Greek
Greek for seventy, hence the symbol LXX), it was used by Greek speaking
Jews and early Christians;; they considered it inspired by God and took over
its method of interpreting the scriptures
scriptures. Thus it prepared the expression
of Christian faith. Specialists keep on translating from the original texts
into every language.

◊ What does the change of language mean

mean? The first printed Bible, edited by
The passage from one language to another necessarily involves a change Johannes Gutenberg in Germany
of cultural context where concepts are not identical and symbols have a (about 1455).
1455)
different meaning. Written in the common Greek of Jesus’ time, the whole
NT is characterized
ized by such dynamic of ensuring that God’s message takes root in a great
great variety of ground.
Switching Jesus’ Palestinian message into Jew Greek Greek-like
like culture, it displays its aim to transcend
the limits of a single cultural world. Because his message can att the same time both challenge and
enrich value systems and behaviour norms of each place and time.

◊ Is the Bible a past book?

The Bible comes from a real past, but
bu not only from then: it comes from God and leads through time
into eternity. In teaching us how to live out the covenant between him and his people, it reveals a God
who is formless and invisible, though
h personal, loving and willing to be known. To hold the Bible’s words and
deeds, we have to go back almost twenty or thirty centuries. Sometimes words mean something different
from what they appear to say. The language of science informs through words with a quite precise sense sense,
while that of relationship uses symbols to evoke images and feelings in people who have had the same
experience. When we read anything from the Bible, we have to ask whether it is providing exact
ting as a symbol. In the latter case, we must then ask what it meant at the writer’s
information or acting
time, otherwise we will make incredible mistakes.

◊ How are we to interpret the Bible?

Bible itself (2Pt 3:15-16) says its interpretation can be difficult, and the passage of time has
increased the problem. The
he more we use it, however, the easier we find it to see what is the imagery used
and what meaning it conveys. Reading is a matter of grasping a text so that it tells us something that will
make us live today, but we cannot make a text say virtually anything by just rushing straight into it, quickly
throwing our feelings on to it. We have to study it methodically, never thinking we do know it very
well. Addressing men and women of the past, God used all the possibilities of their language, while
accepting that his word be subject to the limits of their
culture. For, just as the Word of God became like men in Bible’s books are usually referred to
every way except sin, so too his words became human in through almost uniform abbreviations.
every way except lie. Refusing the historical character of First comes a short form of the title, then
God’s revelation means going far away from its true sense a figure indicating the chapter and
and the full truth of his Son’s Incarnation. A literal another (separated from the first by a
interpretation, without efforts at understanding the texts colon) indicating the verse. A hyphen is
in their historical origins and development, does end in used to indicate several chapters or
confusing the godly core of the message with its verses. This system started in 1226 when
human limitations. archbishop Stephen Langton divided each
book into numbered chapters. Then in
◊ When did the Bible’s interpretation start? 1551 the printer Robert Estienne
The Bible is not a book fallen at once from heaven, but a numbered almost every phrase of these
library whose books were rather written and then gathered chapters: hence our modern division into
throughout many centuries within God’s people. So it verses. Both divisions don’t always match
proposes different perspectives in dynamic tension the meaning of the text, so you don’t
with one another. We have to read the Bible as an overall have to take account of them to
unity expressing an intrinsically coherent message, understand it. However, they are very
notwithstanding its multiple historical layers. One of its practical, because all Bibles have adopted
features is that its apparent disorganisation offers many both. So to indicate a passage, it is
ways of interpreting the same events and reflecting upon enough to give the reference.
the same problems. Nobody can exhaust the meaning of the
whole, which is a symphony of many voices. The Bible urges us to avoid excessive simplification and
narrowness of spirit. Jesus too lived within a particular context, and the NT presents different ways of
understanding and following him. It is not always easy to select his Gospel’s essential values valid
for all persons everywhere and in every age. But we must constantly seek and insert these values into
our own historical situation in order to live them as we are, particular persons at a particular time and in a
particular place. For God is not trying to give us some abstract knowledge that doesn’t concern us deeply,
but he wants to show us the real ground of all things and thus the true direction we have to take in our day-
to-day lives. Because these values do affect and change our personal lives, sadly, we can be unwilling to
be drawn in what they require. Our temptation is to reduce God’s word, which again and again surpasses
our capacity to understand, in order to bend it to our own criteria. Yet we are required the humility to leave
it intact: believing means submitting to its loftiness and slowly growing into it.

◊ Is the Bible a systematic book?

The Bible doesn’t contain an instant answer to each and every question. Indeed, at first, the Bible
(above all the OT) is disconcerting. Many know that it is the Christians’ holy book, so expect to find in it
God’s word in a pure form, a kind of catechism or handbook of morality. But opening it... they find stories
about the past of a tiny people, which are often quite insignificant if not immoral, with wars, murders, rapes
or an out-dated morality. If it tells marvellous stories, they are so different from our ordinary, everyday life.
In fact, Israel’s history was as common as our life today, in which unbelievers don’t discover any trace of
God. It is a world we have to enter for ourselves, an adventure to which we are summoned: that
of a people seized by a passion for God. Reading the Bible should lead us to reread our existence by
faith. If we do, we shall discover that God still does speak to us and act for us. Our whole life will be full of
wonder.

◊ What may be a summary of salvation history?

Salvation history begins with a project of love by God for humans. His flexibility moves it forward after
every refusal by them. Its many different steps of love appear to be a history of failures, beginning
from the first moment (original sin) and continuing through the blood of Abel and of the prophets who went
to speak to the people, until its end with the greatest love on the cross of God’s Son. Then that history turns
around, for precisely there, love wins: he who was rejected by us humans becomes our saviour. When
a grain dies, it bears much fruit.

7
 PAPER ONE
THE OLD TESTAMENT

CONTENT
• Israel’s faith and teachings; prophecy and prophets in Israel.
• The Judges, the establishment of monarchy in Israel and the prophetic mission of Elijah and Elisha
with reference to historical books (Judges, Samuel and Kings).
• Some books named after prophets: Amos, Hosea, Isaiah 1-12, Jeremiah 1-45, Ezekiel 1-24, Isaiah
40-45, Haggai and Zechariah 1-8.

Before visiting a country, we usually learn something about its people’s ways of life, how they think and
talk, so that we don’t feel too lost and don’t commit too many blunders. We may also look at a map, and
bring ourselves up to date with the political, economic and social situation. The OT is still foreign to us, even
if we know some passages. So, we need know quickly what it is and how it came into being.

“They are Israelites, and to them belong the sonship, the glory, the covenants, the giving of
the law, the worship, and the promises; to them belong the patriarchs, and of their race,
according to the flesh, is the Christ” (Rom 9:4-5).

SETTINGS
◊ What is the Old Testament?
The OT is the first part of Christian Bible, the one written before Christ. The word “Testament” is a
translation of the Greek word “Διαθηκη”, Diatheke, which means also “Covenant”, i.e. Agreement. Truly
the OT is the agreement between God and his chosen people, the Israelites. It is called Old in relation to
the New, which is its fulfilment, like the Old is the foundation for the New. We should avoid contrasting
them: their unity is best described as continuity, discontinuity and surpassing. Holy Scripture is one
insofar as the Word of God is one, his plan of salvation is one, and his inspiration of both Testaments is one.
The Old Testament prepares for the New and the New fulfils the Old; the two shed light on each other.
Unless we understand the OT we cannot understand the NT.

◊ What issues does the Old Testament address?

The OT was redacted more than two thousand years ago, but it addresses our own life issues (justice,
freedom, friendship, family, sex, sin, suffering, death etc.). It presents especially God's infinite love and
patience toward us, his unthankful creatures who, from the very beginning, have refused to walk the way
indicated by him and chose their own false ways. The OT gives us a clear understanding of our separation
from him and it directs us to the Saviour, Jesus Christ. His own person and mission sum up all the
beneficial energy of God’s giving and forgiving.

◊ What is the cultural setting of the Old Testament?

OT cultural setting has much in common with African way of life. So we understand better than
many others the nomadic life, the importance of wells, the dangers of drought, famine and such illnesses
like leprosy. Close to African view, the Bible doesn’t present the Israelite as a totally autonomous person,
but always as a member of his people, that is fit to teach and to approve right conduct. There are
differences in each one’s roles, but it is essential for every member to obey its laws and take part in its
worship. Formation primarily refers to relationships both within and outside the community: eventually, it is
founded on that love which surpasses personal interests and holds all humans together. Today’s selfishness
that menaces the very structure of any communities is contrary to Bible's view. People less marked by
Western civilisation can realize God's message more easily.

◊ How have we to consider the parallels between Israelite and African traditional practices?
Many Israelite practices have parallels in our traditional culture, like God’s consultation (through dreams,
sorts, forecast mediums and necromancy), polygamy, bans and taboos. The Bible presents them as they
were, not as rules for us, so we cannot use them to uphold their African parallels. Let’s always remember
that God’s revelation took place gradually in the context of history and that the OT reflects an early stage
in the growth of Israel’s religion. To understand its fruitful nature, we must pay attention to the way the
NT re-read the OT in the light of Jesus’ full revelation.

◊ Is the Old Testament relevant for today Christians?

There are many reasons why the OT is relevant for today Christians. We need to read it to understand
the NT. On a more existential level, it is a deep reflection upon our own life. Moreover, the promises it
announces have not yet been fully realised. We honour the OT as true word of God: “All Scripture is God
breathed and is useful for teaching, rebuking, correcting and training in righteousness” (2Tim 3:16). Even
though the OT contains matters imperfect and provisional, it bears witness to the heavenly pedagogy of
God's saving love. Its books are a store of magnificent teachings on God and of sound wisdom on
8
human life, as well as a wonderful treasury of prayers.
They werere written, above all, to prepare for the coming of Christ,
Christ
not primarily through isolated prophecies and precepts, but
through the whole living (and and to our eyes chaotic
chaotic) series of
events from Abraham to John the Baptist. That history, with its
interplay between God’s and humans’ freedom, is as such the
promise of the Saviour of the universe
universe. About the OT Jesus said,
“Think not that I have come to abolish the law and the p prophets;
I have come not to abolish tem but to fulfil them” them (Mt 5:17).
The proper interplay of OT and NT was and is constitutive for the
Church. She always has to overcome two opposite dangers: a
false legalism of the sort Paul fought against and a repudia
repudiation of
the OT. Jesus’ death and resurrection has set up a radically new
context, which sheds fresh light upon OT texts and causes a
change in their significance. This fuller sense is the texts’ deeper
meaning intended by God but not clearly expressed by their t
human authors.

◊ Whatat is the basis of OT texts’ deeper meaning

meaning? The Fertile Crescent, the original place of
Its basis is the fact that the Holy Spirit, Bible’s principal both human civilisation and salvation history.
author, could guide them to choose terms which would express a
truth whose depth they didn’t perceive. At times a biblical author, re-reading
re reading an earlier text, gave it a new
meaning so as to make it respond to new situations. In fact, from its very beginning the Bible has been
itself a work of interpretation and actualization. Older texts were read with new eyes in new contexts.
They became Holy Scripture by being read anew, tacitly corrected and given added depth and breadth of
meaning in continuity
nuity with their original sense
sense. In this process God’s Word gradually unfolded its inner
potentialities, already somehow present like seeds, but needing new challenges in
order to open up. This process was not ot linear, but it moved in a single
overall direction to Jesus Christ. Afterfter his resurrection, “beginning with Moses
and all the prophets, he interpreted to them in all the scriptures the things
concerning himself… ‘everything written about me in the law of o Moses and the
prophets and the psalms must be fulfilled’” (Lk 24:27,44).

◊ Where and how did God’s revelation to Israel start?

Mesopotamia (meaning “between rivers”) was the Greek name of the fertile
land covering today’s Iraq and some regions of its near Asiatic countries. There
the civilisation started, with the first cities, governments, laws and writings. There
Abraham,, father of all faithful people, was born and lived before being called by
God (about 1850 BC) to leave his homeland and set out for another land, which he
himself would indicate with the promise of becoming a blessing for all the nations
of the earth. Usually it was man who turned to the divinity, invoking aid and
Abraham, God’s friend, protection. In this case, however, it was God who took the initiative. His call
was blocked by him while involved from the start his household. Abraham’s grandson Israel and his entire
sacrificing his son Isaac. family went (about 1700 BC) to livel with their cattle in
Egypt, the second cradle of human civilisation.

◊ Through whom was Israelites’ freedom restored?

After more than 400 years there, Israel’s descendants got freedom again
under Moses (about 1250 BC). In the desert, at Mount Sinai, tthe only true God,
who sent him, presented himself and gave Ten Commandments as conditions for
a covenant with him. They had d to separate themselves from other peoples in
order to follow him only, accepting the “way of life” he indicated: the “Torah” (i.e.
“Instruction”).
Instruction”). They, however, failed early and continued to do so, worshipping
false gods, especially after they did enter Canaan (about 1210 BC), accept local
agricultural cultures and follow immoral fertility rites. During Judges’ difficult
years (about 1200 to 1050 BC), Israel’s national identity almost disappeared.

At Mount Sinai, God gave

◊ How did the Israelites get their first Kings? Moses on two stones
stone the
It was under Samuel that the God’sGo people got the first King, Saul (about written conditions for a
1030-1010 BC), in order to be united. After he disobeyed the Lord, his success covenant with Israel.
declined and he was eventually killed in battle. His son in law, David (1010-970
BC), defeated all enemies and established Israel as a powerful k kingdom,
ingdom, whose capital city was Jerusalem.
Under his son, Solomon (970-931
931 BC), the people built a marvellous temple, lived in peace and prospered,
but grew sad with heavy taxes and forced labour. After his death, Israel
Israel’s northern tribes rebelled and got
another
nother King, who was not David’s descendant as that of Judah and fellow Southerners.

◊ What were the sorts of Northern and Southern kingdoms?

These twin kingdoms remained separate for more than 200 years, during which the Israelites continued
to mingle with pagan nations. God sent many prophets to reproach their sins against him and the poor.
Finally, the northern tribes were taken into exile by the Assyrians (722 BC), and then the Southern ones
were taken to Babylon (586 BC). The difference between their sorts was that the northern tribes didn’t come
back, while some people of the Southern ones did so after about 50 years, beginning anew (538 BC) in the
land which God promised to their fathers forever. Because the prophets had
proclaimed a radical redemption of the people and a salvation which would The Israelites
include all nations in a new and everlasting covenant. From the people of Israel who better
and from the house of King David, would be born the Messiah, Jesus. preserved their
identity in exile were
◊ What was Jews’ progress after returning to their country? those from the
Under the Persians (539-333 BC), these Jews rebuilt the temple and the wall southern kingdom,
around Jerusalem; moreover reinforced their fidelity to God and his Law (in called Judah like its
Hebrew, Torah; in Greek, ∏εντατευχος, Pentateuchos, i.e. Five Books: Genesis, prevalent tribe. So,
Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy) which was sanctioned in about their name Judeans,
400 BC. Afterward many Jews accepted also the books of the Prophets and later shortened as
other Writings, especially the Psalms. Between the years 333-63 BC the Jews Jews, became equal
were under Greeks’ political dominion and cultural influence, but when King to Israelites. Along
Antiochus IV tried to convert them by force to paganism, they rebelled and with these names, is
gained freedom under the Maccabees (145-63 BC). An unfortunate dispute led also used the older
to Rome’s supremacy upon the Jews, though they had also local kings, such as one, Hebrews.
Herod the Great (37-4 BC) and his descendants, many of them bearing his
name. It was in this environment that Jesus was born. This event gave the whole history a totally new
orientation.

OT CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE
All years are BC; almost all of them are only approximate
1850: Abraham’s arrival in Canaan
1700: Israel and the twelve tribes’ patriarchs in Egypt
1250: Moses leads Israelites’ exodus from Egypt and then gives them God’s law at Mount Sinai
1210: Joshua invades Canaan
1200: Philistines, repulsed by Egyptians, occupy the Palestinian coast
1200-1050: Israel’s twelve tribes settling in Canaan, now and then freed and leaded by a Judge
1030-1010: Saul first King of all Israel
1010-970: King David’s warring reign; he moves the capital to Jerusalem
970-931: King Solomon’s peaceful reign; construction of Jerusalem’s Temple
931: A political split causes two twin but rival kingdoms: Israel in the North, Judah in the South
870: Prophet Elijah appears to save the true faith under Israel’s King Ahab and his wife Jezebel
850-795: Prophet Elisha’s long activity
760: Amos sent to prophesy in the North
750-725: Hosea prophesies in the North
740: Priest Isaiah is called to prophesy in Jerusalem; he will do so for more than forty years
733: The Assyrians, called on by King Ahaz of Judah, strip Israel of Galilee and Transjordan
722: Samaria itself, Israel’s capital, is captured by the Assyrians who deport the people to Mesopotamia
716-687: King Hezekiah tries a religious reform extended to the North for sake of national unity
701: The Assyrians subject Judah, but eventually God saves Jerusalem as prophesied by Isaiah
626: Priest Jeremiah is called to prophesy; he will do so for more than forty years
622: Discovery of the Book of the Law; King Josiah’s religious reform and editing of earlier books start
609: King Josiah’s death is the beginning of Judah’s end
597: Jerusalem captured by the Babylonians who deport many influent Jews to Mesopotamia
592-570: Priest Ezekiel’s prophetic activity in exile
586: Jerusalem destructed with its temple; fresh deportations to Mesopotamia
586-538: In exile, Israel’s traditions are gathered and committed to writing
550: Second Isaiah comforts the exiles
538: The Persian King Cyrus after taking Babylon permits the Jews to return
520-515: Building of the second Temple as pushed by prophets Haggai and Zechariah
458-398: Ezra’s and Nehemiah’s missions to Jerusalem: Torah’s definitive edition is proclaimed
333: Alexander the Great conquers Palestine; the Greek-like culture expands and divides the Jews
285: Beginning of the Greek translation of Torah and other Jewish books in Egypt
167-164: Antiochus IV Epiphanes’ persecutes the Jews; Maccabees’ revolt starts
145: Jonathan Maccabee confirmed ruler of Judaea and South Samaria; Pharisees and Sadducees
emerge
63: Syria and Palestine come under Romans’ domination
50: Writing of the last (Deutero-canonical) book of the OT
40-37: Herod the Great becomes king by Rome’s designation; he will rule until his death (4 BC)
20: Herod starts the Temple’s rebuilding; it will end in 63 AD, just 7 years before its destruction

10
 ISRAEL’S FAITH AND LIFE

“You worship what you do not know; we worship what we know, for salvation is from the
Jews. But the hour is coming, and now is, when the true worshippers will worship the Father
in spirit and truth, for such the Father seeks to worship him” (Jn 4:22-23).

◊ What was the importance of history in Israel’s faith?

In order to exist, every
More than any other religion, Judaism and Christianity are solidly
society has to create a
grounded in history, presenting a God who revealed himself by
literature. A nation has its
acting our salvation on this earth, not only by giving us his words
laws, its proverbs, its
from the heaven. The Bible is not an exposition of timeless truths
celebrations, its stories about
through symbolic narration, but the written testimony to a series of
the past, its epics, its poems
interventions by God in human history. His revelation was so rooted in
and its songs. So, the fact
Israel’s life that no point summarises the whole experience. It was only in
that Israel existed as a
reference to concrete situations that statements were made, with a depth
people gave rise to a whole
of conviction and passion which matched the urgency of the needs. So the
literature of different
Bible doesn’t teach just a philosophy or ethics, but narrates past events
genres. Each one has its
having lasting value for anyone's life. It is not a history book in the
own kind of truth. We should
modern sense, and it includes several literary genres, but it bears witness
ask what literary genre a
to a historical reality. The great events of worldly powers are written in
particular text is, and what
history books, but the history of humans’ feelings and moral choices is
kind of truth it conveys.
written directly in God’s heart; that is the history which will last forever.
Don’t read the creation
This is where faith and life are located.
stories as scientific accounts!
◊ What was God’s main act in the OT?
According to Israel’s faith, humans come from God and return to him: so history is not the vicious cycle
of an unending starting again as Pagans view it. Of course, it is not linear: there are strengths and
weaknesses, joys and failures, lights and trials. Yet, for people of faith the road always lies ahead, open to
surprises from God’s love and, at last, flowing into endless communion with him. If indeed history is the
result of many known and unknown forces, it is God who guides events to fulfil his project of salvation.
Among his many interventions in history, we must always remember Israel’s basic experience: the
saving Exodus from Egypt and the covenant with God at Mount Sinai. Israel’s faith was built upon
these events narrated, meditated on and given a meaning in the Pentateuch. It was the prophets' duty to
explain again and again their implications for God’s people. His acts, begun in OT time, peaked and
were summed up in Jesus' life, death and resurrection. They are messages which God keeps on to
address to the Church and to the whole world.

◊ What was God’s main name in the OT?

The Israelites lacked the logic developed by Greek philosophy and were weak in abstract theory. In
Hebrew “to know God” is to personally meet him, and this is possible only if his name is known. “Name”
is used where modern languages use “person” or “self”. To have no name is to lack real existence. To know
the name is to know the reality named. God’s knowledge is disclosed by him in his name. To reveal one’s
own name is to give something of oneself. In some sense he has made himself accessible and, therefore,
assumed the risk of any relationship. By his own name, he is proclaimed as the One who did reveal himself
to the Israelites, rescue them and start a covenant with them. His distinct name implies he is a
personal being whose essence and traits can be shared by nobody. God’s name, often in the form YHWH
(read: Yahweh) or briefly YH (Yah), entails his active presence among his people. But the closer he is,
the more our misuse can disfigure him. This is why the Israelites refuse to utter it so as to avoid degrading it
to false gods’ level. This name, mysterious and difficult to translate, from the
very first time was rendered as “Lord”. So he is called in the NT, and we Myths are humans’
keep following this tradition. As this divine title has been given to Christ, first reflections. They
OT believers’ dispositions towards God are now directed to Jesus as well: take great questions that
belief in him, hope in him, love for him and obedience to him. we ask ourselves and
project them on an
◊ What was the basis of Israel’s faith in only one God? unreal world, in the form
God’s existence and uniqueness were not considered in the OT, because of a story presenting
Israel had no pattern of thought in which these questions could be asked and gods, goddesses and
answered. In the ancient Near East the existence of divine beings was heroes, instead of
commonly accepted without question. Before the VI century BC Israel had no discussing them in
clear denial of the existence of gods other than the Lord. Their rejection was profound and difficult
implied by treating them as insignificant. Whether or not there were many books. Bible’s writers
gods, there was only one Lord. This fact was evident from his name, which took up this language
belonged to no one else, and from his unique relationship to the Israelites. His too to express their own
election and covenant imposed upon them demands made by no other god thoughts based on the
upon his/her people. The most striking was that they should worship no faith in a sole God who
god but him; they could neither ask nor fear anything from any gods. intervenes in history to
This was a forceful departure from the pattern of the Near East, where no god free all humans.
was conceived of as being the only sponsor of his/her worshippers and
11
excluding reverence for other gods. It was not only the ban of rivals, but the faith that humans and nature
were the Lord’s domain. He alone created all and he alone directs their operations. The Israelites asked
neither about the Lord’s origin (it would be to deny that he is totally unique) nor about gods’ origin (it would
be to admit their reality). They honoured the God they knew because his action could be recognised in
specific present events, though his being there could be discovered only by meditating on the past ones.

◊ How was the Lord represented?

While every god of the Near East was visually represented, the Lord’s uniqueness was furthered by
images’ ban. Its base was the conviction that he did resemble nothing, because he was above and beyond
the whole universe. That ban was ever more striking because it contrasted OT practice of speaking of
the Lord in human terms. The attribution of our features, feelings and behaviours to non-human beings is
common to all cultures. The Bible uses any verbal images for the Lord: he speaks, hears, smells, laughs,
hisses, whistles, strikes, writes, walks; he feels delight, joy, anger, hatred, love, disgust, regret,
compassion. Philosophers dislike this language as imperfect, but it emphasises God’s personality. What
makes OT anthropomorphism worthy of special attention is the difficulty of reconciling it with the explicit
denial that the Lord was like any creature: he is God and not human, he is spirit and not flesh. OT
authors were aware that figures of speech have limits and may hold back a truly spiritual idea of God. Yet, in
some respects, anthropomorphism permits an understanding of God impossible through a more refined and
abstract discourse. After all, our words cannot express his reality. Philosophers risk of taking their ideas
about God as adequate while they too are infinitely far from the “Totally Other”. The Bible accepts
humanising God to avoid the risk of thinking of him as an abstract idea or an impersonal force.

◊ What does “the living God” mean?

The Lord’s common label is “the living God”, in contrast with gods identified with their lifeless
and man-made images. Positively, it affirms that he has life, power and personality; he is attentive
and responsive in giving and sustaining life. From the beginning, his constant effort was to tell us: “I am
God with you, I am God for you”. His involvement in the Israelites’ history, with the election, the covenant
and the saving acts by which he makes them a people that is his own in a special way, are favours arising
from personal kindness. Their relations are presented as those of a father to his children or a husband to his
wife. They require a personal response and not only an official one: external worship without inner
commitment is vain. The Lord’s total demands can be met only by total submission. Personal
communication becomes possible: the Lord speaks to Israel, and Israel can speak to him. In prayer OT
speech attains an intimacy and an urgency with no parallel.

◊ What about nature and its forces?

The OT shares the ancient idea of nature, yet does not attribute personality to its distinct forces: no
separate gods correspond to them. The Lord does not lie within nature: he is identified neither with it as
a whole nor with any of its part. His lacking of sexual features is a striking example of OT unique concept of
God, for sex as the source of life is vitally involved in other ancient beliefs and much of their ritual aim to
pass on to the worshippers gods’ sexual energy. For Israel the Lord is the source of life but not through
sexual processes. Consequently, sexual morality is far more demanding in Israel than among her
neighbours: any excess would go against the holiness of a God who is above sex.

◊ What was the relevance of the concept of creation?

The Bible expresses the creative process in several ways corresponding to different phases of
development of this concept without match in Near East’s beliefs. Creation is the beginning of history, the
first of the saving deeds of the Lord, for he takes care of the poor who cry out in desperation. He listens and
intervenes, eventually sending his own Son to destroy the sin, source of any evils.
So, creation and nature are integrated in the salvation history wrought by
God and culminated in Jesus’ resurrection, start of the new creation.

◊ What was the main social consequence of this concept?

The main social consequence is that God possesses all the world because he
created it. It was he who entrusted the earth to humans, so no one may claim
exclusive possession, thereby creating situations of disparity. God wants a
society based on equality and solidarity, where freedom, land and money
are a resource for all and not just for a few, as happens now more than ever. This
was the goal of the jubilee’s, the tithe’s and the first fruits’ laws: the resources’
distribution based on brotherhood and justice.

◊ What was the importance of the covenant?

God and Israel were united by a blood-tie. The covenant has a special place in After the great flood,
understanding God’s relationship with his people. In the ancient Near East gods God accepted Noah’s
might be used as witnesses and guarantor of covenants between humans, but only sacrifice and did an
the Bible uses this concept about God and us. Over and above creation, he everlasting covenant
shows his infinite goodness welcoming his creatures to intimacy with with all human beings
himself: once offered, this free gift of God asks humans for a total yes. He waits for on earth. Its symbol
their free choice, and whenever their answer his “no”, he opens up a new path of would be the rainbow.
love. Time and again he offers them covenants, and reveals the right behaviour,
particularly by the choice of Israel as his partner. For the covenant is not an assurance which allows people
to live in any way they like: it is a responsibility. Biblical ethics must be understood in the context of
covenant: much more than a code of behaviour, it is an offered journey toward full freedom. Likewise, fault
and forgiveness are not just juridical matters of charging and condoning debts. The exit from Egypt, at
once followed by such covenant, was Israel’s founding event, interpreted by faith in God’s involvement. Like
in political alliances between unequal partners (vassal contracts) he obliged himself toward Israel (grace)
just as he obliged her towards himself (law). This dynamism found its typical expression in the words, “I
shall be your God and you will be my people”; their being scattered in both OT and NT clearly indicates
it as a major issue. Decisive for this relationship are Jesus’ person, work and Passover. In him God united
himself to our humanity so intimately that he now is not only present to us but dwells in us and we share in
his own life. This is the new and eternal covenant achieved in Jesus’ blood, which deletes our sin with
forgiveness and makes us definitively children of the good and merciful Father.

◊ What was the external sign of covenant for male Israelites?

Circumcision, a rite of passage done on men at the start of sexual maturity, was widely practiced
in Egypt, but not in Mesopotamia. God counted Abraham’s faith as uprightness before his circumcision.
Arriving in Canaan Joshua needed to circumcise all men, but later Jews considered it the bodily sign of
Moses’ covenant. This symbol of identity became important in the exile, when they lacked temple, land and
king. Some prophets, however, demanded an inner circumcision by obediently accepting God’s word.
Following the law, Jesus was bodily circumcised when 8 days old, but Paul admitted only new moral life as
qualifying for salvation and God’s worship.

◊ Where had God to be worshipped?

From the Patriarchs’ time God was especially worshipped where he had manifested himself. At
Moses’ time Mount Sinai, place of God’s main self-revelation, was seen as his dwelling-place. Later the
Tent, which housed the Ark of the Covenant begun there, became the sign of God’s invisible but
permanent presence and guide among the Israelites and a place where asking his answers. This Ark was
a small portable box containing the Ten Commandments’ two stone tables, a vessel of manna and Aaron’s
rod. The Israelites carried it all along the forty years they travelled through the desert. After they conquered
Canaan and became a sedentary people, it was established at Shiloh. King
David transferred it to Jerusalem and his son Solomon into its
marvellous Temple, which became the house of God’s glory and the
centre of Israel’s national life. The ark was lost in 586 BC when the
Babylonians destroyed them for the first time. Every adult male had to go
up to the Temple three times a year to participate in the due sacrifices, so
that Israel would remain God’s pilgrim people, always journeying
toward him and receiving its identity and unity from the encounter
with God in his only Temple. After the exile, however, common people
had access to its courts, but not to its inside. Because many gathered
there, it became an economical centre which made the high priest very

Moses and his servant Joshua rich, for the trade done there was unfair. Jesus reminded strongly its main
worshipping God in front of the aim as a house of prayer. Eventually his risen body became the focus of
Ark of the Covenant. worship in spirit and truth, the Temple from which living waters flow and
through which anyone can reach God. Following his prophecy, the material
building was definitively destroyed by the Romans before the end of his own generation (70 AD).

◊ What was the right way to worship God?

Exodus’ essential movement was from servitude to service: Israel was aware that God freed them
from slavery in Egypt and that from then on they might freely put themselves at his service. This service
consisted primarily in a daily life led in covenant with God and expressed in worship. The right way to
worship God (through feasts, sacrifices, vows, fast, legal purity) is an important topic in the OT. It manifests
a growing care to uphold the true purpose of worship, i.e. communion with God. Many OT texts
agree that he doesn’t need sacrifices, though the people do need them to express praise of God and loyalty
to his covenant. Finally all worship was fulfilled in Jesus’ loving obedience on the cross.

◊ What was the importance of prayer?

The basic religious expression is prayer, that turning of mind and heart to God to seek his face,
i.e. a direct, inward contact with him. It has to be constantly revived and each affair of everyday life has to
be related back to it. Prayer must not be an occasion for showing off before others; it requires the discretion
that is essential to any relation of love. All the same, it is also an element of common worship by a group
having the same faith. In prayer the totally personal and the communal must always pervade each
other. On every page of the OT we encounter prayer: God speaks to humans and they answer him, also by
using words which express other believers’ experiences of encountering with God, like the Psalms. The ideal
place for Israelites’ prayer was the Temple, with one’s face turned toward the Holy Place. When distant, they
did the best they could by looking toward Jerusalem and using apposite evening and morning prayers. A
standing posture was usual, but we also read of people kneeling in prayer or casting themselves down in
adoration. Jesus’ talking with his Father fulfilled any prayers and opened wide the way to him. He is wholly
“Son” and also through prayer he invites us all to become God’s children, by totally belonging to him.
◊ What was God’s day?
Sabbath’s origin as week’s end is not clear. Ex 16:22-30 suggests it existed before Sinai’s Covenant,
and Gen 2:2-3 traces it to the creation itself. Such claims, based on no historical memory, stress its value
for Israel’s life and thought. It is not just a day on which to rest up for another week of work, but a
holy day offered to God in a special way, in imitating his own rest after creating the world. In it all
can join his rest: master, slave and animal are united in his freedom. Initially, Sabbath law was simply
stated; then were added two main motives: Dt 5:14b-15 stresses humanitarian factors connected with
the vision of God as liberator, while Ex 20:11 focuses on worshipping him as Lord of the whole
creation. During the exile, when other feasts’ celebration was impossible, the Sabbath became the
Covenant’s distinctive sign: keeping it showed faithfulness and assured salvation, while the contrary meant
apostasy. Then it received tighter restrictions: by NT times, they were painstaking. The dispute over what
does and does not belong to the Sabbath is at the heart of Jesus’ differences with his fellow Jews. It
concerns deeper questions about man and about the right way to honour God. Jesus invites all who labour
and are heavy laden to himself, the Lord having authority on the Sabbath, because he is now the rest, the
way we can act like God. Finally, Jesus fulfilled its meaning in his resurrection, our true liberation
and start of the new creation. So, his followers called Sunday “Lord’s day”, whose importance grew in
parallel to their separation from the Jews. In the end, the week’s structure was overturned, setting out from
the day of the Risen meeting with his assembly. This revolution only happened because that day totally
changed the world: Jesus’ resurrection began a new life.

◊ What was Passover?

All Jewish feasts have a triple basis: the first was composed of celebrations of nature religion,
connected with human search for God through creation; this then
became commemorations, which make present God’s past saving
actions in history; finally, recollection increasingly took on the form
of feasts of hope for his coming definitive salvation which will
reconcile the whole of creation. In the same way, Passover was at
first a yearly festival of nomadic shepherds for the well-
being of their flocks. Occurring at the time of this pre-Israelite
feast, Exodus gave it a new meaning, as memorial of the
liberation from Egypt. The Jewish Passover hence became an
anticipation of the Christian one, when God's Lamb, Christ, was
Two altars with relatives offerings (incense sacrificed (on the cross) and eaten (in the Last Supper).
and animals) and the laver in the right.
◊ What were other feasts of Israel?
Other three feasts set by all Pentateuch’s calendars are: in spring, the feast of the Unleavened
Bread; seven weeks after Passover (fifty days, hence its Greek name “Pentecost”) the feast of Harvest; in
autumn, the feast of Ingathering of grapes and olives, called the feast of Shelters (or Tabernacles), because
during the week’s event the people lived in huts made of branches to recall Israel’s camps in the desert.
Later were added: the religious New Year, the Day of Expiation, Purim, Dedication and Nicanor’s Day. Jesus
both participated and fulfilled them so to become he himself our true feast.

◊ What were the sacrifices in the OT?

Altar and sacrifice are related: the first is the place where the second is offered, whether it is an
animal, cereals or incense. Like the Temple, the altar had deep meaning for the Israelites. Because it was
also a sign of God’s presence, it needed blessing and could be served by priests only. The sacrifice as
central act of worship took different forms: holocaust (burnt offering), communion sacrifice (peace
offering), sacrifices of expiation, showbread and cereal offerings, and perfume offerings. When the Israelites
sacrificed human beings, especially children as their neighbours did, they met with God’s wrath. The
prophets condemned also as close to superstition external worship lacking the heart’s proper dispositions.
Eventually Jesus fulfilled any sacrifices offering himself as God’s lamb on the cross to expiate our sins
and giving us his own body and blood to bring true peace and communion.

◊ Who had the duty of offering sacrifices?

Before priestly rituals were limited to Jerusalem, there were sanctuaries all over
Israel. If a sacrifice was made there, priests’ participation was expected. This role
increased under the Kings, as the sense of the holiness of God’s house extended to
the altar. Priests’ main duty was the care of this house, serving God and
helping people to approach him. Their activity of stating his mind to who
wished to know it in time evolved into responsibility for his Law. Levites
were particularly desired as priests, and eventually any priest was required to be a
male descendant of Aaron. In typical distinction from Pagans, Israel had no
priestesses, but this didn't mean women's exclusion from the religious community.
Jesus’ priesthood was linked to King Melchizedek’s one, not to Aaron’s.
The priest Eli in typical
◊ What was Israel’s faith about spirits?
garments with the little
Jews thought of God as a king surrounded by his ministries, the loyal
Samuel.
angels used by him as messengers to humans. According to African world-
view too, we are surrounded by different spiritual powers whose status is between God and man. They are
everywhere: some are good and God use them to do various things in nature and to humans; others,
however, cause misfortunes, diseases and even death. Some are believed can help fortune-tellers,
fortune mediums
and medicine-persons,
persons, while witches and bad magicians can tame spirits to harm other persons. Many
people go to these specialists to get help against evil spirits, to know and control the future, etc. The Bible
speaks of evil spirits as angels who rebelled against God. He, whose power is unlimited, un left them
partially free to deceive the humans. So the individual and even communities seem to be hopelessly at the
mercy of such powers. Pagan worship and foretelling are related to them. Jesus drove them out of
many people and gave his disciples such authority. The liberation from fearing them was and is a leading
reason in attracting people to the Church.

◊ What was the balance between community and individual

individual?
Throughout the Bible the community cannot be overlooked, yet the individual should not be
swallowed by it, because without him/her there is no community. This is very important in Africa, whose
traditional ideal was to preserve this balance. Our freedom has always to consider the whole society's
interests because nobody can exist without others, and tthe he community has to look after the single to take
on his/her social duties.. This view challenges modern trends
t to overlook solidarity. We
W are not personally
responsible for our relatives' deeds, but we cannot simply forget, for example, any injustice done by them:them
we must repair the harm and work for reconciliation. There is need for an education which promote solidarity
and shared responsibility.
ibility. Anyone should acknowledge the positive role of the religions, and especially the
biblical one, in leading to way of acting which transcend individual interests, to readily accept
sacrifices for others’ sake, to sobriety and other virtues which dev
develop
elop in us the ability to live as one. They
move from “what is best for me” to “what is best for everyone”. Nobody has to be left over.

◊ What about family?

Gen tells us that thehe most beautiful th thing God made was the family, creating ing man and woman
and giving them everything. He entrusted to a family all the love he put into
his marvellous world. From the very beginnin
beginning God said: “It is not good for
man to be alone”. We can add: it is not good for woman to be alone, it is not
good for children, the elderly or the young to be alone. In family we all
learn what it means to love and to be loved, and thus what it actually
means to be a person. God likes best of all to see families which are
united, which love, which bring up their children, helping them to grow,
families which build a society of goodness, truth and beauty. We have to help A typical African family
family, though
one another in this challenging task k of being a worldwide family, where no in the traditional sense it is
one will feel alone, unwanted or homeless. God’s Son came into the world in made up by the living, but also
a family open to love, that of Joseph and Mary. Jesus himself was not a by the dead and the not-yet
not
chronic bachelor, far from it! He represented the messiah’s age as a wedding, born.
and spoke of himself as the bridegroom. He took the Church as his bride
and laid down his life for her, so that we
e could always know that he is God with us, his beloved family. This
is the basis and aim of his strict requests about sexual behavio
behaviour.

◊ How did Israel see sin?

Sin is present in this world from the fall of the first two humans who, tempted by Satan, tried to
become like God against the truth of their being his creatures. Afterwards, people usually try to get the most
out of the world and what life has to offer now, to seek heaven on earth without any scruples while doing so.
Such sin, however, breaks not only the moral and social order, but primarily the personal relations
relationship with
God. Because this is similar to marriage, sin is seen as adultery. Man is a relational being: if his basic
relationship with the Lord is disturbed, then nothing else can be truly in order. How to overcome guilt is
everyy human’s central question; religions’ history revolves around it. God cannot simply ignore humans’
disobedience and all their evil deeds: wwhat
hat is wrong cannot just be left to stand; it must be dealt with and
overcome. Sins s go against the order of creation and deform the world placed under the humans humans.
Balance
alance can be regained only through actions which restore it, but we alone cannot do so. Through Jesus’
faithful and obedient love God himself confront evil evil. In this way his s mercy brings back humans to
their earlier condition of being loved by him, and repairs the damage inflicted to the world. Jesus is the
face of God’s mercy: his
is words, but above all his life and works, testify to this.

◊ How did Israel’s faith explain pain?

The Bible sees pain as an intrusion into this world created good by God. Satan can cause it with
God's permission. When humans began to sin, suffering appeared in its many forms: conflicts, sorrow, death
etc. It can be seen as God’s punishment for individuals and societies designed to correct their behaviour,
but also as a means whereby they are tested, purified and led closer to him in a relationship of
dependence and friendship. More important, God’
God’s
s mercy cannot remain indifferent to the suffering
suf of the
oppressed, to the cry of those subjected to violence or slavery. Such distressing reality which afflicts every
era often makes us feel powerless, tempted to think of something else. God,
God however, does listen and get
involved in order to save, raising people able to hear the groan of suffering and to work in favour of the
oppressed. Eventually he himself in Jesus take
takes on any pains.. In the new world there will be none of them.
◊ What about death?
According to the Bible, death is consequence of Adam and Eve's original sin. Living within time,
humans face it as the biggest enigma: they worry, for what awaits them is hidden. The Israelites, moreover,
lived out the drama of seeing death as the end of their loving relationship with God. In
their religion’s earliest phases, the only hoped reward of virtue was a long life
and many descendants. In the end all, both good and bad, were thought going down to
a place of darkness, silence, impotence and inactivity, in total contrast to life, because
there it was impossible to praise God. However, creation’s and covenant’s ideas
gradually led Israel to believe that God could not be defeated by human
mortality: he could not leave in death’s power those who trusted in him. So, in the
Maccabees’ period, persecution’s victims were sustained by faith in bodies’ resurrection
and eternal life with rewards and punishments after death. Jesus resolutely confirmed
this truth, pointing to God and to his power beyond worldly existence. No earthly life but
A human skull, eternal communion with the Father was his top value.
traditional
symbol of
death.

PROPHECY AND PROPHETS

 “In many and various ways God spoke of old to our fathers by the prophets; but in these last
days he has spoken to us by a Son, whom he appointed the heir of all things, through whom
also he created the world” (Heb 1:9).
◊ What is prophecy?
Though we are concerned with OT prophets, we need consider prophecy in general. This term means the
mediation and interpretation of heavenly mind and will to humans. From about the 5th century BC
the Greek word “Пροφητης”, prophetes (literally, “who speaks on behalf”) was used to name who made
gods’ mind known to others. This role was one of public religion; a different name were given private
fortune-tellers believed to know hidden things (as in African traditional societies). Showing to Israel the way
of faith, Deut 18 brands all methods of seizing control of the future as an “abomination”, though the story of
Saul’s downfall (1Sam 28) shows how difficult it was to manage without them. In times of great material
insecurity and of spiritual and moral crisis, OT prophets brought to God’s people his message of conversion,
hope and consolation. Like a whirlwind they unsettled the false tranquillity of those who had forgotten or
forged the Lord’s word. They discerned events in the light of his promises and enabled the faithful to glimpse
the signs of dawn amid dark shadows. For biblical prophecy normally deals with today, applying the
revelation to present needs, though on occasion it can throw light on future events, in order to prepare
people for what is to come. Lately prophecy was identified with forecast, but OT prophets spoke of the future
only to direct people in the present. They avoided the role of soothsayers, for their task was not to report on
the events of the next day to satisfy human curiosity or need for security. Going far beyond, they showed
God’s face, and in so doing they showed faith’s path to him.

◊ What are the means of prophetic communication?

Religions seem important because they inform about what is to come, and so show humans the path they
have to take to avoid grief. This explains why most religions produced prophecy, either continuously or
at some stage in their development. The ways are the same of OT: ecstasies, visions, locutions,
dreams and forecast practices. Faith in Bible’s inspiration doesn’t deny any non-Israelite prophecies
being result of genuine religious experience, since prophecy is a charisma which doesn’t prove a
person’s correct faith or morality. So, Balaam’s statements (Num 22-24) were true prophecies from
God, although he was enemy of the Lord’s people. Moreover, prophecy is temporary: the same person
may predict both truth and falsehood, depending on whether he/she speaks after God’s Spirit or not.

◊ What can be said of prophecy in the ancient Near East?

The main analogies to OT prophecy, of course, were in the ancient Near East, of which Israel was a tiny
part, depending on culturally superior peoples of that area (chiefly of Mesopotamia, Egypt and Canaan).
Throughout there was a common pattern of special persons looking to dreams for revelation and using
forecast devices to inquire the protecting god’s mind in order to control the future. This need was widely
felt: “Shall I go?”. So, King David was escorted by his prophet Gad in order to ask God (1Sam 22:5), while
the priest Abiathar brought with him the ephod to give David yes-or-no answers (1Sam 23:6-12). In his
fatherly efforts, God respects the necessary stages to lead people to greater maturity; at times he accepts to
speak to us through primitive and ambiguous means. Israelites, however, came to regard such divination
as superstition, and titles initially honoured (“dreamers” etc.) got a negative overtone.

◊ What did set apart Israelite prophecy?

Near Eastern pattern’s prevalence explains both origins and characteristics of Israelites’
prophecy. As far as their religion was alike those of other peoples, it expressed itself in similar institutions.
To the extent, however, that Israel’s faith in only one God was unique its prophets also were unlike any
others. So, OT classical prophecy had no foreign parallel, either in form or in content. Israel broke with the
ancient pattern producing persons who not only spoke from national institutions but judged them and
became their moral conscience (2Sam 12:1-5).

◊ What was the origin of Israelite prophecy?

Am 2:11 traces Israelite prophecy’s origin to Moses, nation’s founder: it means that prophecy began
with Israel itself. The seventy elders uttering praises in euphoric state (Num 11:24-30) were what was
first meant by the Hebrew term nabi’. Over the years it came to be applied to any inspired person or simply
to anyone under God’s special protection (e.g. Abraham, Aaron, and Miriam). Eventually, the LXX translated
consistently it by the Greek word prophetes, thus relating Israelite prophecy to the greater human culture.

◊ Were euphoric prophets present throughout OT time?

In the OT, euphoric prophets continued long. A major role of such persons, as also of Nazirites (Num
6:1-21) like Samson, was to fuel nationalistic and religious commitment. Their signs were like those of
18th century BC Mesopotamia, and of Canaanites in Elijah’s times (1Kgs 18:19-40). Usually they acted in
groups (1Sam 10:5-13; 19:18-24) being called “sons of the prophets”, i.e. “prophetic fellowships’
members” or “prophets’ disciples”, for they were often learners under some noted prophet, like Elisha. They
could also live apart, near holy places as “cult prophets” at disposition of individuals, or serving a king

17
and the nation as “court prophets”. They often wore a characteristic dress of haircloth (2Kgs 1:8; Zech
13:4; Mt 3:4par) and bore other distinctive marks (1Kgs 20:38,41; 2Kgs 2:23; Zech 13:6). The climate for
prophecy was often induced by a device (2Kgs 3:15) or by mutual contagion through music and dance. It
transformed the person in “another man” (1Sam 10:5-7) without self-control. His behaviour could become
strange (1Sam 19:23-24), either violent or noisy, so that he could be called “madman” (2Kgs 9:11). In old
times little distinction was made among psychic deviations, whether originated in inspiration from
God, obsession by the evil or mental illness (1Sam 16:23). That's why prophecy was hardly compatible
with respectability (1Sam 10:10-13). A similar state could be the means of true religious experience, in
which a person could receive messages from God and deliver them to the people, but it could also cause
delusion and superstition. Prophets’ schools were like today's revival movements, where awakened people
try to be more faithful to God. At times, however, Satan misleads them to divide the Church, especially if
they assume negative attitudes facing fellow Christians and their leaders.

◊ Were ecstasies a proof of true inspiration?

Ecstasies were not sure criterion of inspiration. The false prophet Zedekiah used the “spirit of the
Lord”’s possession by himself and his fellow ecstatics against Micaiah, who apparently lacked it and only
attributed his own prophecy to a vision, by which he knew Zedekiah’s experience to be of a “lying spirit”
(1Kgs 22:5-28). Likewise, ecstasies were common in Jeremiah’s time (Jer 29:26), but he never appealed to
any possession of a prophetic “spirit”, only offering the witness of the Word itself which would be
received by hearts in tune with it (Jn 5:37ff). When the false prophet Hananiah forecasted the imminent
end of the exile (Jer 28:1ff), Jeremiah could offer little in denial except his certainty of the truth of his
own contrary prophecy. He would have preferred to forecast as Hananiah did; yet, he could not, for such
was not God’s word. His explanation seems strange; actually he didn’t say that every prophet of doom is to
be believed while who predicts peace is to be rejected, but that who really knows God does discern true
prophecies, for they comply with his whole revelation. Who was aware of the people’s sins had to
know that Hananiah’s prophecy could not be true.

◊ Who did first speak about “false prophets”?

This term was introduced by the LXX. The Hebrew Bible has not it, but only nabi’: this word’s ambiguity
causes the irony that some of the most acid blames by prophets concerns prophets and priests.
Indeed, in Israel the false prophets were seen as prophets. Some of them might simply forge prophecy, but
we must not think that above all they knowingly and wilfully pretended to be what they were not. Rather,
they were misled by their forecast devices or went wrong in judgment, confusing their own hopes
with God’s true word (Isa 28:7; Jer 23:5ff). Moreover, the same person might alternately prophesy truth
and falsehood, because every prophetic word is a distinct gift from the Lord. So, Deut 18:21-22 gives us a
raw criterion of discernment, but Deut 13:2-6 restricts it, for a person can give a wonder to pervert
people. Because of this, false prophets are said to be used by God to test his faithful (Jer 4:10; 1Kgs
22:19-23; etc.). This danger lasts until today (Mt 24:23-24), for the distinction is not always clear: both
false and true prophets appear in the same situation claiming to be God' interpreters. Jesus’ criterion is to
consider their fruits, for false prophets corrupt God’s work (Mt 7:15-20). Moreover, Paul proved his
own authenticity arguing that he was not pleasing humans but suffering for the true Gospel.

◊ Who were the classical prophets in Israel?

This term denotes the characteristic Israelite prophets, whose work differed from Near Eastern
pattern and has been recorded in the OT. The best known are those of the 8th, 7th and 6th centuries BC
whose names are used to call biblical books. In a roughly chronological order, they are: Amos, Hosea,
Isaiah, Micah, Zephaniah, Jeremiah, Nahum, Habakkuk and Ezekiel. All of them, except Hosea, were
from Judah, though Amos indeed continued the northern tradition begun by Samuel, Elijah and Elisha.
Classical prophecy was not limited to them, however, for many anonymous prophets supplemented their
writings: one of the greatest was the exilic prophet whom we call the Second Isaiah. There were too
others whose words we have in small part or not at all, such as the woman Huldah (2Kgs 22:14-20). We
don’t even know the names of some; of others we know the names only, such as Uriah (Jer 26:20-23).

◊ What was the importance of prophets’ special call from God?

They didn’t choose to be prophets, and sometimes they tried to refuse God’s call or needed
encouragement seeing themselves unable. His word compelled them and they had to speak it. At some point
in their lives each received God’s impressive call which was often the key of their work and
thoughts, not only their entitlement to prophecy. Their highly original personalities were as many diverse
instruments through which the Lord spoke. While they had a shared teaching on the Lord’s religion it is easy
to distinguish one of them from another. Their similarities derived from common ideals and
traditions. Their mediation of the Word, however, was quite personal. They rarely cited one another
or even acknowledged one another’s existence. Their authority in speaking came from their serene
confidence of having God’s mind and being bearers and interpreters of his word.

◊ What were the prophets’ roles?

The prophet is sometimes called “man of God” (1Kgs 12:22; 2Chr 11:2). This doesn’t mean that he is a
godly person, but that he is spiritually related to the Lord, sharing in his mystery and power and being
given his Spirit. He is “messenger of God” (Hag 1:13), who gets a leak from the Lord, and then stresses it
is he who wants to say through him (Am 3:1). So, disobeying his authority is defying God himself and
18
people can be punished for this disbelief. He is “agent of the Lord” to his covenant people, for having been
commissioned to proclaim God’s word by his Spirit entered into him. He is a “watchman” who
takes his post on the watch-tower to warn Israel of the approach of punishment in consequence of her
idolatry and wickedness (Isa 21:11-12; Eze 3:17). He serves also as “intercessor” who prays for Israel
(1Sam 7:5; 12:19-25). Finally, Jeremiah is called “tester” who separates the dross from the precious metal
(Jer 6:27) for he has to discern what is good and what is bad in the people's behaviour.

◊ What was the distinction between prophets and priests?

The Bible often cites prophets and priests together, for their functions were similar. Samuel is
called “seer” and heads a band of ecstatic prophets (1Sam 9:11-26), yet some of his main duties are
priestly (to bless the sacrifice on the “high place” and to preside at the sacrificial meal). Both priests (1Sam
14:3) and prophets (1Sam 28:6) used forecast devices and often were equally associated with a holy place.
In Israel, however, the priesthood was inherited as a permanent role, whereas prophecy was a
personal and possibly temporary charisma. Several prophets were priests (e.g. Jeremiah), but it was
not necessarily so (e.g. Amos). Usually prophets had outstanding characters. A weak son could be priest and
do his worship duties, but not be prophet.

◊ Who is the Spirit of the Lord?

In both Hebrew and Greek language, the same word signify both wind and spirit. It is God’s breath, a
sensible expression of his presence and power. It moves suddenly: we can neither foretell its
direction nor control its strength (Jn 3:8). It is faint, almost immaterial, but universal and compelling
in its scope. Hence, it is a very apt symbol of God. Jesus revealed himself as the donor of the Holy Spirit as
our new supporter; in the OT, however, the Spirit was known not as a person but as a principle of action,
especially of those activities affecting Israel precisely as God’s people. It belonged properly to him alone: he
gave it to people to enable them to fulfil missions beyond their capacity, as for Moses (Num 11:17),
but it never became part of their nature. The Spirit was frequently associated with prophets’
statements, because visions and ecstasies were areas of its activity.

◊ Who is the prophetic Word?

Through his Spirit God gives us his Word, just as through our breath we convey our thoughts. A true
prophet follows the Holy Spirit and wishes only to speak Spirit-bearing words. He waits in silence until God
inspires him to hear the Word and declare it. In a special way, the Virgin Mary was filled by Holy Spirit
and so bore the Word. Our concern with prophets is not only interest in an ancient religious fact. Reading
their books, we don’t study archival records, but the living Word of the living God. Prophecy not only was,
but still is, the Word uttered by God through his Spirit. The symbolic actions, common with the
prophets (Ahijah, Isaiah, notably Jeremiah and Ezekiel, but also Jesus), are not only signs but
efficacious works. The same is true of their statements: once come from the prophets, they live a life
of their own. The Word is greater than any prophets, as they are the first to acknowledge. Moreover,
they identify themselves with that Word, are personally involved in it, live for it and are ready to die for
it instead of trying to please people. So, it is not only the words they speak and the actions they perform
that tell of God, but their whole lives, as signs of his will in their own persons (Hos 1-3; Isa 8:18; Jer 16;
Eze 4:3; 12:6-11; 24:24). If we are to take in God’s message, we must take it in as the prophets did.
Humanly speaking, they failed, for their message went too much against general opinion and the
comfortable habits of life. But it was through failure that their word has become efficacious.

◊ What part did the prophets play in the spiritual development of Israel?
While opposing syncretism (i.e. to mix different religions) and secularism (i.e. to set faith aside in order
to be like other nations), the prophets were decisive in Israel’s spiritual development . They strove to keep
the nation faithful to the true religion transmitted by Moses, but were also God’s instruments to further
his revelation. Each one made his own contribution to the three main themes of OT theology:
monotheism, morality and salvation.
Monotheism: for centuries the Israelites accepted that other nations had their own gods who were no
concern of them, for the Lord demanded their exclusive respect. The shift to asserting the existence of one
unique God, master of nature, persons and events, was effected by prophets: they had a direct experience
of him, transcendent and mysterious, though his kindness and wedded love make him near to us.
Morality: an ethical view was implied in Moses’ Ten Commandments, but the prophets stressed it: sin is
what divides humans from God, who is pure holiness. Parallel with this ran a deepening awareness of faith’s
demands: the prophets cleansed worship refusing a false reliance on rituals without spiritual values. They
first linked adoration of God with respect for others’ rights, making social justice a basic theme. It was the
experience of Israel’s history guided by God which led all of them to a special regard for the poor and the
strangers. Thus worship and justice were closely associated: by then adoration of God and care for one’s
neighbour are inseparable expressions of the same faith.
Salvation: the prophets read the signs of their times and showed the way forward They warned all
without fear or favour, but stated that sinners’ punishment was not God’s last word. The Israelites might
repeatedly betray him, yet he would remember his promises. Whatever the crisis, the survivors were always
considered as the nucleus of a holy nation, assured by God of a great future. To establish and rule his
perfect kingdom, he would have his earthly agent, the “Anointed One” of Davidic origin. This hope survived
their exile’s hard lesson which ended any ambition to political power. Jesus fulfilled all prophecies by
transcending them, because the prophet is God’s instrument only, so his message may exceed the historical
19
context and even his own understanding: it may remain concealed until the future shows its full meaning.

◊ Are OT prophets challenging today?

OT prophets attacked social wrongs, for every Israelite was supposed to be free and to possess a portion
of the God-given land. But social and economic evils caused many to become landless and to be sold for a
pair of shoes. This challenges us, because God’s desire for justice and his concern for the suffering
have not changed. Knowing how brutally dictatorships trample upon humans and do despise, enslave and
struck down the weak and how cruelly capitalism degrades them to the level of commodities, we need to
hear once more OT prophets’ voices which cry out and awake our asleep consciences showing anyone God’s
agenda in society at large. Faith does bring us closer, make us neighbours to others, awake our commitment
to them. If faith does not draw us into solidarity, it is weak, deceitful or dead. May our efforts help the
growth of greater respect for each person, endowed with basic and immutable rights ordered to his/her
integral development and social peace. Alongside their shortcomings, the Israelites remained religious, but
the prophets attacked false spiritual security, superficial worship and empty traditions not related to right
behaviour. We Christians have the same temptations: even today there are people who go to church but
continue with unjust ways of life. Some in their worship aim to economic gain. At times Christian festivities
end in luxury while poor lack food. We have to re-check this reality in the light of the prophets’ message.

◊ What does the Bible show about prophecy?

The whole Bible shows that prophecy is a key element in God’s bringing his people to maturity.
Both true and false prophets abounded also in later times, within and without the people of God.
The Catholic Church has never officially called “prophet” anyone not so named in Scripture, but it is plain
that God spoke through saints Francis of Assisi, Catherine of Siena and many others, often through
experiences like those of biblical prophets. Prophecy powerfully shows that he really speaks to us,
highlighting his nearness and concern. It increases our trust in the living and caring God, who is willing
to guide us even in ordinary situations. We need this to face today culture, which keeps him far from
everyday life and decisions. We need obedient prophets who faithfully speak the word given to them by God
for the orderly growth of the Church. The matching part to this is a people who hear God’s word with
respect for his Lord.

20
 SOME HISTORICAL BOOKS (1210-
(1210-560 BC)
“Time would fail me to tell of Gideon, Barak, Samson, Jephthah, of David and Samuel and the
prophets - who through faith conquered kingdoms, enforced justice, received promises,
stopped the mouth of lions, quenched raging fire, escaped the edge of the sword, won
strength out of weakness, became mighty in war, put foreign armies to flight” (Heb 11:32-34).

◊ What books do follow the Pentateuch?

In the Hebrew Bible, the six books which follow Pentateuch are Joshua, Judges,
1 and 2 Samuel and 1 and 2 Kings. They form a collection called by the Jews
“Earlier Prophets”, because they present God’s first messengers after Moses
and because the authors were not reporters, but spiritual men looking for the
meaning of past events in order to get light for the present and hope for the
future. We Christians call them (and a few others) “Historical Books”, because
they tell on the events of the period from Israelites’ entry into the Promised
Land to the first years of their deportation to Babylon. But we imagine too
easily that an historian is no more than a tape recorder giving an exact rendering
of words and action. Indeed, a text is also a product of the conditions of when and
where it was written. So, these books’ authors were less interested in exact
records, no matter how politically and socially important, than in explaining
Israel’s disaster: with this goal they did
Blessing is saying good select, arrange and modify varied sources.
things. When God says them They narrate events from a consistent
to someone, good things standpoint, that of Deuteronomy, A sight of Canaan / Israel
happen to him, because his Pentateuch’s last book and the most / Palestine‘s land from a
word is all-powerful and does theological of the whole OT. Its message’s satellite. God promised
what it says. By contrast, summary is: one God, one people, one temple; to Abraham’s
cursing is to say bad things Israel’s faithfulness to God’s covenant would descendants this narrow
and thus bring them about. yield his blessing, while sin would yield his corridor between the
curse, ending in exile. Mediterranean Sea and
the Arabian desert. They
◊ What is the book of Joshua about?
took in cultural elements
Deuteronomy provides the basis for the principle of Israel’s election by God,
from both Egypt and
and outlines his direct rule as result. Joshua’s book proceeds to show how the
Mesopotamia. In order to
chosen people took the land promised by God to them as his gift. Moses led
fight, these nearby
them from Egypt to Canaan's border, but didn’t enter this new land: it was
superpowers necessarily
Joshua’s responsibility to direct its invasion and division. The book of Joshua
had to move through that
describes this settlement as a marvellous epic, above all to teach that the
corridor, causing troubles
conquest was a gift by God. The Hebrews had conquered the country, but it was
to God’s people.
God who allowed them to do so. Judges’ book shows that the conquest was not
simple, but Joshua's does idealise and simplify this complex history, centring all events on his
heroic figure as God’s agent. It falls into three parts: the conquest of the territory, its partition between
the 12 Israelite tribes, and Joshua’s last days.

THE BOOK
BOOK OF JUDGES:
UNEVEN LEADERS FOR GOD’S UNSHAPED PEOPLE

◊ Who were the Judges and what is their book • While modern judges are law’s specialists who
about? get the office through study and training, the
This book derives its title from its main characters, biblical ones were inspired by God.
twelve occasional leaders for God’s people in • While modern judges have appropriate
difficulty. The name “judges” may mislead, because buildings and monthly salary, the biblical ones
this loan-word means “rulers” more than had no such things.
“administrators of justice”. After their military • While modern judges interpret and implement
victory, they could also solve social conflicts and the State's laws as approved by the
perform religious roles on the basis of the Covenant Parliament, imposing penalties to wrongdoer,
with God, but among the six major judges, only the biblical ones were tribal rescuers whose
Deborah is described as delivering justice. role was to guide God’s people against
oppression.
◊ What was Judges’ historical context?
Judges’ context was a transition time with much political, cultural and religious uncertainty.
Israelites’ control of Canaan was not full. They were a group of scattered pastoral tribes whose only
bonds were a common ethnic feeling and the worship of the Lord, their saviour, in the Ark of the Covenant’s
shrine at Shiloh. With the entry to the Promised Land, Israel was confronted by other people, much
more culturally advanced. For more than two thousand years these people had an urban civilisation,
developed agriculture, established commercial relations within and beyond Near East. This civilisation,
brilliant but pagan, would be a constant stumbling block for the Israelites’ faith. In adopting local ways of
life, particularly farming, they faced the new practical matter of ensuring abundant crops. Then their
assimilation of Canaan’s culture extended to worship its gods (especially Baal, god of storm and rain,
and the naked Astharoth, goddess of war, love and fertility) through attractive rites in many “high places”,
aimed at obtaining fertility for land and flocks. Israel believed in a God who had intervened in her history,
bringing her out of slavery and guiding her into Canaan. That was all very well, but now she had settled
down: the people got towns and fields, and they had to make a living. For that, it seemed safer to rely on
the experienced local gods. So, Moses’ age declined quickly after Joshua’s death: Israel failed to live
according to the central demands of the covenant with God and followed cruel and sexually free customs
of a natural religion. But whenever they forgot him, other nations oppressed them. When they repented,
however, he did come to save his people. In clear continuity with the Exodus event, he was always ready
to get involved on the victims’ side. Later, Jesus’ life and ministry would be the peak of humans’
liberation by God.

◊ Who were Israel’s enemies during Judges’ time?

During this troubled age the Canaanites, original owners of the country, became a permanent
threat and a living temptation for God’s people because the Israelites didn’t drive out or eliminate them
as he said. On the contrary, they sometimes agreed with and married them. They were also attacked by the
Moabites, the Ammonites, the desert tribes of Amalekites and Midianites, and especially the Philistines. At
any one time these peoples oppressed only one region, and against them each part of Israel tried to
defend its own land. The twelve tribes’ disunity was evident mainly in the war among themselves (all against
Benjamin).

◊ How did God use the Judges?

God used the Judges to recall the Israelites to the faith of their covenant with him: “You shall have
no other gods besides me” (Ex 20:3; Deut 5:6). Without considering their human ability, he gave the Judges
a personal “charisma” (i.e. “special divine gift”) to rescue specific tribes, though later they were
made national heroes. Othniel is associated with the defeat of Cushan-rishathaim in the South. Ehud, a
Benjaminite (ironically, Benjamin means literally “son of the right hand” yet his left-handedness contributed
to his success) killed the Moabite king, Eglon. There is a passing reference to Shamgar and his laying of 600
Philistines. Deborah summoned Barak to gather an army from Naphtali and Zebulun on Mount Tabor and
fight against Sisera in the Plain of Esdraelon/Jezreel. Gideon with an army from Manasseh, Asher and
Zebulun achieved victories over Midianites and Amalekites. Jephthah led the men of Gilead against the
Amalekites. The mighty Samson is described as engaging in various exploits against the Philistines, before
being blinded and then dying when he brought down the building in which he had been forced to entertain
his captors. There was no line of succession among them: each was a new helper chosen by God.

◊ Can we relate the Judges each other chronologically?

The narrative extends from the heroic conquest to the beginning of Samuel’s ministry (about
1200-1050 BC). The book is almost our only source of knowledge about this period, but it doesn’t provide
the material for constructing a continuous history of it, because ancient Eastern writers had not concern for
precise time-order as today’s historians. No set date may be proposed for any events (except Barak’s
victory which could be placed about 1125 BC): so, there is no way to relate them to each other
chronologically. The total of the various judges’ period of leadership as
mentioned in the book is more than 400 years, for events are presented THE SIX MAJOR JUDGES
as consecutive when in fact they were often simultaneous. Othniel
Ehud
◊ What are the differences between “major” and “minor” Judges? Deborah
In the book, among two introductions (1:1-3:6) and two appendices Gideon
(17:1-21:25), we read about the twelve judges (3:7-16:31). There is an Jephthah
evident difference between the detailed stories of six “major” judges Samson
individually chosen by God for a mission of rescue and the brief notes on THE SIX MINOR JUDGES
six “minor” judges pictured as having some sort of administrative role, Shamgar
but this split is not useful to value them historically. They don’t match the Tola
twelve tribes of Israel, for Reuben, Simeon and Levi provided no judges, Jair
while Shamgar was not an Israelite at all. Some news about them were Ibzan
preserved only in the North or in the South, while others were differently Elon
remembered in both. Abdon

◊ How were these stories elaborated?

All these stories were combined after the northern kingdom’s fall in 722 BC and revised by spiritual
men deeply influenced by the Deuteronomy. Meditating on the nation’s events, they extracted a
religious lesson, though it doesn't correspond totally to the historical reality. Since the external
oppression only arose because of the people’s unfaithfulness (2:11-15; Deut 28:15-68), liberation
could only come through their return to God (Deut 28:1-14; Jos 2:18). Because of the unity of all
commandments of God, where the first three are about humans' relationship with God and the other seven
about relationship between themselves, any break prepare for others. This was the case for the Israelites:
following their apostasy, the last five chapters want us to know that finally they violated every
commandment. A reason given is that there was no king, so everyone did what he wanted: such
explanation anticipates Samuel's books.

22
◊ What vicious cycle did the Israelites experience under the Judges?
Israelites’ situation was very sad, for it followed a repetitive and predictable cycle: 1) they deserted
the true God for false gods; 2) God allowed them to suffer by nearby tribes in order to bring about their
conversion; 3) Israel truly asked God for help; 4) God sent a rescuer, under whom all was well; 5) after his
death the old pattern of infidelity reappeared (2:18-19). What is striking throughout is God’s constant love
and concern: he answered the Israelites as soon as they turned to him; despite their past unfaithfulness
and what he knew would happen again, he raised up unlikely people as rescuers. The judges were not
morally perfect. Moreover, to slay an enemy chief or kill Philistines is no longer a religious act for us, but we
have to keep in mind their time and their environment, whose ethics were very low. Regardless of their
limits, however, faith enabled them to be used by God in order to awake the people’s passivity and to
prepare for a new phase of their history (Heb 11:32-34; 12:1). Looking at daily news we may think nothing
can be done, except caring ourselves and the little circle of our family and friends. We, however, by God’s
help can do a lot to produce the needed change. The future is in great measure in our own hands, through
our ability to organise and carry out creative alternatives to the present system. From such seeds of hope,
patiently sown in our world’s forgotten fringes, great trees will spring up to give it oxygen. God, who
knows our littleness, does call us to commit ourselves out of love for men and women, for children
and the elderly, for peoples and communities, whose pain we have seen and heard, and whose names and
faces now fill our hearts.

◊ What relevance has Judges’ book in today Africa?

African nations, emerged from lengthy oppression, do know how hard it is to achieve true and mature
independence. Surely God is the defender of the oppressed. But our constant fall back into the same
mistakes is not how we should respond to him. We can read Judges’ events in the light of politico-
economic cycles in Africa: poverty, aid, mismanagement, then again poverty, aid, mismanagement. Another
cycle is often applicable: dictatorship, revolution, liberation, then again dictatorship, revolution, liberation.
We have to think how to avoid the repetition of the same errors. We need also to learn how to face
other cultures, especially if they do appear superior to ours, but drive us far from God. We must not sell
our identity and faith in order to get material progress, though communications media would impose a
certain cultural uniformity through alienating ideologies and examples of consumerism. Let’s say no to old
and new forms of colonialism, let’s say yes to an healthy encounter between peoples and cultures, where
faith has a relevant role. Trust in Baals is not so obsolete: they have simply changed their name. Christians
may easily experience similar conflicts in themselves: they do believe in a God who got involved in history
by his Son, but what has this faith to do with economic necessities? Is it not safer to rely on natural powers
(one’s bank account, one’s own skills and power)?

◊ A help to read the text:

TWO DIFFERENT INTRODUCTIONS
Judg 1:1-2:5: This picture of Israel’s conquest and its results is seen from a southern point of view,
alternative and more precise than that of Joshua's book: here we learn that his campaigns to conquer the
promised land were not complete and many parts of the country were never subjected. Moreover, the
conquest was the result of each tribe’s individual effort. So, Judges’ book first reflects on conquest and non-
conquest of the land and then presents the fights of Israel’s many generations to get sure control of it and.
Judg 2:6-3:6: This introduction expounds the theme which will be repeated
in every great judge’s story and explains that after a good leader’s death the
people go astray. When Joshua’s generation died off, God’s great deeds were
forgotten. This failure had many causes, but marriage with non-Israelites is
singled out as focal. Even today the strict relationship between husband and
wife may bring bad or good influences on both.
DEBORAH
Judg 4:1-24: Deborah is among a few women known in the Bible as
prophetesses (after Miriam, Moses’ sister, and before Huldah and Noadiah) and
one of the four women associated with a poem (after Miriam and before Hannah
and Mary, Jesus’ mother). Her record shows that everyone has a role in the
society, and women are capable of leadership. She directed Barak to defeat
Sisera’s army. True to her prophecy that a woman would triumph, it was Jael
who killed him, using his sleep as a cover for her attack. Because people have
Deborah, prophetess and to do their part, God encourages them and supports even the weakest like
th these two women made his instrument of salvation. This principle applies to our
judge in the late 12
work too in today's world: “God’s weakness is stronger than human strength”.
century BC.
GIDEON
Judg 6:1-24,33-40: Gideon, called by an angel to fight the Midianites, at first rebuked him. Then he
tested God over and over. After getting both signs he asked for, he accepted to be leader, not by the
people’s choice, but by God’s commission. Our baptism is also a vocation to serve God's people, in spite of
our littleness.
Judg 7:1-8:3: Faith casts out fear. God tested Gideon’s 32,000 men, first for fear and then for alertness.
With this big army the Israelites would say, “Our own hands rescued us”. Few soldiers implied that the battle
was fought by the Lord himself. Always he removes ground for our boasting. Using military intelligence,
Gideon’s 300 soldiers through sound and light effects seemed more numerous than they were and overcame
an army of 130,000. We also must not rely on our strength, but on God's power. We will win because he has
promised to be with us, and lead us. Christ has won for us.
Judg 9:1-21: Gideon’s son Abimelech seized the royal power his father had refused, after
butchering his 70 half brothers on a single stone. This adventurer died himself when a single
stone was dropped on his head. Before that, Jotham, his youngest half brother, rebuked him
and mocked the monarchy using as example good trees which refused to rule over the
others, until a bad one accepted to do so. Stories in which plants or animals are used to
provide a moral for humans are common everywhere: this is the first example in the Bible.
Its teaching is that usually someone worthless likes to be leader. This earliest tentative king
shows how many people use any means to get public offices for personal gain.
JEPHTHAH
Judg 11:1-11,29-40: Jephthah as a child was victimised for being a harlot’s son, but as
an adult gangster was set to get back his own. When he dictated the terms of his requested
leadership against the Ammonites, he made sure that God was also aware with how he was
to be treated as both civil and military ruler. He first tried to make pace with the enemy,
recounting the events of the past, the sources of tensions, and then asking for a peaceful
settlement. Dialogue is necessary in pursuit of peace and justice, but his efforts did not
succeed. Before the battle, however, he made an undue vow, and obeying it after his victory
he sacrificed his only child, a nameless daughter, though human sacrifices were not allowed
by Moses’ Law. Everyone should think before taking a serious promise.
SAMSON
Judg 13:1-25; Samson’s fantastic cycle includes long accounts of his birth and death,
framing three love stories. It is different from other judges' stories because its first part Gideon
focuses on the angel’s annunciation to Manoah’s barren wife of her son, who had to be thanks God
consecrated to God as a Nazirite from the moment of his conception: this would be the after getting
source of his charismatic strength. He depended on it, without a sign he had
becoming a leader. His story is placed strategically at the climax of asked for.
Judges’ book: it is the story of Israel summarised in the life of a
single man. Moreover he forerun the greatest Saviour of all, Jesus Christ having
been raised up by God, announced by an angel, conceived miraculously, rejected by
his people, handed over to pagans in order to consummate his saving work in his
death.
Judg 16:1-31: After his many victories against the Philistines, they captured him
through his weakness for foreign women. He lost his strength when Delilah made
him involuntarily break his vow when his hair was shaved off. His thorough
impression as a big boy, as strong as a giant and as fragile as a child, is heightened
in the final bang, when he, now blind, asks God's help to make revenge for his eyes,
killing many Philistines as they were worshipping Dagon, their god. So he proved the
other gods are no gods at all, and that the Lord alone is worthy of Israel’s devotion.
Samson’s last event.
◊ Study questions:
1. Judges' book sees the breaking of God’s first commandment as the main problem. Explain why, and then
say if it the same in our country today.
2. Give an account of Judges’ historical circumstances and of their roles’ relevance to their fellow Israelites.
What would today’s Christians learn from them?
3. By giving at least five points, clearly analyse the major characteristics of Judges’ period and then
provide three practical applications we can obtain from it.
4. “Judges’ book portrays the moral and political ruin of people who neglected their religious heritage and
compromised their faith with the surrounding Paganism”. Justify this statement by giving at least five points.
5. “These are the nations which the Lord left, to test Israel by them...” (Judg 3:1). How does this situation
parallel our presence in today’s world? How are we Christians expected to live in a pluralistic environment?
6. Compare and contrast Bible’s judges and Tanzanian judges.
7. Narrate Gideon’s call and then say if and how today youth may be called by God to liberate his people.
8. Narrate how Gideon was called to be a judge, and then point out what of his attitudes we still need.
9. Gideon had to test his people twice before engaging in war because they were many. Narrate how God
required him to test them, and then explain what his request means for us Christians.
10. Give a summary of Gideon’s victory against the Midianites, and then write down the lesson which a good
Christian can learn from it.
11. How can the instructions given by God’s angel to Manoah and his wife be useful today if observed by
pregnant women?
12. In Judges’ book, women played important roles (for good or for bad). Briefly describe the roles of five of
them and then relate them with women’s contemporary empowerment.
13. “Jephthah was a judge faithful to the Lord, but his vow and sacrifice could not please God”. Discuss this
statement and then write down what you have to do before promising anything to him.
14. What is the main lesson about God which you got reading Judges’ book? How could you use it when
talking with your friends?
15. Analyse five events which prove the seriousness of Israel’s sin as reported in the appendix to Judges’
book (17:1-19:30).
15. Explain the cause of Israel’s disunity in Judges’ book pointing out at least five examples. What can cause
disunity in our country?
 THE BOOKS OF SAMUEL:
THE RISE OF THE KINGDOM

◊ What do Samuel’s books tell us, and who are their three main characters?
These two books cover the rise of the kingdom from Samuel and Saul to almost David’s death
(1070-972 BC). These three men are the main characters, and the books are named from the older one.
The first book opens with Samuel’s emergence as prophet to all Israel who eventually instated the monarchy
first under Saul and afterwards under David. The second book narrates about David’s reign, closing on the
eve of the transfer of power to Solomon. All this stresses the continuity of salvation history: on God’s behalf
it was the last Judge, who did choose the first Kings. In the Hebrew Bible these two books constitute
one single work, but the Greek version divided it. There are five sections: Samuel (1Sam 1-7); Samuel and
Saul (1Sam 8-15); Saul and David (1Sam 16-2Sam 1); David (2Sam 2-20); Appendices (2Sam 21-24).

◊ What are our problems with Samuel’s text?

Samuel’s text is among the most corrupt in the Bible. After Babylonian exile there evidently existed
several versions of it, combining or putting side by side various sources and traditions about the beginning
of the kingdom, for or against it, from the North and from the South, from prophetic circles and from court
officials. Who collected them didn’t try to harmonize them, so there are repetitions and contradictions.

◊ What were the relations between Israelite tribes at the start of the kingdom?
During this period Israelite tribes’ loose confederation became a powerful body under a central
authority. Philistines’ expansion, supported by their monopoly in iron, did endanger Israel’s very existence
and require her unity. Saul first appeared as a judge, but his recognition by all tribes started the monarchy.
Despite the far reaching effects of David’s forty years in power - whose master stroke was the capture
and choice of the Jebusites’ city of Jerusalem as political and religious capital, acceptable to both north and
south - national unity was not really achieved. The difficult relations between Israel and Judah already
pointed to the kingdom’s split.

◊ Why David was considered the ideal king?

These books reveal the conditions in which God’s kingdom might be expected to function on
earth and the difficulties it would experience. The ideal was achieved by David, despite his sins. A
complex figure, he had the most varied experiences. When he was young he shepherded his father’s flock.
Then passing through dramatic events, he became king of Israel and pastor of the people of God. Profiting
from the fact that the superpowers of the Near East were weakened at that time, he did win every war and
expand his empire to all the lands promised to Abraham, from the Euphrates River to Egypt, with many
states paying him tribute. A warrior throughout his life, he was at the same time an ardent man of prayer,
who knew what it meant to implore and to praise the Lord. The connection of the Psalms with him is
therefore important. Firm in his quest for God, he stood on his law. He betrayed seriously his love, but was
always ready to repent. As a humble penitent he received God’s forgiveness, and accepted his punishment
which marked his life with suffering. Thus David with all his weakness was a king “after God’s heart”. He
stressed the true religion and maintained justice among his people. It is notable the likeness between
David and Jesus, king and shepherd of God’s holy nation. In a certain way, Christ’s mystery was
foreshadowed in him. On the other side, the promise of the coming of a good king (Messiah) followed the
failure of the kings in David's line.

◊ How did the events lead to the concept of ‘God’s kingdom’ under David’s leadership?
With monarchy’s emergence, no village escaped its effect, and no aspect of Israel’s life and self-
understanding remained as before. By establishing the Ark of the covenant in Jerusalem, David bound
God’s presence to the monarchy. Moreover, from Nathan’s prophecy onwards, God’s promises to David and
his house nourished the hope in the Messiah, the chosen Saviour. From then on the concept of God’s
kingdom under Davidic leadership stands up in Israel’s faith. God’s kingdom (the later equivalent
“Kingdom of heavens” derived by Jews’ fear of naming God) is a theme which runs through the OT, with its
basic conviction that he is the sovereign Lord of the whole universe. It was Jesus, however, who
gave it its full meaning: while the Jews waited a political and national kingdom he taught it was not a
particular territory over which God’s people would reign, but his powerful presence in all those who would
accept his authority on their lives. Through him, son of David, the kingdom has arrived to overcome Satan’s
worldwide power and transform anything. Who believes in Jesus does enter this kingdom and receive its
blessing: the Holy Spirit and sins’ forgiveness. The kingdom is already present, but will be fully established
only after the general resurrection at Jesus’ glorious return from heaven.

◊ What balance of powers did God establish in Israel?

At the first kings’ time, the prophets (Samuel, Gad, Nathan) got importance: 1 and 2 Samuel
present the interplay of these spiritual personalities with the earthly force of the kings, evidencing its
implications for Israel’s survival as God’s people. It was the prophet who had to legitimate on behalf of God
the institution of the kingdom and to correct kings’ conduct. Moreover, while the kings had authority on the
society, they had to be subject to God's word brought by the prophets. Several time we read about kings
obeying prophets. This challenges us to reflect on the role of Church's leaders in today society. What would
be the advantages of political rulers' following God's word?

25
◊ What relevance have Samuel’s books in Africa?
The king was s as central and vital to some African societies as it was in Israel, where he represented
the nation and determined its relation to God. 1 and 2 Samuel recall often kings’ kings holiness, i.e. their
designation by God. For kingship was seen as a service imposed from heaven for the people’s welfare.
Today too we need leaders who are true servant of G God and use their status according to his will to
meet people’s needs. We cannot forget the evil done by Hitler, Stalin, Idi Amin and others who misused their
power. The passion and hope with which the Israelites accepted their first kings recall Africa’s e
early days of
independence with a desire for unity and prosperity. The kings’ failure, shortcomings and compromises,
along with the internal and international conflicts that arose, have many modern parallels. The difficulties
experienced by the chosen peoplee can create realism and courage in us.

◊ A help to read the text:

SAMUEL’S EMERGENCE
1Sam 1:1-23: Samuel’s story begins with the classic situation of an oppressed woman, the barren
Hannah. She went to Shiloh's temple and asked a son, promising to
consecrate him to God's service. Her prayer was answered. The story
stresses that Samuel was a special gift from heaven; in return, his life
was given to God beyond the requirements of Moses' Law. In the Bible
barren women bore unusual children: so Sarah bore Isaac, and
Elizabeth bore John the Baptist. The unusual birth was thought to be
symbolic of the child's importance later in life. New life for his parents
marks the beginning of new life for the whole Israel.
1Sam 1:24-2:10: Hannah is a model of thanksgiving: she fulfilled
her vow and praised the Lord.. Her song asserts the Lord’s power to
care for the last ones inverting historical processes. His caring
compassion extends throughout people’s lives. He is reliable until the
end. History is, above all, to be understood from his perspective.
1Sam 2:11-36: This section contrasts the evil conduct (greed and Following her vow, Hannah presents
sexualal sins) of priest Eli’s sons with the spiritual growth of the little her child Samuel to the priest Eli.
Samuel. The result was the condemnation of Eli’s house and the
passage of the leadership to Samuel, for the Lord said he would honour only those who honour him.
1Sam 3:1-21: God’s word was as infrequent at the time of Samuel’s call in the temple, so it was difficult for
him and for Eli to recognize the Lord’s voice. Samuel had to be called four times before he realised - with
some help - that the Lord wanted to tell him something as a new be beginning
ginning in his relationship with Israel.
Amid so many voices it is difficult also for us to discern God's one. But he is not deterred by our deafness,
he keeps on insisting in his call. Eli was responsible for his sons' sins and accepted the punishment.
1Sam 4:1-22: God punished his people through the Philistines who did defeat the Israelites and capture
the Ark of the Covenant. It didn't help unfaithful people, though they believed it would act someway
magically. This was a sign of failure to have a true relationship with God,
God apart from institutional crisis of the
old tribal organisation. Thinking about the Church’s defeats, we have to ask ourselves: “Is God’s word alive
in our hearts? Does it change our lives, or is it like the ark which comes and goes without enter our hearts?”
1Sam 5:1-6:4: The Philistines are pictured more as religious rivals than as political opponents.
Eventually, in a war conceived as being the battle between the true God and Dagon, the Ark troubled the
Philistines, so they had to send it back to Israel. The overthrow of Dagon's image, found prostrate before the
Ark in the posture of a slave before his master, expresses strongly God's power.
1Sam 7:3-17: As it was for the previous Judges, in time of oppression the Israelites
Israelites accepted to repent
and God gave them a liberator against the Philistines. It was Samuel who entered in scene as God’s
messenger, summoning the people that the cause of disaster was their worship of other gods. As mediator
he communicated God’s will to the people and their request to God. As intercessor he prayed for them
asking God to forgive their sins. He also acted as a military leader in war and as a civil one administering
justice at Ramah. He is depicted as a wise and faithful judge, successfu
successful in battle, butut it was God's action
which was decisive as "rock of help" (in Hebrew, "Ebenezer").
MONARCHY’S ESTABLISHMENT
1Sam 8:1-22: Samuel’s sons took bribes when judging people: the Bible speaks many times about such
problem. Their perversion prompted ed Israel’s demand for a king. This was not only a wish to copy other
nations, but also a desire for effective and permanent leadership to meet real challenges, like Nahash's
invasion. Yet, it appeared to others a refuse of God’s kingship and of Israel’s iidentity
dentity as a holy nation chosen
by him. For them, to accept monarchy was to accept the very unjust power of a legal state from which
Moses had emancipated Israel. Samuel warned about the negative outcome, describing how the kings would
oppress them to get wealth at the expense of others. His prophecy was fulfilled in different ways (e.g. Saul
took David as his harpist, David took Uriah’s wife and killed him, Solomon put the Israelites to forced labour
and laid a cruel economic burden on them, Ahab took Naboth’s
Naboth’s vineyard killing him). So, it teaches us to be
careful in choosing government structures and persons. History shows how many sins and suffering are
caused by bad leaders. The only good leadership is that which follows God's will.
1Sam 9:1-10:1: By y God’s revelation Samuel met and anointed Saul to be commander of the Lord’s
people, setting the stage for his election as first king. He was the handsome man in all Israel, but presented
himself as a member of the humblest of all the families of the least of Israel's tribe, Benjamin.
Benjamin
1Sam 11:1-15: Like judges in the past, Saul reacted with indignation against the Ammonites and
appealed to unity in order to defeat the oppressors of his people. Some mocked whether he could rule them,
but God’s Spirit empowered him to win. Thus all acknowledged that the Lord had chosen him.
1Sam 12:1-25: In the third national assembly conducted by Samuel, both the traditions (of people’s
demand and of God’s initiative) are brought together to validate the kingship. The condition is that king and
people remain obedient to the Lord as Samuel did. This will be their only source of security. But if they will
turn away, both will be swept away.
1Sam 15:1-23: This story prepares David’s rise. Saul offended God several times going against his
oaths and offering unlawful sacrifices. During Amalekite War he disobeyed the Lord in order to please the
people, following human thoughts and customs; so God rejected him as his agent. Starting with Adam and
Eve, disobedience is the real sin. Obedience is what his Son, King Jesus, did during all his life. For us,
obedience to God is to believe in Christ and do what he commands: to love even our enemy.
DAVID'S RISE
1Sam 16:1-13: This passage gives to the youngest son of Jesse the legitimacy
taken from Saul. It is effective because it claims David’s authority in the most naïve
and direct way possible, as an act of simple designation by the Lord, without
pleading or explanation. It has no sequence in the book, but aims to explain that
David’s following success was due to God’s Spirit within him. Whenever God has to
choose somebody for a great mission he seems to take pleasure at upsetting all the
logical rules of common sense. If one listens in faith to the Lord’s voice, one learns
to look anything through God’s eyes.
1Sam 17:1-58: The story of the young David killing an imposing and terrifying
Philistine (called Goliath) shows that God punishes those who put down his name
and that he uses simple ways or people to accomplish great mission at the condition
that they have faith in him. David did know and say that the Lord was the one who
was fighting for Israel and that he could save with no sword and no spear.
1Sam 18:1-20:17: After the women praised David more than Saul, the king The young David with
became jealous of his success and popularity. In contrast, his son Jonathan loved Goliath’s head.
David like his own soul, giving a good example of strong friendship without envy.
Saul’s daughter Michal married him. This inclusion within the royal house would be essential when David
would seek legitimacy as king. Both children helped him when the king resolved to kill him due to unfounded
fears. David was forced to seek refuge with the Philistines and to build a personal power base among Judah.
So, Saul's hate served the interests of David, who appeared innocent in his rather passive rise to the throne.
He waited with patience the fulfilment of God's promise accepting long trials. The Lord's ways are different
from ours. Many times he puts a person in a low position as training for a highest post.
1Sam 22:1-23: This collection of short notices prefaces the stories of David as a guerrilla leader and
explains how he got all priests' support.
1Sam 26:1-25: This story is repeated to defend David narrating how strongly he respected the Lord's
anointed one. Saul’s blessing over him is the last word between them. It allows
the narrator to achieve their leaving on a relatively peaceful note, with David
totally justified by the very man who had sought so long to take his life. But he
went his way for he didn't trust Saul at all. David's complaint to the king
reflected the closed association between God and the promised land: he saw his
exile from Israel as forced exile from the Lord, equivalent to serving other gods!
1Sam 28:3-25: As Saul was afraid before Goliath, so he was again fearful
before the Philistines because the Lord had dumped him and didn't answer his
inquiries. In pain, he turned to a forbidden medium to ask the dead Samuel. But
the spirit confirmed he was facing final defeat. This story aims to explain that his
death in war was decreed by God. Even today many fall into temptation of
consulting others rather than God when in difficulties. What would they do had
they been answered like Saul, "Tomorrow you will be dead?"
1Sam 31:1-13: The Philistines beat the Israelites at Mount Gilboa killing
Jonathan and causing a mortal wound on Saul. To avoid torture and shameful
The dead Samuel appears death he chose suicide, so infrequent among Israelites. It is the concluding
to Saul and prophesies his drama of his gradual downfall (as it would be with Judah Iscariot). The political
imminent death. consequences are reported, but the recognition of Saul’s successor is yet to
come.
DAVID RECOGNICED AFTER SAUL’S DEATH
2Sam 1:1-27: Saul's death removed any threat from David, but he didn't rejoice. As a poet, he delivered
a tribute to Saul and Jonathan. It demonstrate the greatness of Israel’s poetry at a very early age.
2Sam 2:1-11: David was appointed king in Hebron but only over Judah (the south), while Ishbaal, Saul’s
son, was appointed king of Israel (the north).
2Sam 4:1-5:10: Gradually, David overcame the other
side. When King Ishbaal and his strong man Abner were Two features of Hebrew poetry are:
killed without David's guilt, he was offered the lead of the Imagery: rather than develop abstract
north. After a treaty with the elders of Israel he moved his concepts, the poet prefers to accumulate
residence to Jerusalem, a personally held stronghold concrete images.
between Judah and Israel that however remained distinct Parallelism: the two parts of a verse often
entities. This city would eventually become the whole take up the same idea, but with
world’s religious centre. expressions which are complementary or
2Sam 6:1-23: The Ark was been neglected since its in opposition.
failure to assist the Israelites against the Philistines. Bringing to Jerusalem this ancient symbol of Israel’s
unity, ritually gave David legitimacy and power. Joining the celebrations he danced with vigour before the
Lord uncovering himself. Then with characteristic simplicity he defended his humble approach against his
wife’s blame. If you can shout out when your team scores a goal, how cannot you leaving behind your self-
control a little to sing the Lord’s praises?
2Sam 7:1-29: Nathan’s dynastic prophecy made permanent David’s kingship. After building his own
expensive house, David wished to build the Lord's one. The prophet approved before consulting God, but at
night he was inspired to say the contrary. We also have to pray in order to know God's will, without
confiding in our own skills. The strong promise transmitted by Nathan is fundamental in both Jew and
Christian faith about a royal Messiah. The Lord’s commitment was absolute: in the case of failure on the part
of David’s successors, a failure which began with Solomon, God would punish them as a simple correction
confirming his fatherly attitude. A striking prayer by David affirmed God’s role in electing forever him and his
house, because this covenant was a pure gift, not depending on human dispositions. Its accomplishment
went far beyond what both he and Nathan intended, for they were thinking of an earthly kingdom, while God
gave David a descendant who was really to reign without end: Jesus.
DAVID’S PROBLEMS
2Sam 11:1-26: Bathsheba’s story illustrates David’s dark side which infected his family and placed it
under threat. His picture is a mirror of the brokenness present in all humans. God's will on earth is not
necessarily carried out by blameless persons or angels. A sin caused other sins: lust of eyes, adultery,
hypocrisy, murder... Even today many sexual sins end in death (AIDS, abortion etc.). After killing Uriah, a
foreigner but mighty and reliable man, David took his wife thinking he had resolved the problem. Many
people do sin and then think they are safe if fellow humans don't know it.
2Sam 12:1-25: Nathan's simple and beautiful parable of the ewe lamb drew to true penance David, the
king according to God's heart. We cannot get out of sins by themselves, but God doesn't leave us in our
dramatic situation. As a human, David did err but was ready to repent when blamed. Nathan, after
prophesying calamities, ends announcing hope: God's last word is always a word of forgiveness. Eventually
Bathsheba’s son Solomon, who showed this pardon, would come to power instead of his elder brothers.
2Sam 15:1-30: According to Nathan’s prophecy, tensions outside David’s house gave way to problems
within. His son and heir Absalom, after getting mercy for killing his half-brother Amnon who had raped his
sister, developed for four years a gradual following until he was proclaimed king in Hebron. The coup d’état
occurred with surprising ease. It was not the first time that David was the hunted one! He tested God’s will
by ordering immediate flight from Jerusalem without the Ark: his return would confirm that God sanctioned
him not because he possessed the Ark. At the same time, his clever strategy was to leave a few followers
behind to remain in contact with him.
2Sam 16:5-13: David’s mildness facing Shimei’s curse expresses his acceptation of God’s punishment. It
prepares for Jesus' meekness in front of his enemies.
2Sam 18:6-19:8: David’s heartbroken mourning for his rebel son’s death causes our sympathy but not
his supporters’ one. Joab spoke for the troop and for security; David responded honouring the winners.
2Sam 24:1-25: The last four chapters give a variety of information about different periods of David's life
to widen the scope of the problems he faced: famine, warfare and plague. They show how God's goodness
guided him in all those problems. In the census' story the delicate balance between governing (which
needed a survey as basis of taxation and military enrolment) and remaining submissive to God (who would
help his people anyway) was first upset by the plague and then resolved by David’s fulfilled prayer for his
sheep, which is the story's peak. The value of the information from the census was immediately nullified by
many deaths. So David learnt not to hope in the mass of soldiers who could die at once. It was only the Lord
to shape Israel's life. David, guided by the prophet Gad to offer a sacrifice, refused to take the place and the
oxen for free, seeing that he could not offer something without cost. A true offering has to hurt one's heart.
Jesus, the good shepherd born during a census, offered himself to bring peace to all.

◊ Study questions:
1. “I have asked him of the Lord” (1Samuel 1:20). Tell the story behind this statement and say if you
yourself have ever rejoiced in seeing your prayer fulfilled. How?
2. Discuss Samuel's rise in relation to the decline of priest Eli's family, and then compare that situation with
today Church's reality.
3. It was difficult for Samuel and Eli to recognise the voice calling the boy. Narrate this story and then
explain how you try to hear God's call.
4. In 1Sam 4-7 there is a story about the Israelites’ great defeat by the Philistines, the capture of the ark of
covenant and the Philistines’ consequent afflictions. Narrate briefly the story showing eight scenarios and
then give two lessons you have learnt from it.
5. “There is a cry for good leadership today”. Discuss this statement with reference to the situation in
Samuel’s time by giving eight points.
6. In 1Sam we read about two different opinions regarding the legitimacy of asking for a king other than
God. What they were and what can we say today about the need of having political leaders?
7. When Samuel warned his people requesting a king, he had foreseen how kings would mistreat them:
justify this statement with reference to both the books of Samuel and Kings by giving at least five examples
of how this became true; then give at least three examples of abuses in Tanzania which resemble the
outcome of Samuel’s prophecy to the Israelites of his days.
8. The first two kings of Israel sinned against the Lord. The first was rejected by God from being a kin while
the second was not. Justify this assertion by giving at least eight points.
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9. “There remains yet the youngest, but behold he is keeping the sheep” (1Sam 16:11). Narrate the story
behind this statement, and then explain God’s preference for the little ones today.
10. Narrate how Samuel anointed David king over Israel and then say what you have learnt from the way
God chose him.
11. Describe David and Jonathan’s friendship and then explain what it can teach your fellow young people.
12. King Saul came to hate David very much. What was the reason? Describe five occasions where Saul
attempted to kill David. Present at least five evils done by modern people in aspiring to leadership.
13. “Saul has slain his thousands and David his ten thousands” (1Sam 18:7). What was Saul’s reaction to
these words and its consequences? Narrate a similar situation of which you were witness.
14. What factors did influence David’s becoming an outstanding king? What lessons can modern leaders
learn from him?
15. Describe David's behaviour in bringing the Ark to Jerusalem and then explain what it means for you.
16. David planned to build God’s temple, but his idea was rejected by God. Give at least five reasons for this
rejection.
17. In his dealing with Bathsheba, King David did several sins. What were they and what have we to learn
from this story?
18. Narrate how King David acknowledged his fault and accepted a severe punishment for having ordered a
census. Is it a bad thing for our government to take it?
19. “King David was good at administering justice in the nation, but failed to bring peace and order to his
own family”. With reference to 2 Samuel chapters 3 and 13: a) identify and explain three occasions which
prove David’s failure in family matters; b) give two points to show how his failure applies to many of today’s
parents.
20. “From David we got the promised Messiah”. Explain with reference to Nathan’s prophecy (2Sam 7:12 ff)
and then say how this could happen if we remember David’s problems in 2Sam 11-12. What can we learn
from this today?

THE BOOKS OF KINGS:

FROM GLORY TO ASHES

◊ What were the sources of Kings’ two books?

Kings’ books, which are a single book in the Hebrew Bible, openly mention as sources the Kings’ Annals,
but there were others very different, notably Elijah’s and Elisha’s accounts and narratives involving Isaiah.
Where these sources’ use has not interfered, events are uniformly reported: each king is treated singly,
with hardly changing formulas of introduction and conclusion which always includes a judgment on his
religious behaviour. Its criterion is clearly Deuteronomy’s law on the one temple, with exclusion of the “high
places”, i.e. the earlier spaces for sacrifices in hill tops used also in pagan worship. That book’s discovery
under Josiah (with the reform it inspired) is the climax of this story, which wants prove Deuteronomy’s
basic teaching, i.e. that the nation is blessed if it respects God’s covenant, punished if it doesn’t.

JUDAH ISRAEL
Rehoboam (931-913) (931-910) Jeroboam I
Abijah (913-911)
Asa (911-870) (910-909) Nadab
(909-886) Baasha
(886-885) Elah
(885) Zimri
Jehoshaphat (870-848) (885-874) Omri
(874-853) Ahab
(853-852) Ahaziah
Jehoram (Joram) (848-841) (852-841) Jehoram (Joram)
Ahaziah (841)
Queen Athaliah (841-835) (841-814) Jehu
Jehoash (Joash) (835-796) (814-798) Jehoahaz (Joahaz)
Amaziah (796-781) (798-783) Jehoash (Joash)
Uzziah (781-740) (783-743) Jeroboam II
(743) Zechariah
(743) Shallum
Jotham (740-736) (743-738) Menahem
(738-737) Pekahiah
Ahaz (Jehoahaz I) (736-716) (737-732) Pekah
(732-724) Hoshea
722 FALL OF SAMARIA
Hezekiah (716-687)
Manasseh (687-642) N.B. The names of the most important kings
Amon (642-640) are in boldface. Variant or alternative names
Josiah (640-609) are put in parentheses.
Jehoahaz II (Shallum) (609) In the list the shifting back and forth of the
Jehoiakim (Eliakim) (609-598) column indicates new dynasties in the North.
Jehoiachin (Jeconiah) (598-597) No one of their kings descended from David;
Zedekiah (Mattaniah) (597-586) this lack of legitimacy caused instability: 8 out
FALL OF JERUSALEM 586 of 19 were killed.

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◊ How do Kings’ books evaluate them?
Continuing Samuel’s story, these books assess all Kings of both Israel and Judah by religious
rather than by political standards. David and Jeroboam I are models: the first as a good servant of the
true God, the second as one who perverted his people to adore the Lord through a golden calf, that was
Baal’s symbol. By sharing Jeroboam’s sin (two golden calves’ temples), all northern Kings are judged guilty;
eight of Judah are praised as faithful to God, but only Hezekiah and Josiah win ample approval.

◊ How do Kings’ books begin and end?

The books begin with a stable and united kingdom under a strong king living near a glorious
temple and end with their total destruction and mass deportation. After Solomon, there were two
separate kingdoms which fought against each other, though they shared the same traditions and the
certainty of being God’s people who were given by him a country. For a great deal the superpowers, Egypt
and Mesopotamia, were weakened. But after Assyria grew stronger, it took Samaria (722 BC) deleting
Israel’s northern kingdom. The tiny southern one, spread over the hills around Jerusalem and into the Negeb
desert, remained alone for 136 years, always hoping in a reunification. In 612 BC the whole Near East
applauded Assyria’s downfall by the Babylonians, failing to realise that it was only a change of masters.
Eventually King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon, after three attacks (in 605, 597 and 586 BC) completely
destroyed Jerusalem, carrying all but the poorest Jews into the land from where Abraham was called. Others
flight to Egypt from where their fathers had been set free. The last story, King Jehoiachin’s release from
prison (560 BC) is a dawning of liberation for the exiles. The books were written or revised a short time after
this favour: the Jewish remnant’s return to Jerusalem (538 BC) had be occurred, the author would have
referred to it.

◊ What are the three main situations in Kings’ books?

Kings’ time is the one that we know better in the OT. These two books mainly cover in chronological
order Israel’s religious history from David’s last days to Jerusalem’s destruction (972-586 BC). Besides
tracing this decline from glory to ashes, they point out its reasons, presenting a God actively involved in
men and women’s affairs, who reveals himself through both human beings and historical events. During
these four centuries there were three main situations:
(a) the united monarchy (all Israelites remained under Solomon as they had been under his father
David);
(b) the twin kingdoms (from Israel’s rebellion against David’s family until her deportation to Assyria);
(c) the surviving kingdom (Judah’s affairs until her own defeat and exile by the Babylonians).
Notwithstanding the evident decadence, during these four centuries, through trials, persecutions and
difficulties of all kinds, Israel’s faith matured to the point of reaching, in the best prophets, an
excellence and clarity which only Christ would enhance. The greater part of the OT was written during these
centuries.

◊ What was the author’s aim?

We cannot say who the author was, but far more important is knowing his audience and intention.
Because nobody writes history simply to record facts without a purpose: if pre-independence books tended
to justify colonialism, post-independence books want to defend native rule. The author planned to point to
the exiles idolatry’s evils as cause of their troubles so that they would learn from their past. He
stressed God’s faithfulness showing that, while the Israelites under their Kings were unfaithful, God
remained loyal and patient long after their betrayal of covenant’s obligations. He convinced them
that their bad situation was due to their own sins, but pointed also to the future by showing that God would
fulfil his promises if they would repent. Though the chosen people’s thanklessness and the two sections
of the nation’s successive destruction seemed to frustrate God’s design, a few faithful people remained
to secure the future. So, let us read these books as they were written: as a salvation history.

◊ What are the themes of Solomon’s story?

When Solomon came to the throne (971 BC) there was no military threat
from neighbours. The long record of his forty years in power gives firstly a
detailed account of his excelling wisdom, his riches and his buildings’
magnificence. Jerusalem temple’s construction and dedication are central
in his story, for then there was a land, a king and a temple where God made
himself present to his people. Because there was peace, the literature
developed: learned people had an important place in Solomon’s court and
started to writing down memories, laws and reflections. After that we see his
failure, for he played the great lord too much, acting like any other king of the
time, not as God’s representative. The Bible credits him with 700 wives and 300
concubines: among them, the Egyptian Pharaoh’s daughter and other foreigners
brought their gods into YHWH’s holy city. Solomon’s age was one of both
organisation and exploitation. The latter increased the hostility between
north and south. He succeeded in containing a revolt, but it broke out after he
King Solomon offering died (931 BC). Under his incompetent son, Rehoboam, the kingdom split in two
sacrifices while dedicating politically and religiously. The united kingdom had lasted only 70 years.
Jerusalem’s temple.
◊ What is the main concern of Kings’ books?
 These books are mainly concerned with religious matters, such as the covenant’s observance, the temple
and the relations between kings and prophets. These latter’s role in Israel’s history is fundamental. Because
many of the best prophets lived during the monarchy’s period, we have to read 2Kings inserting in it
the relevant sections of the books of Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, Micah, Zephaniah, Jeremiah, Nahum, Habakkuk
and Ezekiel. Through them God continually faced his sinful people to call them back to his ways.
Prophets’ word could be an assurance of victory (1Kgs 20:13), a promise of peace (2Kgs 7:1), a threat
(1Kgs 22:17) or a condemnation (2Kgs 1:3-4). In every case it was God who made known beforehand
his plan which would reach completion necessarily. History is to be understood in the light of his word,
judging, saving, fulfilling. Throughout 1-2 Kings there are many realized prophecies. The point is clear:
God is in charge of history and “reveals his counsels to his servants the prophets” (Am 3:7). Their constant
call to be faithful to the covenant and to God, the supreme ruler, is still of major importance.

◊ What was Elijah’s most important contribution to Israel’s faith?

In Canaan the Israelites were tempted to search sure fruitfulness for their fields through worshipping
local gods which were only personification of natural forces. Fertility rites were especially condemned by the
Law and the prophets. Among them, Elijah stood out as the restorer of
Moses’ faith. His name means “the Lord is my God”, and his life
developed according to it, totally given to kindling in the people thankfulness
to the Lord as the only God, though invisible and mysterious, above and beyond
all natural forces. Idolatry raged especially in the northern kingdom during
Ahab’s reign, when the Israelites beside the Lord worshipped Baal, a knowable
god whom they believed could guarantee their prosperity in exchange for
sacrifices. Backing two religions at once was like limping on both feet, as Elijah
put it. He blamed their ambiguous behaviour and demanded exclusive
loyalty to the Lord, recognized for what he is, absolute and transcendent. In a
dramatic scene on Mount Carmel he faced Baal’s prophets who found themselves
forced to extreme actions, in the vain attempt to subject their idol to their own
will. On the contrary, he asked with simple faith the fathers’ God to show
himself in all his mercy, faithful to his reality as the living Lord who converts
the people’s hearts. After the Lord’s undeniable answer, the Israelites could no Elijah departs from the
longer doubt: though they had seemed to be lost, they found again the path of earth leaving behind
truth, rediscovering themselves as God’s chosen people, bound to him through a Elisha to continue his
covenant. After Elijah’s definitive disappearance, his importance grew more and prophetic witness.
more in Jewish tradition. Though he left no writings, Elijah with Moses are the
two greatest figures of Jewish faith. Luke will present Jesus as the new Elijah.

◊ Who was Elijah’s most important follower?

Doubtless, among the prophets’ brotherhoods, Elijah’s most important follower was Elisha. He
inherited his spirit but, unlike him, was consulted by the powerful and played a prominent part in
contemporary affairs, inside and outside Israel, during at least fifty years of activity. In this way he
carried on his master’s war against paganism as God ordered him on the Mount Sinai. In a time of
tension with the Arameans of Syria, he is associated with the substitution of their king Ben-hadad with
Hazael against king Jehoram, Ahab’s son. Most importantly, Elisha is credited with the anointing of the
commander Jehu to become king in Israel. This man, after killing Jehoram and his mother Jezebel, wiped out
Baal’s worship. This revolution extended to the south with the killing of queen Athaliah, Ahab’s daughter
(or sister), and the restoration of David’s dynasty and of the Lord’s cult.

◊ What relevance have Kings’ books in Africa?

A new colonialism treats poor countries like parts of a machine, cogs on a gigantic wheel. It reduces them
to mere providers of raw material and cheap labour, denying them the right to an integral development.
That is inequality, and inequality generates a violence which nobody can control. But when discussing the
causes of today’s problems of so many African countries, we need too examining ourselves as nations
and as individuals to discover what is right and wrong locally before blaming foreigners. Unless we
correct ourselves, things will never become better. The lesson illustrated in Kings’ books that “power
corrupts” is obvious in ancient history, in modern Africa as in the world in general. The divisions and
disasters brought about by corruption are a warning for the present. Big projects can also be a source of
pride and lead to the downfall of the nation.

◊ A help to read the text:

SOLOMON’S REIGN
1Kgs 1:11-35: When David was aged, his eldest surviving son, Adonijah, wanted the throne, but it was
Solomon to be chosen and acclaimed king. Personal arguments opposed the two party, but Nathan’s
masterful plan stirred David to action by playing upon his pride and upon the safety of his beloved
Bathsheba and her son. Through the prophet's mediation, it was again God to choose the lesser one.
1Kgs 2:1-12: Before his death, David charged Solomon to walk on the Lord’s way, but also to deal
mercilessly with problematic people. His orders reflected a strong sense of morality and justice according to
the ideas of the time, seeking to promote lasting peace in his son's reign.
1Kgs 3:3-28: Once Solomon had sacrificed to God in Gibeon, he got a dream in which was granted a
wish: then he asked wisdom rather than long life, riches, or power. His judgment in settling the case of an
infant in dispute between two harlots shows how he merited his wisdom’s fame spread among other nations.
But his reign ended with foolishness. Jesus proclaimed himself greatest than Solomon and taught us to first
seek God’s kingdom and righteousness, for all other things will be ours as well.
1Kgs 8:1-30, 41-43, 54-61: David’s desire to build a big house for the Lord was fulfilled by Solomon in
seven years. When the Ark arrived in the temple and the priests who had been carrying it returned outside,
a dark cloud filled the building, for God intended to dwell there forever with his glory. The king's prayer
portrayed the temple as the one place to which all Israelites in all circumstances could have recourse for
appeal to God, though he acknowledged for sure that the Lord could not be confined in a temple, while it is
impossible to be contained in the heavens. Jesus prayed and taught in the (second) temple.
1Kgs 10:1-13: The queen of Sheba (today Yemen) visited Solomon with precious gifts to test his wisdom.
His replies left her breathless, and she was further impressed by his servers and wasteful dinners. The
unusual insistence on the success of a king who was ultimately unfaithful to God's covenant is probably
explained by the author's aim of showing the exiles what glory Israel could have retained had her kings been
faithful. If truth be told, Solomon imposed heavy taxes and even failed to pay debts he incurred in using
wealth extravagantly. Jesus noted that flowers are more beautiful than him in all his magnificence.
1Kgs 11:1-43: One difference between David and Solomon was their foreign policies. While the father
used his military skill, the son employed political and economic alliances strengthened by marrying
Pharaoh’s daughter and other foreign women. God had forbidden marriages or covenants with outsiders, let
they turn the Israelites’ hearts to other gods. Solomon had over 700 wives and 300 concubines, a sign of his
power: they made him to worship their gods and to build temples for them opposite Jerusalem. Because he
sinned against the Lord, external as well internal enemies began to emerge. He was told that his empire
would not last: only a part of it would be given to his descendants because of God’s faithfulness. After
Jeroboam’s aborted rebellion, Solomon died and his son Rehoboam became king.
THE TWIN KINGDOMS’ BEGINNING
1Kgs 12:1-19: When Rehoboam went to Shechem to be acclaimed king by all Israel’s leaders, the
assembly asked him to lighten the heavy yoke laid upon them by his father. Following his young friends’
unwise counsel, he refused forcefully. The result was the permanent division of God’s people in two
kingdoms. So, Ahijah's prophecy was fulfilled, but as we know, unity is strength, division is weakness.
1Kgs 12:20-33: Jeroboam, after being acclaimed king of the northern tribes, perverted their faith. He
realised that a religion centralised at Jerusalem, his rival’s capital, did threaten his own authority. So he
established two temples at Bethel and Dan (the very edges of his kingdom), putting golden calves there to
represent God's presence and appointing non-Levites to the priesthood. This was the famous sin of
Jeroboam, which caught all his successors, though they came from different families.
ELIJAH’S PROPHETIC ACTIVITY
1Kgs 16:29-17:24: Under the wicked King Ahab of Israel the Lord’s prophets were killed. Against the
cultural colonisation by his foreign wife Jezebel to increase paganism, God sent Elijah to tell Ahab that no
rain should fall until he would say so, for only the Lord controlled rain, and not Baal, worshipped as the god
of storms and fertility. While the people starved, the prophet was feed by God with the family of a poor
widow of Zarephath, who believed his words and gave him the little food she had. Afterward, Elijah called
her son back to life, though they were out of the Lord’s own land.
1Kgs 18:16-46: After three years and six months of famine, when Elijah went to Ahab, they traded
insults. Then the prophet challenged Baal’s worship demanding all Israel to attend at Mount Carmel. There
Elijah said he would sacrifice a bull to the Lord, as his 450 opponents would sacrifice another to Baal, stating
that the true God would respond by combusting the animal. After no response from Baal, Elijah got fire from
heaven on his bull and killed Baal’s prophets. In the wake of this decisive victory, he announced a storm.
1Kgs 19:1-21: Fleeing Jezebel’s reaction, Elijah went to the mountain of Moses’ revelations. There he too
had a special experience of God. Answering Elijah’s desire to resign his mission, God named his successor,
Elisha, who would fulfil the anointment of Hazael and Jehu as kings of Syria and Israel to punish Ahab’s
family. On a high mountain both Moses and Elijah appeared with the transfigured Jesus to his apostles.
1Kgs 21:1-29: The king was supposed to be the one who do justice, but Ahab was really corrupt in all
spheres of his rule: politics, religion, military and business. In a series of three stories which focus on his
tragic death, this second one concerns an internal matter rather than wars with Syria. Naboth owned a
vineyard inherited from his fathers and protected by the law. By a hypocritical use of fasting and religious
assembly, Jezebel forced Naboth’s death in order to get the vineyard for his husband. According to the law
Ahab was doomed to death. Elijah’s notice of the sentence led the king to a sincere use of fasting and
penance. Then God deferred his dynasty’s end until the next generation. Indeed, three of Ahab’s children
had royal power, but none was succeeded by descendants.
1Kgs 22:1-38: Ahab’s death and Israel’s defeat, foretold by an anonymous prophet in 20:42, were
announced again by Micaiah and realized during a dreadful campaign. After 400 prophets predicted victory,
the messenger sent to Micaiah tried to influence him to foretell that way. But the truth stands alone, it
doesn't depend on the witnesses’ number. He appeared to do so in order to amaze Ahab. Indeed, the king
asked him for truth, but he was not able to bear it when given by Micaiah, though denying the truth is
denying oneself. This dramatic conflict between prophets presents the problem of their authenticity. In the
end, only fulfilment could show who of them spoke truly on behalf of God.
ELISHA’S PROPHETIC ACTIVITY
2Kgs 2:1-15: Here starts a set of stories focused on Elisha and his extraordinary powers. It
aims to present the prophets as leading figures throughout Israel’s history. The sudden departures which
were a feature of Elijah’s story reached their peak when he left the earth without a trace. Though usually a
charisma is not inherited, for it is God's free gift, Elisha wanted to be known as Elijah's main successor. The
32
 Lord granted his daring request by allowing him to see what was hidden from
human eyes.
2Kgs 4:1-44: These are the first four of ten stories aimed to evoking wonder
at Elisha’s unique powers: a widow’s troubles, the Shunammite woman’s son, the
poisoned food and the multiplication of breads.
2Kgs 5:1-27: The fifth story widens the perspective of this miracles’ sequence
by depicting Elisha’s use of his powers to heal a pagan enemy’s leprosy. At first,
Naaman’s pride and mistaken belief about how a prophet ought to operate almost
aborted his healing, but eventually he proclaimed his faith in the God of Israel.
Many Christians too think he should help them their way, instead of accepting his
ones. Let the Lord be God and direct us as he wants. Elisha refused any
payment, knowing himself to be only God's instrument. On the contrary Gehaz,
Elisha’s servant, trying to get Naaman’s gifts, ended up rather with lifelong
Elisha raising the affliction: who trifles with a prophet deserves punishment. Jesus taught his
Shunammite woman’s son. apostles to give freely what they received by God freely.
2Kgs 9:1-37: Carrying out the only remaining of the three commands given
to Elijah on the Horeb, Elisha sent one of his disciples to anoint the commander Jehu in order to strike down
Ahab's family and to avenge on Jezebel the blood of the Lord's servants. The marvellous presentation of
Jehu’s bloody rebellion is concerned with portraying it as sanctioned by God.
2Kgs 11:1-21: Matching the northern revolution, this in Judah against Queen Athaliah (who had seized
cruelly the power) restored God's covenant and also David's rightful line in the person of the child Jehoash.
2Kgs 13:14-25: Even in death Elisha continued to be the channel of God’s life-giving powers, initiating a
symbolic act which enacted and anticipated Israel’s desired military penetration into Syria. He left no
successor, but when the body of a dead man accidentally touched his bones, it revived, for though the
prophet was died, God's power was still active.

N.B. The following chapters of 2Kgs will be proposed in connection with the relevant prophetic books.

◊ Study questions:
1. “King David's instructions to his successor Solomon (1 Kgs 2:1-46) were in two opposite directions:
obedience to the Law and murder”. Give at least five points to justify or correct such statement and three
points to show how OT’s morality was far from NT's one.
2. According to Solomon's prayer of dedication, what could be the occasions for the people's appearing
before the Lord? What others would you like to add to his list?
3. Present Solomon’s ten achievements and ten failures.
4. Discuss reasons and consequences of the splitting up of Israel's kingdom into two after Solomon's death,
and then relate them to today Christians' divisions.
5. Explain four reasons for the division of Israel into two kingdoms after King Solomon’s death. Then
compare that situation to today’s religious and political situation in Tanzania by writing four points.
6. Narrate how Elijah challenged courageously Baal’s worship to guide Israel again to the true God. What
prophetic stand do we need take in front of the spread of perverted beliefs and morals in the 21st century?
7. What lessons can modern Christians learn from Elijah’s fear after killing Baal’s prophets and from the
action he took as a result of his fear?
8. 1 Kings 21:1-23 narrates the story of the murder of the innocent Naboth by King Ahab and Queen
Jezebel. By giving five points, explain how the story relates to the Tanzanian society of today.
9. The case of Ahab and Naboth is not unique. Report it and then propose how it can help our
contemporaries to follow justice.
10. “In time of trouble, Elisha’s name was an outcry for help”. Discuss this statement by using eight of the
miracles performed by him as recorded in the Second Book of the Kings.
11. Elisha's miracles were intended to reveal God's power present in his messengers. List at least five of
them, and then explain the attitude of people performing or seeing miracles today.
12. Naaman reacted against Elisha’s method of healing him. How would you use this story to explain the
importance of sacraments such as baptism?
13. “King Jeroboam I is considered responsible for the fall of Israel into captivity two hundred years later”.
Justify this statement by giving at least five reasons.

◊ Revision questions:
1. Monotheism was Israel’s faith, but interaction with outsiders polluted it. Narrate how this happened and
then say how globalisation is both facilitating and distorting Christianity in Tanzania.
2. Israel was forbidden marriages with other peoples; what are the original motivations of such prohibition
and its relevance for today Christians?
3. Clarify the temple’s importance for the Israelites, and then say how we Christians have to see our places
of worship.
4. Israelite kings were often inquiring of the Lord before undertaking any important venture. Explain their
ways and what we have to do in our days.
5. By giving at least eight facts from the books of Samuel and Kings, explain how David, Solomon and
Rehoboam caused Israel’s division and then show how a similar situation can endanger Tanzania’s unity.
 SOME BOOKS NAMED AFTER PROPHETS (760-
(760-518 BC)
“We have the prophetic word made more sure. You will do well to pay attention to this as to a
lamp shining in a dark place, until the day dawns and the morning star rises in your hearts”
(2Pt 1:19).

◊ How did prophets’ messages become books? OT PROPHETIC BOOKS

We call “writing prophets” those after whom some biblical AS FOUND IN CHRISTIAN BIBLES
books are named. However the prophets were first and
foremost speakers, preachers, not writers. Their books’ MAJOR
contents are of different kinds: prophetic sayings, narratives Isaiah
told in the first and others in the third person. These three Jeremiah (+ Lamentations and Baruch)
types are not mutually exclusive; indeed, narrative sections Ezekiel
frequently include either prophecy or speech. The passages in Daniel
the third person point to an author other than the MINOR
prophet, such as Baruch (Jer 25:3; 36:4). To him Jeremiah Hosea
dictated the words he spoke in God’s name over a period of Joel
twenty-three years, but Baruch added biographical narratives Amos
(Jer 36:32). Similar situations may lie behind other prophets’ Obadiah
books, though part of their legacy may have been preserved by Jonah
their followers’ oral tradition (Isa 8:16) together with memories Micah
of their life. Prophets’ books were kept alive by spiritual Nahum
groups who found in them the food for their faith and life. Habakkuk
Under God’s inspiration they added similar words, either Zephaniah
to adapt the books to the needs of a new generation or to Haggai
improve them. Sometimes the additions were notable, Zechariah
especially those to Isaiah’s book. Malachi

THE BOOK OF AMOS:

GOD’S DEMAND OF SOCIAL JUSTICE

◊ Who was Amos?

Amos is the first prophet whose statements have come down to us in the form of a
book. By profession he was a breeder of livestock and a grower of mulberry figs,
belonging to no prophetic group. A popular preacher with a vigorous wording, he
stressed that it was God’s direct intervention which led him, a Southerner, to preach
to northern Israelites, mainly at Bethel schismatic temple. In performing his duty
Amos obeyed God’s call facing with courage the opposition until he perhaps was
expelled. He brought to his short prophetic work (about 760 BC) the strength of
character (rough, direct, proud, rich in imagery) shaped by the harsh environment of
his native Tekoa (on the border of the desert), and a perception of the corrupt life
Amos, the first of Israelite society as clear as few residents could have.
writing prophet.
◊ What was Israel’s situation at Amos’ time?
Amos spoke harsh words to a smooth season, for he prophesied under Jeroboam II, whose long reign
brought prosperity. Politically, it was the calm between the storms. Economic conditions were relatively
favourable to upper classes, but the people often lived in abject poverty and oppression. There were poor
who failed to get even food, so they entered into debts and became victims of the rich, who were even able
to pervert justice in the court. We read about needy bought for a pair of sandals. Moreover there was moral
and religious degradation. Rich people lived wastefully, built fine palaces with ivory beds, used expensive
lotions and enjoyed refined music near a mass of shanties. Amos saw under the surface and realised that
the true health of a civilisation could not be measured only in term of economic prosperity and military
might, but must be assessed from its morality. Especially justice is essential to any society and is
required by God. We must never allow the culture of prosperity to make us incapable of feeling compassion
at the outcry of the poor, weeping for others’ pain, and sensing the need to help them, as though all this
were someone else’s responsibility and not our own.

◊ According to Amos, what was Israel’s main sin?

Amos said little against other gods because those who took advantage of their poor brothers continued to
adore God and to observe the Sabbath, seeking to conceal social injustice by fake religious practices (8:4-
8). For him Israel’s main sin in the worship was its separation from concern for the fellow citizen.
Amos’ originality was the force with which he restated pure faith’s demands against empty formal religion,
arguing that fine liturgical shows and sacrifices cannot satisfy God, for his covenant’s distinctive feature was
the link between the relationship to him and that to one’s neighbour. The gloom portrayed in Amos lies not
in his proclamation of judgment, but in the social evils that invited it. The ultimate reason for God’s
judgment is his distress at the poor’s oppression. Moreover, the Israelites’ deaf ear to the prophets
who blamed them was a particularly grave offence, since it amounted to reject God himself; its fitting
punishment would be a loss of his leading Word (8:11-12). In brief, four interrelated themes were central for
Amos: (a) judgment; (b) social justice; (c) worship; (d) hearing of the Word.

◊ How does Amos represent God?

For Amos, God is everything and humans nothing. He is no longer just a national God: he also watches
over the morality of other nations. He can do this because he is Creator. Amos formulated without any
hesitation his weighty doctrine of the all-powerful and universal Lord, eternally just who would
punish the nations (1-2), but also Israel, for his blessing required greater morality (3:2). The “Day of
the Lord” (in the Bible this key term occurs for the first time here) will be one of darkness and not light
(5:18 ff). Amos’ message, the least hopeful among those of all classical prophets, was directed in
particular against the leaders (king, priests and upper classes), who lacked compassion and failed to adhere
to the covenant, though the whole people would be affected. As reaction, God would summon Assyria
(6:8-14), a nation always in the prophet’s mind. Amos was so sure of Israel's destruction that he started her
funeral's song. Yet he kindled a spark of hope for the small “remnant” (in 5:15 this term is used by a
prophet for the first time): some of the people will be saved from the disaster.

◊ How is Amos’ central theme relevant today?

The evils of Amos’ time are still experienced in today’s world, for humans are always the same.
The issues he addressed vividly appear in many African countries: corruption, stealing, unjust wages, poor’s
oppression account for the instability of our continent and other Third World regions. The rich do get richer
at the expense of the needy, educate their children abroad and build luxury houses with stolen money,
remain in power at all costs and leave the people in misery. So Amos’ loud and clear message keeps on
speaking to each successive generation with the same immediate relevance and urgency: God demands
justice. Humans and nature must not be at the service of money. Let’s say no to an economy of
exclusion and inequality, where money rules and kills. The economy should not be a mechanism for
accumulating goods, but the proper administration of our common home. A just economy must create the
conditions for enabling everyone to enjoy a childhood without want, to develop their talents when young, to
work with full rights during their active years and to have a dignified retirement as they grow older. Such an
economy is not only desirable and necessary, but also possible: we can achieve the integral progress of
each human and the whole person.

◊ A help to read the text:

2Kgs 14:23-29: Following his own religious perspective, the writer gives minimal attention to Jeroboam
II’s long and successful reign.
Am 1:1-2:16: After two introductive verses, we read eight generally uniform forecasts. Amos’ hearers
would have enjoyed the revelation of doom against six nearby nations (who had drifted away from humans'
moral rules) and even more so against Judah (who had forgotten the Lord's law). However, the series
doesn’t end with the seventh as would be expected, but reaches its peak with the statement against Israel,
whose worst sin was the attempt to obstruct Nazirites' charismatic activities and prophets’ proclamation of
God's word which is the source of true religion.
Am 3:1-8: Amos’ audience didn’t understand why this man who was not a priest, nor a prophet by
profession, had come to preach to them, interfering in things which, for them, had nothing to do with
religion. Perhaps today he would been denounced for threatening national peace. His series of questions
about cause and effect, ends with the claim that his word comes from the Lord, is the consequence of God's
action upon him.
Am 5:1-17: This third summon to hear God’s word explains that worshipping him in holy places is not
enough to get his blessing; what is required is a righteous life. It is bracketed with laments, for judgment
would be God’s last word.
Am 5:18-6:14: Amos gave three warnings to those desiring to see the Lord’s day, to those secure in their
assets and to the idle rich. To the first ones, he said the day when God would decisively defeat his enemies
would be against Israelites too who broke the covenant. To the others he said human security and the goal
of personal pleasure could not stand up on the day people would account for their ways of life.
Am 7:1-9:10: The book concludes with five visions, the last one being a
peak. The structure of the first part of visions 1 through 4 is identical: God AMOS’ FIVE VISIONS
shows the prophet something, asks what he sees, and then explains its Locusts
meaning. In the first two visions the prophet’s prayer can stop the Lord's Fire
wrath. But in the last three, after time passed without changes in Israel, Plumb line
punishment is certain as result of her refuse of mercy. It brings grief to God Basket of mature fruits
and to the prophet. In the midst, priest Amaziah confronted Amos for Destruction
preaching in the temple without permission and for upsetting the people whose donations gave him a
comfortable life. Self-centred religious leaders would react today in such a way against a person similar to
him, whose aim was not to get an income, but only to answer God's personal call.

◊ Study questions:
1. According to Amos and others, the Israelites didn’t neglected religion, but perverted it. Explain how they
did so and the relevance of these prophets’ statements to our Church today.
2. There were four basic elements that the Lord was not comfortable with Israelites' worship according to
Am 5:1-27. Analyse them showing God's reasons then and explaining how those elements may discomfort
him in today's Church.
35
3. “Amos’ ministry was concerned about the troubles of the poor. Using at least five evils he denounced,
discuss this statement in relation to the current situation in Tanzania.
4. Amos is known as prophet of social justice. Describe the unfair practices he condemned and state if there
are people like him today.
5. Relate the central theme of Amos’ book to Tanzania’s socio-economic and political situation. Give at least
eight points.
6. Amos attacked Israelites’ sins which can be categorized into three groups: social and economic evils,
religious evils and political leadership’s evils. Briefly point out ten evils from each category and then make a
comparison to contemporary Christian society’s evils.
7.“Tanzania needs fighting against corruption”. Relate this war to Amos’ cry during his days.
8. “The Israelites were eagerly waiting for the “Day of the Lord”, but Amos’ prophecy was
contrary to their expectations”. Justify the statement by giving at least eight points.

THE BOOK OF HOSEA:

BONDS OF GOD’S FAITHFUL LOVE

◊ Who was Hosea, and what was his main teaching?

Hosea was a native of the northern kingdom and focused his prophetic work (about
750-725 BC) on its difficult situation. It was a sad period for Israel with the winning
advance of Assyria, internal rebellions (four kings being assassinated in fifteen years) rapid
economic decline and rising religious and moral corruption, including homicide, perjury,
theft, and sexual sin. Like his contemporary Amos, Hosea charged the ruling classes
severely, for the kings, chosen against God’s will, toyed with human policies as pagan
leaders did. They, their aristocratic supporters, and the priests had led the people away
from God’s Law. He too attacked injustice and violence, for many were poor because of
the ruling classes’ selfishness. However, he insisted more on the evils of apostasy as the
origin of society’s bad symptoms, for Israel’s faith was being perverted by external
influences to worship Baal and other gods. For this he harshly condemned both prophetic Hosea with
and priestly circles. The loss of the true essence of the ancestors’ faith was the gravest issue some of his
of the time. To counter it, Hosea came as spokesman of the living God, demanding an words
undivided heart. He declared that unless they repent of these sins, God would allow their quoted in
nation to be destroyed, and the people to be taken into captivity. He favoured the judgment Matthew’s
form for his statements, holding up the threat of exile and final destruction, which would gospel.
be fulfilled literally after few years. The capital of the Northern Kingdom, Samaria, fell in 722
BC. All the members of the upper classes and many ordinary people were carried off to live as prisoners of
war.

◊ What were Hosea’s two major themes?

The two major themes which run throughout Hosea’s book appear at first mutually exclusive: God’s
unending love towards a sinful Israel and his judgment. But the latter is only the result of refused love
and seeks to educate rather than destroy. Its aim is the return to the original situation of mutual love
between God and his people.
It has been traditional in all civilisations to use a female as a symbol for a nation. The sad experience
which, by God’s will, Hosea underwent with his unfaithful wife Gomer, and his desire to be with
her again, also at God’s request, reflected what Israel did to God out of ingratitude, and how he, despite
this, repeatedly showed unlimited kindness. The prophets often performed symbolic actions, but Hosea’s
very life was symbolic. His mercy towards his wife was a living image of God’s love for his people,
easier to understand than abstract ideas. This prophet at once loving and strong was the first to
describe their relation as one of husband and wife: Israel, the bride of God, had become a harlot,
arousing her divine husband’s anger and jealousy. Hosea had an inexorable view of his people’s sinfulness:
they have no trust, no tenderness toward one another, no knowledge and love of God. Even when they
seemed to return to God, Hosea saw this as artificial repentance and highlighted the patient love of God
who would punish her, but only to bring her back and restore her to the joys of their first love.

◊ What was Hosea’s marriage experience?

First, God directed Hosea to marry a woman of ill-repute, and he did so to symbolise the covenant
between God and Israel. Because she has been unfaithful to God by following other gods and breaking the
commandments which are the terms of the covenant, Israel is represented by a harlot who goes
against marriage’s obligations.
Second, Hosea and his wife, Gomer, had a son. God commanded that he be named ‘Jezreel’. This name
refers to a valley in which much blood had been shed in Israel's history, especially by the kings of the
Northern Kingdom. The naming of this son was to stand as a prophecy against the king’s house that they
would pay for that bloodshed.
Third, the couple had a daughter. God commands that she be named ‘Lo-ruhamah’, ‘Unloved’, to show
that, although he would still have pity on the Southern Kingdom, he would no longer have pity on the
Northern one; its destruction was imminent.
Fourth, a son was born to Gomer. It is questionable whether this child was Hosea's, for God commanded
that his name be ‘Lo-ammi’, ‘Not My People’, or more simply, ‘Not Mine’. This name of shame had to show
that the Northern Kingdom would also be shamed, for its people would no longer be known as God's People.
Also God said that "I am not your ‘I am’"; in other words, God changed His own name in connection with his
current relationship with Israel.
Chapter two describes a divorce. It seems to be the end of the covenant between God and Israel.
However, it is probable that this was again a symbolic act, in which Hosea divorced Gomer for infidelity, and
used the occasion to preach the message of God's rejection of the Northern Kingdom. He ends this prophecy
with the declaration that God will one day renew the covenant, and will take Israel back in love.
In Chapter three, at God's command, Hosea seeks out Gomer once more and has to buy her back. He
takes her home, but refrains from sexual intimacy with her for many days, to symbolize the fact that Israel
will be without a king for many years, but that God will take Israel back, even at a cost to Himself.

◊ What is the book’s outline?

This book expresses God's agony over Israel’s betrayal. Chapters 1-3 give an account of Hosea's
marriage with Gomer which is a metaphor for the relationship between God and Israel. Chapters 4-14 spell
out the allegory at length through statements judging Israel for not living up to the covenant. Following this,
the prophecy is made that someday this will all be changed, that God will indeed have pity on Israel. No
further breakdown of ideas is clear. 4-9:9 show exactly why God is rejecting the Northern Kingdom (what
the reasons are for the divorce). 9:10-11:11 is God's lament over the necessity of giving up the Northern
Kingdom, which is a large part of the people of Israel, whom God loves. He promises not to give them up
entirely. In Chapter 12, the prophet pleads for Israel's repentance. Chapter 13 foretells the destruction of
the kingdom at the hands of Assyria, because there has been no repentance. In Chapter 14, the prophet
urges Israel to seek forgiveness, and promises its restoration, while urging the utmost fidelity to God.

◊ How did Hosea influence later prophets?

Hosea influenced a lot later prophets to insist on a religion of the heart, with God’s love as its
motive force. Sinai’s law seems more like an agreement between spouses, and sin is more like adultery,
prostitution, a failing in love. He contributed also to a greater awareness of marriage as God wants it. In
the OT there were polygamy and divorce; nevertheless it shows a development towards monogamy. It is
only on the basis of such a high ideal of reciprocal and exclusive love and fidelity that Hosea and other
prophets who followed him could pronounce the covenant of the Lord with Israel as an eternal and
unbreakable union between husband and wife. Jesus drew this view’s ultimate consequence and excluded
divorce. In an age when basic values are often neglected or distorted, the family merits special attention,
since it is the basic cell of society. Families foster the solid bonds of unity on which human coexistence
is based, and, through children’s bearing and education, they ensure the future and the renewal of society.
Everybody must ask himself: do I show faithful love in my relationship with God and others? Do I make
such efforts as Hosea’s to get back my wife, friend, community member, who has slipped out of my hands?

◊ A help to read the text:

Hos 1:1-3:5: These chapters recount the prophet’s central experience, but not as a continuous love
story: they move from accusation through punishment to reconciliation. Hosea’s three children were given
by God names which emphasized their function as signs of his own intentions: Jezreel (a plain where there
was a bloodshed), She is not pitied, Not my people. Afterward they were summoned by God to bear witness
against their mother, but were also subject to judgment. In the end, their names were totally changed or
given a new, positive meaning. The wife herself was restored and promised to know the Lord.
Hos 4:1-10: Here starts a series of sayings of judgment (with occasional words of hope) directed now at
particular classes, now at the whole people. The first three verses are a general introduction: the list of
Israel’s sins recalls Moses’ Ten Commandments. When God is not loved, corruption fills the gap and the
nature suffers with man. Priests and prophets are condemned for failing in their duty to teach God’s ways.
Hos 5:1-7: A new charge against leaders (here judging elders) but also the people ready to follow them.
Hos 5:15-7:2: The Israelites seemed to realize that it was God who punished them and that he alone
could save them. But they still counted on external worship without submission to the commandments,
thinking they would please God by offering a few costly sacrifices which they chose rather than real love
which shows itself in obedience. Their evil did block their salvation although God would it. It is Hosea’s
characteristic the struggle between God’s will to save and his justice.
Hos 8:1-14: This is a new proclamation of Israel’s inevitable punishment. After a warning, comes the
condemnation of the political and religious split from Judah, the alliances with foreign powers and finally
gods’ worship. As a wild ass wandering alone, Israel had no sense of what she was doing and nobody guided
her. So she had to go back to Egypt, i.e. to being oppressed again. Also Christians who like sin do renounce
their freedom to return to a condition of slavery.
Hos 11:1-11: This is one of the high points of the OT revelation of God’s fatherhood, which especially
prepared for Jesus’ message. As a parent loved a child so too the Lord loved Israel intimately and
persistently from the beginning, when she was a young nation in bondage. He taught his people to walk and
led them by love, not by whips. But the Israelites were like a lost son, who the more the father called him,
the more he went away. Reflections about Israel’s perpetual indifference to her privilege give way to an
impassioned proclamation of love. Though Hosea depicts God as a loving father, he does not reduce him to a
man: the Holy One’s love is perfect: he cannot stop loving since love is his very nature.
Hos 13:1-16: These judgment sayings emphasis that Israel has to wait the last punishment, death,
instead of simple defeat and exile, for Hosea's efforts to have the people realising their situation have failed.
Hos 14:1-9: The book closes on a note of hope, based on the certainty that God will not cease to love his
people. This proclamation has two parts: the prophet’s summons to return to God (2-4), and God’s
37
answering promise (5-9). 9). Hosea used a similar structure in 6:1-3,
6:1 3, where true repentance was lacking; here
it is serious and will cause humans' reconciliation with God and nature.

◊ Study questions:
1. “I desire steadfast love and not sacrifice”. These words pronounced by Hosea were used several times by
Jesus to reply Pharisees’ criticism against him. Interpret their meaning and then, considering today
Christians’ attitudes, say if we have to learn again the message brought by them.
2. Write at least five points to support the validity of Hosea’s marriage to a prostitute.
3. In relation to Hosea’s book, how can a Christian couple ensure a successful marriage in the contemporary
society? What dangers may it face if they do like Hosea and Gomer?
4. God ordered Hosea to marry a harlot and have children of harlotry (Hos 1:2). In two points, show the
importancece for Hosea to have such kind of family; then explain three dangers which can face families having
a marriage of such
uch kind in our modern society.

THE BOOK OF ISAIAH:

FAITH AND HISTORY

◊ Who was Isaiah? ISAIAH’S TWO SONS

Isaiah was born in about 765 BC of a Jerusalem Shearjashub = A remnant will return
upper-class
class priestly family and was highly Mahershalalhashbaz = Quick spoils, speedy plunder
educated. His wife is called prophetess and his two
sons had symbolic names. He was very influent
influential
ial in the kings’ palace as their advisor. His long ministry in
and around the holy city extended over about forty of fifty years under the ever increasing threat by
Assyria and its plans for world empire. At first he was mostly worried with the moral corruption
corru resulting
from prosperity. Then he tried in vain to discourage the young King Ahaz from following human means to
confront Damascus’ and Samaria’s alliance ag against him. Afterwards,, under the pious King Hezekiah, Isaiah
pleaded time and again for trust in God, not in a military alliance with Egypt and other states
states. Finally, when
Assyria ravaged Palestine against the regional revolt
revolt, Isaiah supported this king’s resistance, assuring him of
God’s help, and the capital was in fact saved. We know just a little about him after this
success, but according to Jewish tradition, he was killed under King Manasseh
Manasseh,, the worst
descendant of David.

◊ What was Isaiah’s revelation?

In about 740 BC he received his prophetic call while in the temple. The powerful
vision he had there left a lasting mark on him and influenced all his teaching (like
Paul’s vision near Damascus would mark him forever). It was a revelation of God’s
transcendence, holiness and majestic pow power. In the light of these awesome
attributes, he became painfully aware of humans’ sinfulness and total dependence on
God, that everything was under hiss wise and powerful control, including the mighty foreign
nations. He was the prophet of faith: in times of crisis all he prescribed is trust in God
and in no one else. For him it was a sign of weak faith on the part of Israel to go looking
for help from Egypt or Assyria. Only the Lord could provide protection. Relying on human
resources was based on pride, thehe principal sin against God’s rule over history. He has a
plan which he carries out with supreme wisdom and power. All human plans to the
contrary are hopeless. The oppression of the poor was also against God’s holiness:
that is why Isaiah preached so strongly
ongly against social injustice as to reclaim sincerity in Isaiah’s call.
divine worship.

◊ What is the prophet Isaiah best known for?

The prominent part played by Isaiah in his country’s affairs made him a national figure, but he was also
a gifted poet. Brilliant style and fresh imagery made his work the finest in the biblical literature.
However, his greatness lied above all in the religious order. Although his prophecies were mainly threats
against Israel and Judah for unfaithfulness, he was the greatest
reatest messianic prophet, announcing that a
descendant of David would eventually come and rule over the remnant of the people who would be
spared God’s punishment. He would establish peace and justice on earth and spread the knowledge of God.

◊ What three e distinct periods in Israel’s history does Isaiah’s book cover?
Such a religious genius inevitably marked his time and produced disciples, who preserved his sayings and
added to them. His book is the result of a long process of composition, putting togeth together
er various collections.
It covers three distinct periods in Israel’s history. The first part (Isa 1-39) 39) contains mainly what belongs
to Isaiah himself; the second (Isa 40 40-55)
55) is attributed to a different person, referred to as Second Isaiah,
who prophesied toward the end of the Babylonian exile; the last (Isa 56-66) 56 is named Third Isaiah and
comes from a prophet who inherited Isaiah’s and Second Isaiah’s spirit and religious outlook for a new
situation,, that which followed the exile
exile.

◊ How does Isaiah’s message

ssage must be complemented?
Isaiah’s call showed him that, although the Lord revealed himself, he still remained far off. This concept
of the all holy and transcendent God is found in practically all African traditional religions. That
T is why our
people usually didn’t
n’t approach him directly but through ancestors and other mediators. This belief must be
balanced and enriched by the experience that it is God who always makes the first move in our
life, without being hindered by our imperfections. It is Jesus’ teaching that God is a loving Father close to
us, whom we can approach in prayer without fear. We are called to share the joy of knowing we are chosen
and saved by his mercy, so as to be free and strong for witnessing that faith gives us a new direction.

◊ Who was another prophet contemporary to Isaiah?

At Hosea and Isaiah’s time, Micah, too, attacked the corruption that was destroying Israelite society, the
greed of wealthy and powerful, the venality of priests and prophets, the dishonesty of merchants and the
worship of pagan gods. He claimed that the nation’s evils were centred in the capital cities, Samaria
and Jerusalem, which were especially liable to God’s punishment. Only after that would restoration come
about: Jerusalem would become the religious centre of the world and Bethlehem would give birth to a
greater David who would rule over all of God’s people. Micah saw such a glorious future for Israel.

◊ A help to read the text:

Isa 6:1-13: Isaiah narrates how he was made a prophet though aware of his unworthiness. He saw God
as king, yet not as a nationalistic god, since his sway extends throughout the earth and his hand falls heavily
upon his own people. This point was important in those years’ international crisis. The vision of the Lord’s
holiness (i.e. transcendence and otherness) qualified Isaiah to speak of him, and the lips’ cleansing prepared
him for the commission to do so, though only few would listen to his message. God is not frightened off by
human sin: he can purify people to make them fit to transmit his message. Isaiah found that, by entrusting
himself to the Lord’s hands, his whole life was transformed. But Israel’s
failure to convert would be the result of refusing to hear the Lord’s word and
to see what he is about to do. All the same Isaiah had to prophesy until there
would be nobody more. Today’s preachers are required the same persistence,
despite peoples’ refuse to convert.
Isa 1:1-31: This chapter introduce the whole book by collecting
statements from various times in Isaiah’s ministry as to summarise his
teachings.
Isa 2:2-4: When Isaiah uttered this words, Jerusalem was in danger of
being destroyed. He however promised three things: the city would become
the centre of interest of the whole world, people without number would come
Isaiah’s words written on a wall there to know the Lord's word, universal peace would be the fruit of
of United Nations’ practising it. Isaiah shows the difference between his days, when God’s law
headquarters in New York. was rejected even by his own people, and the ideal future, when it will be
accepted by all nations and cause permanent peace. Christians see this
prophecy’s realisation starting in Jesus, who founded this new era. But it is like a little child, needing to grow
with our collaboration.
Isa 5:1-24: This skilful song of the Lord’s vineyard hints at unanswered love, contrasts the care he
lavished with his people’s sinful response (social crimes), and speaks of judgment to come. The owner is
God; the valuable vines are the Israelites rescued from Egypt and transplanted in the good land of Canaan;
the removed stones are the nations that previously inhabited it; the expected fruits are the good works God
demands from his people: faithfulness to the covenant, social justice and love for the poor. The Church in
Africa too is like a tree planted by the Lord. After many years of Christianity how is it possible that so many
kinds of injustices are practised by Christians and even by their leaders? The following six woes may be
directed against the same group as the allegory (i.e. the court officials responsible for administrating the
justice and advising the king about policy) or against enemies of social justice, large land-owners who grab
land unjustly, food-lovers, the Lord's ridiculers, distorters of justice and cunning manipulators.
UNDER KING AHAZ
2Kgs 16:1-9: The evil King Ahaz is presented as a negative foil for his exemplary successor, Hezekiah.
Ahaz could not depend and trust on God, but turned to other gods. Even today a person who is not in right
relationship with the Lord, does go to other powers like witchcraft for help in facing problems.
Isa 7:1-17: Here we read about two meetings between Isaiah and Ahaz in the context of the attack by
Syria (Aram) and Israel (Ephraim) on Judah to force it into a coalition against Assyria. In both cases Ahaz,
terrified by the danger, did reject Isaiah’s prophecy of hope and submit to this last country, whose king
really moved against the first two, but also turned from defender to conqueror of Judah. As foreseen by
Isaiah, Ahaz had to suffer great humiliations and to pay heavy tributes. For he refused to ask any sign, God
gave it no longer to persuade him, but to confirm in the future the truth of the prophet’s words. It was a
child promised to guarantee the continuity of David’s dynasty and for this reason called Immanuel (= “With
us is God”). The promise perhaps was fulfilled first with the birth of Hezekiah, a good king who represented
God among his people, but especially with the birth of Jesus, the true God with us.
Isa 8:23-9:7: Within months, Assyria occupied Galilee, the northernmost part of Israel, and deported the
first tribes (Zebulun and Naphtali). Isaiah prophesied however that it would be the first part to see God’s
salvation. Then he described Immanuel and the liberation his coming would cause. He is the Lord’s gift to his
people, is of kingly house, and has four titles, each of which is too much honorific for a human leader and is
related to God. It was the Lord’s zeal that would do this in Jesus, as Matthew’s gospel remarks.
Isa 10:5-16: Assyria, unaware agent of God’s will, has to be punished because guilty of exceeding his
commission and of pride. When the Lord finished using her as his instrument against his people, he would
turn against her as fire which consume a forest.
Isa 11:1-16: This statement agrees with many elements of Isaiah’s thought (including interest in David’s
line, Jerusalem and wisdom) and denotes a going back to the charismatic tradition so long an ideal in Israel.
The prophet worked with different kings and saw how they failed. Ahaz’s son too didn’t meet all the
expectations of Isaiah, who therefore projected his hopes in a future king from Jesse’s stump empowered by
the Lord’s Spirit and his multiple gifts to fulfil a mission otherwise beyond his forces. Under him perfect
justice would lead to perfect peace and harmony in the whole of creation (depicted as a new paradise). Then
he would be a rallying point for all the nations. This stress on harmony touches on today situation, calling
leaders to rule with justice and wisdom and to be peace-makers. Africa's obvious collapse is due not only to
foreign exploitation, but also to its own inadequate leadership. The Church should be a model to civil rulers
showing a governance which is not wealth-orientated but is a service, especially to the poor.
2Kgs 17:1-41: The definitive loss of the northern
The Samaritans emerged as a people after
tribes was a key turning point of the nation’s history.
the Assyrians’ conquest of the North Kingdom.
Israel fell first, not only because she grew politically
Assyria’s policy was to move the subject tribes
and militarily weak, but for being the most corrupt.
into other regions of its empire in order to
Her sister Judah, however, tough shocked by the
dissolve their identity. The Mesopotamians
event, didn't learn the lesson as she was supposed to
transferred to Samaria intermarried with the
do; so she also faced destruction and exile. This
Israelites left behind. When Jews returned from
important chapter focuses not so much on the event
Babylon and started to rebuild the Temple, they
itself, which is too much simplified, as on its decisive
refused these Samaritans’ help. So this mixed
reasons according to Deuteronomy. It also points to
population organized their own religion as
the following religious development in that territory,
alternative to the Jews’ one. Until today they do
which caused permanent contrast between the Jews
accept only the Pentateuch and Mount Gerizim is
and the mixed people emerged there, not longer
their only place of worship. The NT shows how
called Israelites but Samaritans, like the land itself
most of them believed in Jesus.
was called Samaria instead of Israel.
THE KINGDOM OF JUDAH ON ITS OWN UNDER KINGS HEZEKIAH AND MANASSEH
2Kgs 18:1-8: Hezekiah’s presentation highlights the differences between him and his father. He receives
full praise as another David (the standard against whom the historical books measure all kings) because his
reform stressed centralisation of worship in Jerusalem’s temple. Yet it was guided by other motives
(religious unity reinforced social and political unity). His far-reaching building program was also linked to
military aspirations.
2Kgs 20:1-11: This incident shows God’s readiness to reverse previous notices in light of the human
response, like the prayer Hezekiah made in his own behalf claiming to be blameless. He asked so because
he believed God's reward or punishment were to be got during earthly life, being it the only one. But we
Christians wait for the eternal one and believe it is God's grace which makes us deserve what we cannot
deserve. Isaiah functioning as a doctor is the only case of a classical prophet engaging in miracles in Elijah
and Elisha's style. The king’s request of a confirmatory sign was not rebuked by the prophet, in contrast with
his father’s refusal to ask it: then, asking for signs is not necessarily a mark of disbelief, just as refusing to
ask them can be an expression of unbelief.
2Kgs 20:12-19: Babylonian King Merodach-Baladan, a serious threat to Assyrians’ domination, tried to
involve Judah in a coalition against them. Pleased by this attention, Hezekiah wanted to show he had much
to offer as an ally. His forgetfulness of God as the only source of security caused a corresponding
punishment: in 597 and 586 BC everything he was so willing to display to the Babylonians would go to them
and his offspring would end up as their servants. We should be careful in disclosing our treasures, even the
spiritual one, to everybody. Hezekiah accepted God’s decree without trying any appeal neither in person, nor
through Isaiah: his resignation evokes Judah’s final years, when intercession was not even attempted in
front of God’s decision to destroy Jerusalem.
2Kgs 18:13-19:37: This long account of Hezekiah’s Assyrian crisis is introduced by a summary about
his submission to the enemy advancing against him. Very different are two parallel sequences which follow,
each consisting of military challenge, heavenly response, and notice of its realization. Hezekiah appealed to
God directly in Solomon's temple, begging him to show that he was not a powerless, unreal divinity. The
response came through Isaiah as a lengthy poetic judgment against the Assyrians, who boasted thinking the
Lord was weak like the gods of all the nations they previously conquered, without knowing they were only
his instrument. In our own life, where do we take our problems? Let's follow Hezekiah in praising the living
God and asking him to help us in difficult situations. But we should remember to go before him in sackcloth,
i.e. repenting our sins.
2Kgs 21:1-26: Judah faced many years of subjection to Assyria under the long reign of Manasseh, who
undid his father’s reforms, corrupted the temple itself, restored idolatry, divination and human sacrifices,
and shed very much innocent blood. The charges against him as the Jeroboam of Judah are similar to those
against Israel in chapter 17, implicating that the southern kingdom faces the same doom. Nameless
prophets help us to understand Judah’s remaining history. Their judgment fixed it, though its realization
would take almost a century. The situation didn’t change in the brief reign of Manasseh’s son, Amon. When
his servants killed him, it was again the people to make king a descendant of David, the eight-year-old
Josiah.

◊ Study questions:
1. Compare Isaiah’s call and answer with those of today’s Christians.
2. Isaiah can be called “Holiness’ prophet”. By giving eight points, explain how the concept of Holiness
characterises his call and prophecy.
3. "We will eat our own bread and wear our own clothes, only let us be called by your name; take away our
40
reproach" (Isa 4:1). What is the main issue Isaiah presents in the context of this statement by women? Give
at least five examples of other extremes of humiliation they experience in the modern context.
4. In Isa 5:1-7 7 there is a parable (or song) of God’s vineyard. Describe it by giving three arguments and
then interpret it by giving three points. Finally, explain how it can be appl
applied
ied today by giving four points.
5. Isaiah 7-8 8 narrates the signs given by God in relation to the war by Syria and Israel against Judah.
Explain them and their importance for us Christians.
6. In times of crisis people can get confused. God sent Prophet Isaiah
Isaiah together whit his son Shear-Jashub
Shear to
assure King Ahaz that his enemies’ plans would not be materialised. What was the national crisis that faced
this King and how did he react to Isaiah’s message? What should political leaders do when facing critical
situations?
7. Explain five evils committed by the people of Judah which Prophet Isaiah denounced and then relate them
to what is happening in our societies today.

THE BOOK OF JEREMIAH:

THE KIND PROPHET SENT TO ROOT UP AND TEAR DOWN

◊ Who was the first writing prophet of the 7th century BC?
The last decades of Judah’s kingdom were among the most troubled times in the ancient Near
East, with the fall of the great Assyrian Empire and the rise of an even greater Babylonian Empire which
ended David’s monarchy.. Such phase required a continual flow of light from God through his
messengers: the first was Zephaniah. Judah’s sins had arrived to a peak under the kings Manasseh and
Amon, who adopted the worship of their overlords, the Assyrians, even setting up idols idol in Jerusalem’s
temple. Almost all followed them until the first years of King Josiah. Zephaniah’s answer was to proclaim the
coming of the Lord’s Day of judgment, but he concluded promising restoration for those who repent.
Because destruction was reserved ed for rebels and proud, its effect would be cleansing and formation of a
people very much smaller, but pleasing to God. A humble and lowly remnant would be saved. This
teaching started the spirituality of the Lord’s poor, which reached its height in Jesus’ beatitudes.

◊ Who was Jeremiah

Jeremiah?
We know Jeremiah more than any other OT prophet, for his message
mingled with his personality: he spoke from his very life, what he did,
experienced and felt. Born of a priestly family from
rom Anathoth, a village near
Jerusalem, he was very affective, a feature not well matched with the
difficult mission he received while still a young man (around 626 BC). But he
knew the duty God expected him to perform, so during his more than forty
years of ministry, he never tired of reminding the people of their covenant
commitments, warning the incompetent kings that their unfaithfulness
would bring God’s punishment on the whole nation.

◊ What troubles do Jeremiah’s Confessions witness to?

Jeremiah didn’t want his people to suffer God’s punishment. He thus faced a
dilemma: it was difficult for him to threat punishment, but keeping
Jeremiah was the most silence would mean certainty of it. The so called Confessions of Jeremiah
troubled OT prophet. form a moving witness to the inner crises he experienced as a meek
prophet called to root up and tear down. Patriotism is costly: one suffers
either from foreigners or from one’s people. Jeremiah identified himself with th his peopl
people and suffered
most from them who refused to hear the message of doom, though it was true. Kings, priests, false
prophets and the population in general - all rejected his warnings and even physically harassed him. So, this
man of peace was almost st ever at war: no other OT prophet suffered so much. The only years of serenity for
him were those of Josiah’s religious reform which followed the discovery of a book of the Law in the temple
(622 BC). It stopped ed with the king’s tragic death (609 BC) whic
whichh was a great blow to the faithful: why
should someone who trusted in God meet such a lamentable end?

◊ How were Jeremiah’s sufferings not in vain?

Jeremiah’s inner and outer sufferings helped his spiritual growth by cleansing and opening up his
whole being to God. So he started a new style of prophecy, based on dialogue with God, where he did
struggle with him, search, plead, pray, curse etc. His words are very direct and acute in stating the nature of
Israel's faith and in denouncing several deviations. He understood that a true conversion was humanly
impossible; God himself had to change the heart hearts: only then could the new covenant bind forever the
people to him. This prophecy was a reality he experienced in his relationship with God through a truly
inward religion. This is why his spirituality is so appealing to Christians.

◊ What did Jeremiah eventually do?

After the fall of Jerusalem (586 BC) and its people’s deportation, with women raped, small children
dashed d against the rock, warriors impaled or burnt alive, eyes gouged out and heads cut off, Jeremiah
stayed behind, but he saw clearly that the hope rested in those gone into exile. After the murder of his
friend Gedaliah, appointed governor of Judah by the Ba
Babylonians,
bylonians, a number of Jews fled to Egypt, taking
Jeremiah with them by force. He spent the rest of his life there, where the tradition says he was killed by
his fellow Jews.
◊ Why was Jeremiah Jesus’ best anticipation?
Jeremiah was Jesus’ best anticipation by his life of celibacy and suffering in God's service. It may
have inspired the servant's description in Isa 53. Humanly speaking his mission was a total failure in his
lifetime, but his legacy was appreciated after he died. When events proved him right, his message was
remembered. Thanks to him, the people who endured catastrophe could make sense of it,
enduring the exile in faith and hope by seeing the good effect that their dramatic events might
have: to be occasions for discovering God’s love that invited them to a new life. The persistence of
his influence shows that his work and words must often have been studied, meditated and interpreted. His
spiritual children’s contribution can be seen in the book’s composition, which must have undergone many
stages, for it has many doublets and lacks chronological order, while the Greek version is one-eighth shorter
than the Hebrew text.

◊ How can Jeremiah be an inspiration and a challenge for Africans today?

Today's Africa needs, both in civil society and in the Church, true leaders who fully identify
themselves with their people. This kind of persons has not marked a lot Africa’s recent history. Jeremiah,
with his genuine patriotism and his firm commitment to his mission, should be an inspiration and a
challenge for the people of our continent, where he shed his blood for having loved his people to the end.
Love is expressed more by actions than by words. Do we love our people or are they still something
anonymous that does not involve us, something remote that I am not committed to? Do we really love our
country, the community which we are trying to build, or do we love it only in the abstract, in theory? Do we
see a university degree as synonymous with more money or higher status in the society? Or is our education
a mark of greater responsibility in the face of today’s problems, the need of the poor, concern for the
environment?

◊ Who were Jeremiah’s other contemporary writing prophets?

After almost three centuries of Assyrians’ terrible dominion, their capital city was destroyed by
Babylonians (612 BC) to its many victims’ common joy. Nahum, a poet of great skill, cheered at this
imminent ruin of Nineveh as the act of a just God ruling nations’ affairs and faithful to his own people.
His prophecy raised Israel’s human hopes, but they were short lived, for Jerusalem’s fall followed close.
Another contemporary, Habakkuk, prophesied after the Babylonians got control of the entire Near East
but before they sacked Jerusalem in 597 BC. His problem was: why does God punish his people through
a worst people? He had no complete answer, but his dialogue with God made an important and original
contribution which has retained its validity: that even in silence God does continue to direct history to
what he has determined for it. So the good people must hold fast to their faith in him, for it will receive the
reward of life. While oppressed, the just lives by faith. Paul gave this teaching a top place.

◊ A help to read the text:

UNDER KING JOSIAH
Jer 1:1-19: After the introduction we find a dialogue between God and the hesitant young Jeremiah and
his two early visions: a rod of almond and a boiling pot. The dialogue, which will continue throughout his life,
bears mainly on the personal effects of his prophetic call, while the visions insist on his mission’s object.
Jeremiah's vocation is a deep experience narrated like other appointments by God which stem from a
mysterious encounter with him. Every Christian is called to be a prophet; but at times we are afraid to speak
out the truth, to denounce injustices and behaviours contrary to the gospel within the Church too.
Jer 2:1-13,20-25: In a lawsuit, northern Israel is compared to a stubborn ass for neglecting God's
covenant. More clearly than any other prophet, Jeremiah preached its breaks and God's decision to remake
it. Amid many images about the enormity of evil within the nation, not even found among pagans, is this of
God as the source of living water in contrast to the false gods that are but broken cisterns.
Jer 3:1-5,19-4:2: This section works out the conditions for a settlement with God. Its unity is maintained
through the constant use of the key word “to return”, which in religion evokes both aversion from sin and
conversion to the right. The Lord ask Israel if she could return to her husband after playing harlotry with
many lovers. This is legally impossible, but comes through sincere repentance and by God's mercy, a
situation which creates a new spirit in the people.
Jer 4:3-8,13-31: Here starts a long poem about Judah’s punishment through a fast invasion. In order to
avoid the final judgment already at work, Jeremiah invites the people to conversion. It requires much more
than the restoration of forsaken practices: presenting it as heart’s circumcision, he proclaims the primacy of
inner dispositions over the exterior ones, for the heart is seen as the seat of intelligence and will. Jeremiah
shares in the suffering of his people he has to condemn and prays for them.
2Kgs 22:8-23:4,21-30: This book’s account of Judah’s last important king is centred on year 621, when
some form of Deuteronomy was discovered in the temple. Josiah only seems to have appreciated its import.
He consulted God through the prophetess Huldah and ordered its public reading and the following pledge of
fidelity. The whole reform climaxed in a national celebration of Passover in Jerusalem. It failed because it
depended on Josiah’s action and didn’t penetrate the people’s spirit. Despite all his good deeds, he died in
battle so that under his unable sons the previous divine words against Judah might become true.
UNDER KING JEHOIAKIM
Jer 7:1-28: These different sayings on related matters – temple and worship – were proclaimed under
King Jehoiakim, Josiah’s son. The people thought in a magical way that the lodging of the Ark of the
Covenant, God’s throne, could not fall to the enemy; for the same reason, the whole country would be safe
42
though they kept doing anything evil. Jeremiah told them this hoped protection was conditional: first the
covenant’s moral prescriptions would be followed. External practices and sacrifices had no value if not
informed by a sincere devotion. To confirm his words he dared to report the destruction of Shiloh, Israel’s
main temple under the Judges. Applying this example to us, it is not enough to be baptized, to pray or to
faithfully observe the Lord's day. More important is to practise what we celebrated in our churches, lest they
be changed into hiding place for evil doers, like Jesus himself said in the temple quoting Jeremiah’s words.
Jer 26:1-24: Jeremiah’s temple speech caused a general scandal and a charge against him. Defending
himself, the prophet said he was sent: the words were not his but God’s. For them he was ready to suffer
anything like every true prophet. But the civil leaders stood against the religious authorities that required a
death penalty. They argued that a century before, the reaction to Micah’s similar words was totally different,
guiding to Hezekiah’s religious reform and Jerusalem’s salvation. The prophet Uriah’s killing shows the
danger from which Jeremiah escaped. May be the Jews did not consider these OT parallels when they
charged Jesus of blasphemy for his prophecy about the temple’s destruction and then wanted him to be
killed asking his innocent blood to be upon themselves.
Jer 11:18-12:6: God revealed to the prophet a plot by his relatives against his life. The shock urged him
to reflect on his mission and on existence’s meaning. In face of his unjust sufferings he uttered the first
“confession” out of six. In it he asked God why would the wicked prosper and the righteous suffer, in
contrast with OT theology. He saw himself as a gentle lamb led to slaughter, an image eventually used for
Jesus.
Jer 12:7-13: God’s lament about Judah been ruined by a recent invasion (commissioned by Babylon’s
king to neighbouring nations) expresses his sorrow for punishing a people he loved so much.
Jer 13:1-11: This may be an allegory or a symbolic action, like many others by prophets. Its meaning is
clear: the prophet is God himself; the rotten loincloth represents his people; the corruption by Euphrates’
waters symbolizes the consequence of alliances with Mesopotamia as a betrayal of the covenant with God.
Jer 14:17-22: A war is crushing Judah, personified as a girl mortally wounded. Her plague’s description is
followed by a collective lament.
Jer 15:10-21: God answers a new complaint by Jeremiah renewing his call and mission once he has
overcome the inner crisis caused by his loneliness. Whatever one feels can become an object of prayer, as
shown by the prophet's very special way to address the Lord, which may sound as contempt. God
understood him, but reminded him that at his call he did not promise him that he would not meet
opposition, but that he would always support him. Jeremiah was urged to return, because he went too far.
We find here the definition of prophet as one in whose mouth God has placed his own words for the people.
Jer 16:1-15: The prophet delivers God’s word not only through symbolic actions but also through his life,
as Jeremiah’s celibacy which was a public curiosity. It could not have been his personal choice, but an order
from his Lord in order to dramatise that the existing families would disappear violently. Moreover the
prophet had to participate neither in mourning nor in feasts, because soon there would be no such social
events among the Jews.
Jer 17:5-10: Two sayings, on true justice and on the human hearth as the root of evil, uphold the
interior’s primacy in religious life.
Jer 18:1-20: This chapter and the following two refer to the prophetic meaning of some experiences of
Jeremiah with two new confessions. First a visit to the potter’s enlightens him about how God works with his
people considering their free will and being ready to change curse in blessing and vice-versa. But the
prophet has no hope for their salvation, because their evil hearts block the way of conversion. The following
prophecy of doom borrows from nature some examples to explain how abnormal idolatry is for God’s people.
Jer 19:1-5,10-20:6: Another symbolic act shows the prophetic word’s dynamism. Crushing a flask was
supposed to bring about the destruction of those whose names were written on it. However it was not a
magic action because God alone would realise the curse. The narrative is upset by terrible prophecies on
Topheth (i.e. fireplace). The priest Pashhur tries to overcome the prophet's action, but he, filled with God's
strength, proclaims his word even more forcefully.
Jer 20:7-18: Jeremiah’s precedent dispute caused his most dramatic interior crisis, as expressed in his
last two confessions, where he first accuses God of deceiving him and curses his own birthday. This proves
that his prophetic call and mission were not simply human experiences. In the midst of constant, strong
contradictions, however, he keeps faith in God's loyalty, becoming an example to all those called by him to
carry out a special mission.
Jer 25:15-17,27-38: Eventually, Jeremiah does act as “prophet to the nations” according to his call’s
words: in the vision of the cup of wrath God’s punishment extends to the whole world, though it start with
his own city.
Jer 36:1-10,21-32: His prophetic authority, once recognized, was progressively rejected by the people
and all levels of officials, including the king. This chapter about the scroll of year 605-604 is almost a film of
the scene. Jehoiakim tried to disable Jeremiah’s written prophecies by cutting and destroying them in the
fire. His scorn contrasted his father’s response at the reading of the Book of the Law. But at the prophet’s
dictation, Baruch wrote again the scroll adding a new statement against the king.
UNDER KING ZEDEKIAH
2Kgs 24:1-17: The first Babylonian siege of Jerusalem began late in 598. During it Jehoiakim’s death left
his son Jehoiachin to save the city by surrendering it in March 597. The winners removed to Babylon Judah’s
whole leadership in order to break any resistance, and installed as king Zedekiah, Josiah’s other son, who
promised submission. What followed were ten years of madness, following false prophets’ illusions.
Jer 22:10-23:8 The verses against three of the last kings of Judah reveal the main causes of the
imminent final disaster. But when we would expect to read a prophecy against Zedekiah, the last king,
43
Jeremiah changes the perspective and proclaims a new era. Like earlier prophets, he predicts the restoration
of David’s dynasty, not so much on political grounds as on the level of the Covenant’s religious and moral
obligations. The future king’s name e is a word
word-play on Zedekiah’s.
Jer 23:9-17,21-29: After the kings, Jeremiah attacks again the prophets, another class of leaders who
have done wrong in order to please the people. His statements show the main criteria to identify the
authentic transmitter of God’s word. A prophetic appeal is first of all a call to conversion.
Jer 24:1-10: This vision of two baskets of figs has the usual structure:: the vision itself, a questi question from
God, the prophetic meaning. Many any thought that the deported obviously were greater sinners than those
remained in the Holy Land. Surprisingly, the exiles of 597 are those who will form the new Israel, while
Zedekiah and the others who remained at ho home
me are condemned as bad offerings. Exile is an appeal to
conversion: it is there that God change his p people's hearts.
Jer 27:1-20: Through the new prophetic act of making thongs and yoke bars and putting them in his own
neck, Jeremiah tried to bring all Jews ws to submit to Nebuchadnezzar as planned by God. Revolting against
him as urged by false prophets would cause only death by sword, famine and pestilence. They hoped the
end of the exile would be near, but Jeremiah insisted that it would last an indefinite time.
Jer 28:1-17: Hananiah proclaimed his statement in true prophets’ style, but contrary to the message of
Jeremiah, whose answer attempted to discern true and false prophecy, demanding readiness to convey
God's word, even when it will not please the he hearers.
arers. With great conviction, Hananiah did a counter action to
nullify Jeremiah’s one: he broke the yoke to say victory and freedom would replace submission. Such
reaction left Jeremiah dumb, but after receiving God’s answer, he announced Hananiah’s death for speaking
on behalf of God without being sent. This prediction's fulfilment two months later showed Jeremiah to be the
true prophet.
Jer 29:1-14: Falsealse prophets announced in Babylon its domination’s imminent end. Then Jeremiah wrote a
letter to exhort the exiles to settle in that foreign land and to work for its welfare, because they would
remain there for a long period. But their future would be bet better
ter than that of those left in Judah. His advice
meant God could be worshiped in Babylon too, and he could protect his people even outside the Holy Land.
Jeremiah had to prophesy once more these prophets’ terrible punishment.
2Kgs 24:17-25:2: Again at Egypt’s t’s urging, Zedekiah revolted against Babylon, causing Jerusalem’s final
siege from January 587 to the summer of 586 586,, with an interruption during the first summer.
summer
Jer 32:8-10,26-44: In those hardest times, when people saw no hope, Jeremiah prophesied in action
Judah’s future restoration through the purchasing of a field in his own village village. Iff he bought it in an occupied
section of the country, it was because one day he or his relatives would be able to use or sell it, it and the life
would continue as normal. The almighty Lord would confirm his everlasting covenant.
Jer 37:15-38:28: Jeremiah was put into prison by nationalists who did not accept his political realism and
saw him as a traitor. Time and again, however, King Zedekiah consulted him, but secretly, thus showing his
full character. He received the same answer from the Lord: Jerusalem would not avoid Babylon’s control.
Even if the kinging was sure of it, his fear of the officials prevented him from taking a personal decision. After
the prophet had pleaded not to be sent back to prison, he was
placed instead under house arrest. During Jerusalem’s last days
Jeremiah was also thrown into a muddy cistern, for the true power
was in officials’ hands. They wanted to cause his death without
bloodshed, but an African an noble saved him.
Jer 30:1-3,12-17; 31:7-14: These e two chapters concern hope
for northern Israel, with a later edition extended to Judah: God will
bring back his people to their land in dances and music and give
them unity and full prosperity. So they ha had to take positively their
punishment, for the Lord’s mercy would heal them.
Jer 31:31-34: These words are the top of the OT. It is the only
time that it names the “new covenant”, in contrast with Sinai’s,
when God’s law was written on stone tables. The heart h as writing The Jews leaving Jerusalem during its
material is Jeremiah’s creation: it means that humans' very inner destruction.
nature will be created anew with the power to fulfil God’s plan. The
effect of his decisive action (“I will put my law in them”) will be that “they shall all know me”: all wi will have
an intimate relationship with him which includes the practice of righteousness. By
forgiving their iniquity God will give his people a tendency to live in line with his
law. Jeremiah, however, doesn’t indicate the means by which God will produce
this
is change. Jesus sealed this new covenant in his own blood.
AFTER JERUSALEM'S DESTRUCTION
39:2-14: After Jerusalem was taken by the Babylonians, its houses and the
Jer 39:2
temple were set on fire, many surviving religious and civil leaders slain and other
deported, but Jeremiah was liberated and given the possibility of choosing his
sort, for he didn’t side with the nationalists. He however didn’t want to take
advantage of this freedom for his personal interests and decided to stay with his
suffering people.
people
42:1-16: After the killing of Gedaliah, Jew governor of Judah on behalf of
Jer 42:1
the Babylonians, tthe people’s remains asked Jeremiah what would they do, but
Jeremiah writing after their decision was already definitive. The ten days of God’s delay in answering
Jerusalem’s destruction. prove that true prophecy doesn’t depend on human insight.
43:4-7: Jeremiah’s life was a tragedy to the end. After seeing his mortally
Jer 43:4 mortall
wounded country he was forced to go in Egypt where he would see and blame the undying idolatry of his
people.

◊ Study questions:
1. When called by God, Jeremiah tried to refuse. Explain why most of the people in the Bible showed
unwillingness to answer similar calls and what the vocations’ situation is today.
2. Briefly explain what were the major themes connected with Jeremiah’s call and why he was seen as a
traitor by his fellow countrymen.
3. Compare Micaiah the son of Imla with Zedekiah the son of Chenaanah and his fellow 400 pseudo-
prophets. How can you use his story to discern today's true and false prophets?
4. At Passover the Israelites recall their redemption from Egypt. What was the importance of Josiah’s
renewed celebration of this feast, and what do we Christian celebrate at our own Passover?
5. Prophet Jeremiah helped King Josiah in his reforms, as any good citizen has to do. Briefly point out at
least ten reforms done by this king, and then mention at least five reforms done in our country’s history.
6. Why didn't Josiah's religious reform live on after his death? From that experience, what have we to learn
in trying a renewal of today Church?
7. Explain what Jeremiah’s confessions are. His sufferings cause our compassion, but also teach us. What do
you think can they offer to our Christian witness in the world?
8. Illustrate with biblical examples how Jeremiah related to at least three Kings of his time, and then give
two lessons which the Church’s leaders in Tanzania can learn from him as they relate to the State.
9. Describe Jeremiah's prophecy about the New Covenant giving at least five points. How do we Christians
understand them?
10. Through Jeremiah (ch. 31), God promised a new covenant. Show five differences between it and the
implied old covenant.
11. What lessons do you get from Jeremiah’s call and ministry?
12. Describe five prophetic symbols which Jeremiah applied in presenting his message.

THE BOOK OF EZEKIEL:

THE NEW SOCIETY ON GOD’S LAND

◊ Who was Ezekiel?

Ezekiel’s name occurs only three times in the Hebrew Bible.
Everything we know about him comes from his book. He was a
priest: this explain his special interest in God’s temple, covenant
and law. He was among about 8,000 prominent people of
Jerusalem taken as exiles together with King Jehoiachin when
Nebuchadnezzar captured it for the first time (597 BC). Babylon’s
environment shaped his prophetic ministry (about 592-570
BC). Like many exiles, he had a quite good standard of living and
in his house Judah’s elders used to meet. From there he preached
the message received from God for the exiles and for those
remained in Israel’s land. They thought the deportation would
end soon; so Zedekiah, their new king who had pledged loyalty to
Babylon, rebelled, causing another siege of Jerusalem (588 BC). Ezekiel’s call.
After two years the city and its temple were burned, and
Zedekiah, whose eyes had been put out, was also taken to exile with many more Jews. These most dramatic
events of the OT were what Jeremiah and Ezekiel had predicted, saying Judah’s first defeat was God’s
punishment, but an ever worse fate lied close at hand for those left in Jerusalem unless they repent instead
of considering themselves the covenant’s true faithful. After the holy city's destruction, Israel’s hope would
remain alive among the exiles, for God as the master of history could protect them in Mesopotamia as in
their homeland. He could be worshipped in that unclean land too.

◊ What did both prophets believe?

Ezekiel was familiar with Jeremiah’s prophecy, possibly even in a written form. Both believed God would
a deep faithfulness to his covenant under foreign rule rather than an independence war built on
human pride and political reasons. Both believed Babylon was an instrument of God’s justice and the exile
would purify the Israelites bringing them to a higher religious level. Moreover, both had the same
attitude to individual responsibility for guilt and to God’s love to restore the covenant in a new way.

◊ How did Ezekiel differ from other prophets?

Like other prophets, Ezekiel was called to urge faithfulness. Like Hosea and Jeremiah, he considered
covenant’s breaches as adultery and prostitution. He developed certain traditional themes: a) God’s lordship
over all nations and events; b) his holiness (transcendence); c) the insistence on both moral and cultic
integrity; d) the conviction that God will restore Israel out of a totally free gift of grace. But he was unique
in the way he expressed God’s will for his people, combining prose and poetry, wordy sermonizing and
dramatic presentation, prophetic statements and legal reflections, detailed historical descriptions and highly
imaginative allusions, strange symbolic actions and allegories, sober judgments and wild visions. This led to
great wealth of material and breadth of thought. Though Ezekiel is the most clearly organized among
the prophetic books, no other poses more questions than it does; we have barely begun to understand him.
◊ Why did Ezekiel’s message bring hope to the people?
In the exile, with no traditional institution (land, king, temple) to support Israelites’ faith, they
questioned, “Is God still with us here?” Ezekiel answered that God had not dumped them, so there
would be a new society on his land. With Jerusalem’s fall, Ezekiel turned from preaching doom to words
of hope. His book divides exactly into two halves: chapters 1-24 contain words of judgment against Israel,
but 25-48 propose a strong religious concept of Israel as God’s obedient community, whether
politically independent or not. For this reason Ezekiel is often seen as the father of modern Judaism,
which stresses the study of Torah instead of sacrifices. The pledge of a new heart and new spirit are a
high point of his view of salvation based only on God’s grace, who promises to restore and renew his
people, not because they deserve it but for the sake of his own name. To a crushed, deported and
demoralized people, Ezekiel’s third vision announces the resurrection which God's Spirit will give them
who, like dry bones, have no more hope of living. This promise will include the whole Israel, by cancelling
the division caused by her leaders' thirst for power and riches. The reunion of her two parts under a new
David will become witness of God's plan of love for all humans. Afterwards he describes a river of fresh
water flowing from the temple down to the Dead Sea, where it turns the lifeless salt waters into a place
where fish abound and trees grow in large quantities on the shores. This top vision expressing God’s
miraculous life-giving power inspired John's description of the living water issuing from the throne of God
and of the Lamb.
EZEKIEL’S FOUR VISIONS
◊ Why was Ezekiel primarily a visionary? 1-3: God’s glory and living creatures, meaning that he acts
Like many other prophets, Ezekiel in the whole world in every human sphere.
marked his messages as received from 8-11: Temple’s end caused by horrible worship in it.
God by the usual formulas, “The word of 37: The dry bones, meaning that God acts to restore life.
the Lord came to me saying… So says the 40-48: The stream from the new temple, meaning that God
Lord… Statement of the Lord…” However, will establish a new relationship with his people.
as it was with Elijah and Elisha, he mostly
presented God’s message in action by the formula, “The hand of the Lord was upon me…” followed
immediately with his effect. Ezekiel received many prophecies in trance, seized by the “spirit” and by “the
hand of the Lord”. He is identified as prophet of the Spirit of God for his frequent use of this characteristic
term. In contrast with the Spirit’s power, he is called by God “son of man” to stress his weakness and
dependence from the Lord. His book contains only four formal visions but these are an important part
of it and admit us to a fantastic world. They are the source of the apocalyptic tradition culminated in
John’s book of Revelation. Created in a painful time, this genre kept an air of suffering. It expressed a
certainty at the heart of this anguish: God would intervene at the end, when evil reaches its climax. In
contrast to his gift of pictorial imagination, applied also to his allegories, Ezekiel’s style is monotonous
and very poor when compared with the strong simplicity of Isaiah and the compelling warmth of Jeremiah.
His art excels in inspiring fear before God’s mysteries.

◊ What can suffering Africans learn from Ezekiel’s faith in God?

If we could view our people’s misery with Ezekiel’s faith, it could have the same purifying effect that he
foresaw for his fellow exiles. Suffering is never good in itself, but it can become an effective tool of salvation.
His vision of the dry bones’ valley may be the tragic picture of many African countries today, distressed by
wars, famine, AIDS and social evils. God’s Word and Spirit can restore life to them. But just as God used
Ezekiel to speak his life-giving word to the dry bones, he wants us to work to remove the evil and promote
life in all its dimensions. The prophet denounced Israel’s bad rulers who abused their office; then announced
God’s plan to care his flock himself as a good shepherd but also to appoint over them a new David
from his offspring. Ezekiel suggests so his expectation of the Messiah. We cannot help but thinking of today
leaders in Africa and elsewhere and hoping to get better ones. African Christians, notably Church leaders
and pastoral workers, must give witness first of all through their life style, which in fact is the truest
prophecy.

◊ What healthy balance can Ezekiel teach us Africans?

Ezekiel combined the role of prophet with that of priest, whose ruling interest was the temple. The result
was a healthy balance between external worship and heart’s religion. Community celebrations, so
meaningful to Africans, are good, but they should never exempt from a personal relationship with God.

◊ A help to read the text:

Eze 1:1-3:21: This introduction sets the book's major themes: the presence of God’s glory in the exile
events, the prophet's call to be a watchman who both sees ahead what God is about to do and stirs up the
people to respond, the accountability of each person for his actions, and the power of God’s word to act
despite the people’s refusal to listen. The scene shifts from the magnificent vision of God’s throne to an
emphasis on hearing: Ezekiel has to speak only what the Lord has said. Eventually his word will prevail on
human stubbornness.
Eze 5:1-4: After other three symbolic actions announcing the people’s impending punishment (the
drawing of Jerusalem’s siege on a brick, his laying on his left side 390 days, the bread made of mixed grains
and baked on human manure), this of shaving the beard (representing dignity) affirms the coming of God’s
sword to ruin Israel through a foreign power. It involves the threat of total degradation, with no part of the
people spared, and so causes the listeners to ask about the next events. The following three statements
46
answer what and why they will happen. All three use the formula “plague, famine and sword” to indicate the
ways in which the people would be killed; and all decisively state they come from God’s wrath.
Eze 5:5-17: The first statement is against Jerusalem. It was originally a special place for meeting God,
but its unfaithfulness has been total, so the punishment will be horrible, with parents eating their children.
Eze 8:1-11:25: These four chapters form a unity: the vision of the temple's end. God's presence cannot
continue among his people when they continue to rebel against him as Ezekiel is made to see. Chapter 8 is a
vision of idolatry and sin with a formal accusation of Israel. In chapter 9 God's sentence is carried out by
seven agents. Chapter 10 completes this judgment with God’s rejection of the temple and its worshippers:
his glory leaves Jerusalem so that the city may be destroyed. Finally, chapter 11 repeats the accusation but
ends with a prophecy of restoration for the exiles who become aware of their sins and repent. The Lord will
also grant them a new heart and a deep devotion to his plan in favour of all humans.
Eze 12:1-16: Because the people didn’t believe Ezekiel’s terrible forecast, he acted out the siege and
capture of Zedekiah and then explained his prophetic action.
Eze 13:1-16: This is the condemnation of prophets who proclaimed a trick message of hope: they spoke
not God’s will but the empty promises of security that people wanted to hear so to not have to convert.
Eze 14:12-23: This statement's heart is that nobody can be saved by another’s goodness; more
specifically, no past good deeds in Israel will save this unfaithful generation. If there are innocent ones
among them, only those will be spared. It's the important principle of individual responsibility.
Eze 16:1-63: This chapter, the longest in the book, involves two distinct but related allegories (the
adulterous wife and the three sinful sisters) followed by a word of hope which integrates the lesson of both.
The subject remains Jerusalem throughout, and the purpose is to make known its guilt in rejecting
obedience to God for other gods. He will let the foreign nations in which she trusted be his wrath’s
instrument against her for she was worse than Samaria and Sodom. But all the three will be restored.
Eze 17:1-24: This allegory of the eagles is followed by its interpretation and another allegory. The blend
of natural fables with historical judgments on the situation under Zedekiah allows Ezekiel to include the
promise of future restoration as possible. But both obstinate resistance to Babylon and alliance with Egypt
are only illusions. It is God, the master of history, who will grant in due time his people's rebirth.
Eze 18:1-32: Individual responsibility is treated in three stages: father, son and grandson; neither
righteousness nor iniquity will be transferred from one generation to another. A man who turned from
iniquity became upright, while who left his righteousness became guilty: the just God will judge accordingly.
Afterward Ezekiel takes up the case of the lot of those who repent, a problem made urgent by the preceding
arguments. While seemingly directed to evil done in the homeland, the message's audience is formed by the
exiles, and its purpose is to start a reform stressing personal adherence to the Torah even if there is neither
holy land nor defined community that can be held collectively responsible for its practice.
Eze 20:27-44: At the end of a remarkable indictment which charges the Israelites with unfaithfulness
even from their slavery in Egypt, God promises to renew the exodus and the purification in the desert. Then
he presents the plan for a new order in the holy land, when true worship and fidelity will be based in Israel’s
recognition that it was God who saved them out of the exile.
Eze 24:15-27: Ezekiel was forbidden to do any sign of grief at his wife’s death. This was a strong warning
to the people, who were not to mourn for Jerusalem's loss because it would deserve its punishment. Up to
that time the prophet would be dumb. When he would received news of the city's fall he could at last speak
freely and proclaim a new message.

◊ Study questions:
1. With at least seven examples from the Bible, explain why Ezekiel is called “prophet of God’s Spirit”.
2. In five points, discuss the issue of shared guilty and individual responsibility of one’s sins as presented by
Prophet Ezekiel.
3. “The fathers have eaten the sour grapes and the children’s teeth are set on edge”. Contextualize the
reasons why God through Ezekiel forbade this proverb.
4. Describe Ezekiel’s allegory of the faithless woman and relate it to our society.
5. Explain what Ezekiel’s vision of the dry bones (37:1-28) meant for his contemporary and what its
relevance is for us.

THE SECOND ISAIAH:

THE NEW EXODUS AND GOD’S SERVANT

◊ Who was the ‘Second Isaiah’, and what did he prophesy?

We call Second Isaiah a distant disciple of Isaiah, great prophet like him, who, toward the end of half
century of exile (starting in around 550 BC), consoled God’s oppressed and discouraged people. They
had lost everything: land, king and temple. Would they also lose their faith in God? According to
the traditional criteria, he could not compete with other gods, for a god who had no land and could not be
worshipped was not a god at all. Surprisingly, it was during this period that the Jews learned to understand
fully what was different and new about their God: that in fact he was not just the god of one people and one
land, but quite simply God, the Lord of the universe, to whom all heaven and earth belong; the God who has
no need of sacrifices of goats and bulls, but who is truly worshipped only trough right behaviour. The priests
presented the exiles once again with their traditions. But it was Second Isaiah’s chapters (Isa 40-55) to
clearly show this great theological development, teaching positively there is only one God, whose
wisdom and providence are immeasurable: nations’ gods are not gods at all as their impotence
demonstrates. These truths were presented in an exalted style and urgent rhythm, emphasising the
47
imminence of salvation. Second Isaiah’s Book of Consolation announced good news: Babylon’s imminent fall
and Israel’s liberation. To contrast Jerusalem’s past trials with its coming re-establishment, the prophet used
traditional imagery: the barren woman become fertile and the repudiated wife taken back. But more than
earlier prophets he stressed that she would be returned to favour, offering a vision of the future splendours.
He spoke of the coming restoration of Jerusalem in a new exodus that would be more glorious than the
first. It would be like a new creation, because only God’s power could accomplish it. His word is powerful
enough to change humans: it is like a messenger who doesn’t return until he has fulfilled his mission. So
strong was his faith in the God of history that he saw every event would contribute to Israel’s redemption.
He would even use pagan nations to save the Jews, and eventually unbelievers would become part of
his people in a universal unity expressed for the first time.

◊ What do his four ‘Songs of the Servant’ describe?

Worship’s spirit got new life through Second Isaiah’s hymns, laments, and proclamation of the Word. In
particular, he composed four special poems known as the Songs of the Servant, because they describe
a perfect God’s servant, greater than any single Israelite of the past, destined to preach the true faith, to be
a light to the nations, to bring back the scattered people, to expiate their sins by his death and to be
glorified by God. The first song (42:1-13) contrasts the Persian King Cyrus’ military advances and the
gentle servant’s peaceful means and then ends with a new song to God’s victory which the whole world
is called to join. The second (49:1-16) emphasises certain aspects of his duty: predestination, a mission not
only to Israel whom he is to re-gather, but also to the nations, to whom he must bring light, new and
streaking teaching to cause salvation. To this it adds mention of a failure, of his trust in God alone and of
a final triumph. Afterward it resumes the theme of the marvellous highway of the return to Jerusalem and
stresses God's maternal love: his richness cannot be expressed only through maleness. In the third (50:4-
9), the servant appears more like a sage, a faithful disciple of God, charged in his turn to teach God’s
fearers (i.e. all pious Jews, but also those who walk in darkness) using the gift of speech he has received
through his obedience to God's word. Thanks to his courage and God’s help, he will endure persecution
until his final triumph. The fourth (52:13-53:12), in dialogue form between God and the kings or the
peoples, again takes up the theme of suffering: the persecutions the Servant patiently endures scandalise
the viewers, but are in fact sins’ reparation. What in their eyes is failure, for God is success. Just because
the servant is the victim of hate, injustice and violence, he frees even his own persecutors from their
iniquities. We don't know who was the actual person the author was referring to, but some Jews interpreted
them as concerning the future Messiah, and finally Jesus identified himself as the Servant (Mt 12:17-
21). The whole Church tradition has seen this prophecy perfectly fulfilled in his Passover.

◊ How can Second Isaiah’s teachings be a message of hope for Africans today?
Africans conceive God as the all-powerful Being who controls nature as well as the future of
nations and individuals. This concept sometimes leads to resignation to luck, but rightly understood it is
close to Second Isaiah’s, meant as a message of hope in a difficult situation which doesn’t aim to
discourage human initiative and self-help. His teachings on God as creator, which refer not so much to
his initial act of creation as to Jerusalem’s renovation after the exile, can complement the strong African
belief in the Creator. In the widespread economic, social, political and religious chaos that many African
countries experience it is consoling to know that God’s power was not limited to the origins, but can
transform our contemporary world for the better. Even though Africans believe in one supreme Being,
some Christians do consult witch doctors if they don’t find solutions to their problems: it is here that the
prophet's inflexible monotheism is needed. Moreover, his universalism is fundamental for Africans,
because it calls us to overcome tribal oppositions, though our own traditions also forbid hate and
slaughter against other peoples.

◊ A help to read the text:

Isa 40:1-11: This advance of Second Isaiah’s Book of Consolation synthesises his message. It is a
joyous song for several voices announcing that the nation’s dependence is over. Verses 1-11 focus on the
glorious procession to Jerusalem about to take place under the leadership of God himself, presented as a
good shepherd. The long road linking Babylon to Jerusalem doesn’t cross the desert amid them, but skirts it
all the way. The mysterious voice, however, announces that the exiles will be returning to their fathers' land
across the desert, by a wide, flat and comfortable road. In the NT, John the Baptist identified himself with
this voice preparing the Lord’s coming, while Jesus did the same with the good shepherd.
Isa 40:12-31: These verses shift attention back to Babylon and the exiles, uncertain in their faith, who
are challenged by a few questions about God’s majesty, whose greatness is contrasted to idols, lifeless
human productions. Some did listen to the prophet’s message and return to Jerusalem, but the majority
stayed behind for they didn’t have either the courage or the strength to begin a new life.
Isa 41:8-20: In the context of the victories of Cyrus of Persia, these prophecies of salvation offer to
Israel, called God’s servant, reasons and final result of the Lord’s acts. They express his affection for his
oppressed people. They should no longer fear because he is their saviour and is coming to defend them,
doing for them what a relative does for a fellow clan member in trouble. This comparison is very meaningful
to Africans whose clan ties are very strong. When the only God is one's relative there is absolutely nothing
to fear. Then we hear a marvellous song on his redemptive work performing a new creation.
Isa 41:21-29: God summons the false gods to appear before him and then condemn them. Their inability
to forecast the future and to act on world events proofs their emptiness.
Isa 42:1-13: Almost all the verses of this first song of God's servant are applied to Jesus in the NT.
48
 Isa 42:14-25: Israel is helpless: th
this
is trial by God follows his complaint that he deserted his people in
Jerusalem’s destruction and successive exile. The prophet reminds them why this happened: it was not God
who, deaf and blind to Israel’s fate, drew down disaster on him, but Israel who ha had
d been deaf and blind to
the earlier prophecies of doom and not responded through repentance, because he didn't realized neither
what was happening to him nor why it was happening.
Isa 43:1-13: This poem on the new exodus interprets the return from exile as as a new creation. In it God
addresses his people with exceptional tenderness, promising to save and reunite them. After that a new trial
against idols and their worshippers summons the restored Israel as witness: though she is deaf and blind to
the events of her own history, they show God’s uniqueness.
Isa 43:14-21: Babylon will be destroyed. This other ther masterwork of poetry and theology continues the
theme of the new exodus, even more glorious than the first one. For God never forgets humans but keeps
showing
ng his love by performing surprising deeds. We only have to open our eyes to see them.
Isa 43:22-44:8, 21-23: In this prophecy of blame, exceptional in Second Isaiah, God appears forcefully
as Israel’s saviour, while the servant has become a burden even to God, yet is chosen, forgiven and
redeemed to the joy of the whole earth.
Isa 44:24-45:13: Resumption of the theme of God’s omnipotence, about to be manifested in Jerusalem’s
rebuilding, and the part he has given the pagan Cyrus to play, who is named here for the first time. Even
today God can use non believers too for his plans of salvation, though believers cannot understand his ways.
Isa 45:14-25: We have here one of Second Isaiah’s key ideas: the universalism, which foresees a future
gathering of the pagan
gan nations round Jerusalem to worship Israel’s God. Also the polemic against false gods
here attains most clearly such universal call to salvation.

◊ Study questions:
1. Explain Second Isaiah’s teaching on gods other than Israel’s Holy One,, and then iden
identify five modern
forms of idolatry which are a danger to faith today.
2. How did God use Cyrus to save his own people? From this fact, what can we argue for contemporary
oppressed people?

THE BOOKS OF HAGGAI AND ZECHARIAH:

THE TASK OF RESTORATION

◊ What was Jews’ experience at returning from exile?

King Cyrus’
Cyrus’ edict allowing the Jews to go home with substantial war
damages put an end to fifty years of exile in Babylon. It fitted in well with
his spirit of tolerance, but also with his political plans: heh was actually
interested that they,
they, like his stronghold towards Egypt, should be utterly
devoted to him. About 50,000 Jews took the opportunity to go back home in
two main waves (538 and 520 BC). According to Second Isaiah, the return
from exile is the model of every salvation by God, because for them the
fall of Jerusalem and the detention in Babylon were a devastating experience
not only on the political
political and social, but especially on the religious and
spiritual levels. The loss of their land, the end of David’s monarchy and the
temple’s destruction appear
appeared
ed to deny God’s promises. The ccovenant people,
dispersed among pagans, sadly questioned themselves
themselve about a God who
seemed to have dumped them. Thus,, they experienced the homecoming as
Zerubbabel presenting to King
Cyrus the plans for Jerusalem. a wonderful return to faith, to trust, to communion with the Lord. It
was a restoration entail
entailing conversion of heart, forgiveness, awareness of
God’s mercy and the renewedwed possibility of praising him. It was an experience of overflowing joy, smiles and
cries of exultation, so beautiful like a dream. “The Lord has done great things”: this is what the nations said
and what Israel proclaimed.

◊ What was Israel’s prophecy after the Babylonian exile?

The Babylonian exile’s great wonder this disaster cleansed Jews’ faith instead of ruin
ruining it. Thanks to
Jeremiah, Ezekiel and the Second Isaiah,
Isaiah through the exile, the Jews were granted a new vision of God’s
plan which notably influenced Israelite prophecy’s
prophecy final stage, when temple and Torah became the
lasting realities that would continue to bond Israel after the prophecy halted. Clearly, this period’s
prophets lived on the earlier ones’ ideas, lacking much of their vigour and d spontaneity. The great
expectations for a glorious new era had not yet happened, so that the people’s faith weakened again. These
The
prophets tried to revive their hopes, but also to introduce a more spiritual form of worship, opening
the Judaism to become all nations’ religion. A continuing struggle against false leaders is pictured.

◊ Who were the post-exilic prophets?

In chronological order, thehe post-exilic
post prophets were Haggai, Zechariah, the so-called
so Third
Isaiah (nameless authors of Isa 56-66),
66), Malachi, Obadiah, Joel and the so-called
called Second Zechariah
(nameless author of Zech 9-14), not to mention many prophets intervened in editing older books (especially
Isaiah). Israelite prophecy’s disappear
disappeared as unremarkably as it had begun; we don’t know who the last OT
prophet was. In the final two hundred years BC the wisdom writers consciously carried on the
tradition inherited from prophecy,, without, however, claiming to possess its
s charisma.
charisma
◊ Who was Haggai, and what was his task?
Haggai was one of the first prophets after Jews’ return from Babylon, where he spent most of his
lifetime. The restoration was difficult, and the majority of the people lived in poverty. The work to rebuild
the temple went slowly, and many lost interest and energy for the project. During four months of 520 BC
Haggai exhorted the people and their new leaders (the governor Zerubbabel and the high priest Joshua) to
resume the building of a house where God would dwell among them and then disappeared. The four
brief speeches composing his book are entirely concerned with this: he wanted to know whether Israel was
going to rebuild her national life with or without God. Always a valuable question! He explained that, since
the temple was still neglected, the Lord frustrated the misplaced efforts of the farmers; its rebuilding,
however, would usher in an age of prosperity. Though unimpressive, this new temple would overcome
the glory of the old one. Thanks to Haggai (and his fellow prophet Zechariah), the work of building began
again and was completed in 515 BC. His teaching on the importance of worship and offerings provides a
necessary corrective to any misunderstanding of other prophets’ words which stressed more the
need of living by God’s will.

◊ Who was Zechariah, and what did he stress in his prophecies?

Zechariah, a responsible member of the post-exilic Jew institution, started his mission the same year
as Haggai, and continued for two years. Their background and message are largely the same, but
Zechariah stressed more the importance of God’s action as world’s only Lord, and the need of
purifying priesthood and worship to prepare the Messiah’s age. Whereas Haggai promoted immediate
action and held out a hope quickly to become reality, Zechariah promoted principles to assure right action
when needed, and held out a hope for an age not at hand. Moreover he presented his message through
symbols and night visions, with dialogues between God, an interpreting angel and himself. He wrote down
eight visions, each of which details some warning or instruction. From vision to vision there is a certain
orderly progression, especially if the following statements are considered. God assures Jerusalem’s future in
the first, and the condition necessary for it in the seven.

◊ What can we Africans learn from the experience of the Jews after their return to home?
When African countries became independent from colonial powers, there was a lot of optimism that a
new era of freedom and prosperity had finally dawned. For today’s common people this has not happened:
we feel as disappointed as the Jews after their return to home. The prophets’ message to their people is
therefore equally relevant to us. We must not lose hope in a better future and we should continue
striving to bring it about. It must, however, include not only material prosperity but mainly moral and
spiritual values, without uncritically dumping those traditional in the name of modern civilisation. A growth
which is merely economic risks always of creating new divisions and conflicts, of the wealth of some being
built on others’ poverty. Prosperity understood only in terms of material wealth tends to become selfish, to
give free rein to consumerism and to be unconcerned about others. As it becomes more prevalent, it opens
the door to the evil of corruption, which brings so much discouragement and damage in its wake.

◊ A help to read the text:

Hag 1:1-11: What we see here is a question of priority. The people returned from Babylon had provided
houses for themselves but were neglecting God’s honour and glory, which should be put above all else: his
dwelling place was still in ruins. Their excuse was based on bad economic conditions as reason of delay in
building the temple. Haggai turned this argument on its head: it was failure to build it the cause of the
economic difficulties themselves, and so the time for building was indeed over. They had to receive in their
midst the God of covenant, by rebuilding his temple, symbol of his presence and blessing for all. The same is
seen today among Christians who don’t play their part in the Church with the claim that they are poor.
Hag 1:12-15: Haggai's preaching was effective. Work on the temple began only three weeks after his
initial rebuke and call. Because the people, by their change of heart, had met God’s basic condition, the way
was opened to a new attitude on God’s part too: he would lead them from hardship to blessings.
Hag 2:1-9: Older Jews discouraged the people by comparing the rising new temple with Solomon’s
splendid one. The prophet’s reply focused on their different glory: despite the smaller size and the relative
poverty of the material, its rebuilding would be contributed even by foreign nations. It announced Messiah’s
age: indeed it was in this second temple, restored by Herod, which Christ taught. Moreover, he replaced the
earthly temple with his own person.
Hag 2:10-19: Since the altar was rebuilt (538 BC), worship continued on the temple's site, but Haggai
points the lesson resulting from the priests' declaration that sin is more contagious than holiness: the nation
is unclean, so its sacrifices, and finally the altar, are too. This is why God allowed agricultural failures before
the restart of building. But now their cause has been brought to an end.
Hag 2:20-23: This universal prophecy is addressed directly to Zerubbabel, the last member of David’s
house involved in Judah’s leadership. He is elected to a notable function in salvation history. This promise,
associated with traditional hopes of a king from this house, was not fulfilled in the sense Haggai may be
intended it, but in a more marvellous way in Jesus, who was a descendent of both David and Zerubbabel.
Zech 1:1-6: The book starts with a call to conversion through listening to God's word. It is characteristic
of Zechariah, with an appeal to past examples to be pondered in the present. More Jews need to return, not
only from Babylon to Jerusalem, but also from wrong ways to God. If they rebuild his temple and purify
themselves from what angers him, then he will return to dwell among them. Rebuilding only is not enough:
the mere presence of the temple did not help their fathers, though they magically thought so.
50
 Zech 1:7-17: First vision: the four horsemen’s
purpose is to patrol the whole earth to see if it is ZECHARIAH’S EIGHT VISIONS
at peace. It is, except for Judah, which still suffer Four coloured horses and horsemen
the exile's effects. An angel asks if seventy years Four horns and blacksmiths
of punishment are not enough, and then God The surveyor of a rebuilt and prosperous Jerusalem
promises restoration and prosperity to Jerusalem. Joshua, the high priest
Zech 1:18-21: Second vision: the four horns, The lamp-stand and the two olive trees
symbols of strength, are the nations that The flying scroll
devastated Judah. The four blacksmiths are God's The woman in the bushel basket
agents of those nations' destruction, probably The four chariots, crowns and leaders
symbolising the forging of weapons against them.
Zech 2:1-13: Third vision: the Lord comes to his people to rebuild them, including those from other
nations who turn to him.
Zech 3:1-10: Fourth vision: the high priest Joshua represents the remnant returned to Jerusalem and
especially the priesthood that serves in the restored temple. His soiled clothes are replaced with the clean
dresses of high priesthood to symbolise the cleansing of guilt and sin and the restoration of the priesthood
and its functions in preparation for Messiah's coming. Satan (whose name means adversary) appears not as
an agent of evil but as a member of God's heavenly court whose function is to accuse people of their sins.
Zech 4:1-14: Fifth vision: the lamp-stand signifies God's presence, but most attention is given to the
olive trees, symbolising Zerubbabel and Joshua, the political and religious leaders of Judah. As suppliers of
the oil for the lamp-stand, these two anointed serve the Lord's purposes among his people.
Zech 5:1-4: Sixth vision: the huge flying scroll symbolises God's judgment on all sinners.
Zech 5:5-11: Seventh vision: all sin, symbolised by the woman in the bushel basket, will be removed
from Judah and sent flying to Babylon (Shinar) which is so sinful that Wickedness is said to be worshipped
there, in contrast with God's temple which is being built in Jerusalem.
Zech 6:1-8: Eight vision: the four chariots are the four winds, meaning God's control over the whole
earth.
Zech 8:1-23: This file of ten short prophecies deals with Messiah’s age, a time of simple, peaceful
happiness under the blessing of God, present in Jerusalem. What Jews had to do was obeying the Lord,
speaking the truth, being just in judgment, not devising evil in their hearts, nor loving false oaths, all things
hated by God. In the end the view becomes universal, with the holy city as religious centre for all nations.

◊ Study questions:
1. By giving five points, explain the circumstances which made Haggai and Zechariah deliver their prophecy.
Show its relevance in today's life by giving at least three points.
2.Both Haggai and Zechariah were sent by God to stimulate the Jews gone back to Jerusalem in doing the
task of restoration. Explain their absolute priority and their reasons for that; then say if it is relevant to our
own existence today.
3. Recalling Haggai’s four speeches, what would you tell a person who doesn’t give alms with the claim that
he is poor and therefore has nothing to contribute to the Church? Give at least five points.
4. Describe Zechariah’s vision of the Horsemen (1:7-17) and then explain what it signifies.
5. With reference to Zechariah 3:1-10, show what his vision of Joshua’s clothes getting changed means in
today’s context.
6. Interpret Zechariah’s vision of the golden lamp-stand and the two olives trees (4:1-14) by giving five
points, and then relate it to the situation in Tanzania today by giving three points.
7. “Both civil and religious leaders should cooperate and work together in building up their country and
humankind at large”. How can you relate this truth to the vision of the Golden Lamp stand with two olive
trees in Zech 4:1-14?
8. By giving five points, describe Zechariah’s prophecy of the future messianic rule.

◊ Revision questions:
1. God chose and sent some people as prophets to the nation of Israel. What was their mission? How is
prophecy needed in our time? Give five points for each question.
2. Many prophets contested Israel’s feasts and rituals. Refer the challenges from at least one of them and
then discuss if it is right to use their words in order to refuse religious assemblies, songs, fast etc.
3. Giving examples from the OT, say how prophecy and prophetic work are relevant to your life.
4. Using the OT, how would you try to discern today’s true and false prophets?
5. Show five differences between true and false prophets’ essential characteristics.
6. The prophets courageously condemned the evils which threatened Israel’s people. Discuss a few of them
and of those they could address in our country and in our world today.
7. Give eight points to evaluate how Isaiah’s and Hosea’s family lives played a significant role in their
ministries.
8. Identify and explain at least five Messianic prophecies as presented in the book of Isaiah.
9. “To some extent, Isaiah was the prophet of Jesus’ birth and the second Isaiah was the prophet of Jesus’
death”. With relevant quotations, examine this statement and then explain the importance of both in
confirming your faith in the Christ.

51
 PAPER TWO
THE NEW TESTAMENT

CONTENT
• Christ’s life and teaching as presented in the four Gospels of Mark, Matthew, Luke and John.
• Significance of these features for the understanding of Jesus’ person and mission.
• Peculiarity of John’s Gospel as compared to the Synoptic
S tradition.
• The apostolic age: the Acts of the Apostles, Paul’s first letter to the Thessalonians, letter to the
Galatians, first letter to the Corinthians and letter to the Romans.

SETTINGS
“Our competence is from God, who has made us competent to be ministers of a new covenant,
kills, but the Spirit gives life” (2Cor
not in a written code but in the Spirit; for the written code kills,
3:5-6).

◊ What has God said in and through his Word?

“In many and various ways God spoke of old to our fathers by the prophets, but in these last days he has
spoken to us by his Son” (Heb 1:1-2).2). Christ, the Son of God made man, is the Father’s one, perfect,
and unsurpassable Word. In him he has said everyth everything; there will be no other word than this one. “In
giving us his Son, his only Word for he possesses no other, he spoke everything to us at once in this sole
Word and he has no more to say because what he spoke before to the prophets in parts, he has now
spoken all at once by giving us the All Who is His Son. Any person questioning God or desiring some vision
or revelation would be guilty not only of foolish behaviour but also of offending him, by not fixing his eyes
entirely upon Christ and by living with the desire for some other innovation” (St. John of the Cross).

◊ Why will there be no further revelation?

The Christian disposition, therefore, since it is the new and perfect Covenant, will never pass away,
and no new public revelation is to be expected before the glorious manifestation of our Lord Jesus Christ. Yet
even if Revelation is already complete, it has not been made completely explicit; it remains for
Christian faith gradually to grasp its full meaning over the course of the centuries.

◊ What is the New Testament?

The Word of God, which “is God’s power for the salvation of everyone who has faith” (Rom 1:16), is set
forth and displays its power in a most wonderful way in the wri tings of the New Testament which
writings
hand on the final truth of God’s Revelation. Their central object is Jesus Christ, God's Son made flesh: his
acts, teachings, Passion and glorification, and his Church’s beginnings under the Spirit’s leadership. So, they
conveys to us the ultimate truth of divine Revelation. Within the New Testament the four Gospels of
Mathew, Mark, Luke and John are the heart of all the Scriptures because they are the principle
witness to the life and teaching of Jesus. As such, they hol
hold
d a unique place in the Church.

◊ What are the books of the New Testament?

The NT contains 27 books written by inspiration within a period of less than one hundred years
after Jesus’ life. They form the second of the two portions into which the Bible is naturally divided. These
books fall into three different literary forms: 5 historical books (4 Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles),
21 letters and 1 prophetic book (Revelation). All of them were written in Κοινη, Koinee (i.e. that time’s
Common Language), the form of Greek known and used by most of the Roman Empire Empire’s people to
whom the first Christian missionaries carried the Good News. It had a great influence in diffusing the Greek
culture first in the Near East and Egypt, and eventually also in Rome. IItt also made easier Gospel’s diffusion.

◊ What was the situation at the time of Christ’s birth?

“When the fullness of time had come, God sent his Son, born of a woman, born
under the Law, to ransom those under the Law, so that we might receive adoption.
As proof that you are children, God sent the Spirit of his Son into our hearts, crying
out, ‘Abba, Father!’” (Gal 4:4-5).
4:4 All what preceded this event was only God’s
preparation of his Son’s birth, which occurred, then, when the most fitting
circumstances prevailed. Like concentric circles three cultural spheres influenced
Jesus, growing in intensity as
as their geographical area diminished: the Roman, the
Greek and the Jewish, representing respectively political, intellectual and
religious factors. Jesus did live and operate in an environment compounded of
these three. We need to know it in order to under
understand
stand the New Testament and its
people.

Emperor Augustus’ ◊ What was the political setting of the NT?

(30 BC - 14 AD) At that time Rome ruled an immense empire,, rich and unrivalled. To it were
most famous subject all the countries around the Mediterranean Sea
Sea,, called by the Romans “mare
sculpture. nostrum”, “our sea”
sea”. After three centuries of conquest, it was trying to unify its
peoples; its
ts enduring organisation was taking shape in the
very generation in which Jesus was born. The empire was
divided into administrative districts more or less closely
attached to Rome: some were governed by a proconsul,
others by a legate, some were entrusted to a prefect or
procurator, some retained an appearance of autonomy,
like Palestine with Herod’s family. A century of social
turmoil and civil war ended with Octavianus'
Octavian victory in 31
BC. He was regarded non just as a politician, but as a
divine saviour who ushered the world in a new era: for this
reason he was rewarded the title Augustus, i.e. one worthy
of adoration. He rescued the state, skilfully giving it the
government that held it together for the next five
centuries, inaugurating Europe’s longest period of peace
peace,
Augustus’ Empire around Jesus’ life.
security of law and a high level of prosperity. For the first
time, there was a great expanse of peace in which evereveryone’s
yone’s property could be registered and placed at the
service of the wider community. There was effective communication and the movement of populations was
common: Roman roads made it possible to travel quickly to any destination; many ships transported goods go
and passengers on rivers and above all on the Mediterranean. Taxes were levied on all inhabitants and
justice was the same for all Roman citizens. Other free men were considered foreigners and enjoyed fewer
rights. The fate of the extremely numerous slaves (two out of three inhabitants in certain large city) varied
greatly depending on their master’s feeling or their situation (craftsmen, cooks, doctors and the like).
Moreover, millions of inhabitants
ants subsisted in misery
misery, brutality was usual, charity seemed absent. Small
associations of all kinds developed to escape depersonalization. It is difficult to calculate the population: that
of the whole empire has been estimated at about 50 million. For the great cities, figures
figures has been produced
like 1-2 million
lion for Rome or Alexandria, half a million for Antioch, Tarsus, Corinth or Ephesus. Jerusalem had
only 50,000 inhabitants, though this tripled or quadrupled at the time of the great festivals.

◊ What was the intellectual setting of the NT?

While Rome held d political sway, the intellectual sphere was dominated by an admixture of Greek and
Near East influences that made up the so called Hellenism (i.e. Greek-like culture).. Being practical men,
the Romans too recognized the cultural superiority of Greece and reshaped their society along Greek lines.
Moreover, Greek language became universal and made possible trade ideas, and among them the message
of salvation. Jesus passed his entire life in a prevalently Jewish environment (which kept on speaking
Aramaic, while Hebrew remained the worship’s language)
language),, but it was already penetrated by Hellenism,
especially under Herod’s dynasty.

◊ What was the religious setting of the NT?

Christianity originated in a Judaism thoroughly purified of idolatry. Between the return from exile (538
BC) and Christ's time (6 BC - 30 AD) Jews' faith and hope developed, especially about angels and
demons, resurrection, coming of a new world focused on the Messiah, usually expected to be a warrior
who would free them of hated foreign rulers. By Jesus’ time Jews’ majority accepted these beliefs. There
were only about half a million Jews in their land, Judaea, but other seven wewere
re dispersed outside, forming 8-
8
10%% of the population of the empire. They tried to convert everyone and were restless because of the fear
of corruption of their unique faith. In the beginning of Rome’s domination, they enjoyed a special status:
they were exempt from military service and were permitted to practice their religion religion. But its complete
fusion with Jews’ whole life complicated their status beyond even Rome's genius for government. Later, they
were required to be loyal to the state and also to worship the Roman emperor. Those who didn’t do so had
to suffer. In the conquered
red provinces, people felt that the national gods had failed because they could not
defend their people against Rome. They looked elsewhere for a meaning in life: to philosophy or to mystery
religions, where was believed that initiation brought salvation. To many Christianity appeared a such kind of
religion, also because many speculated ed at the time that
the world’s ruler would emerge from Judah
Judah. Synagogues don’t figure in the OT, and
there are different opinions about their
◊ What were the Jews' most important institutions? beginning. They certainly did exist in the
The Jews' most important institutions were: the postexilic period and do so until today,
only temple of Jerusalem, heart of their religious,
religious everywhere Jews are present. The Greek root
political and economic life, where crowds of pilgrims of their name indicates they are simple
went from everywhere for the great annual festivals meetinghouses, places es where people gather.
and where thousands of sheep and cattle were Men and women sit in opposite sides, and
sacrificed every year; and the many synagogues leaders sit in front. There is no altar because
built everywhere for or local worship, teaching and the religious services, done at least every
government as well,, and which attracted many non non- Sabbath, don’t include sacrifices (which need
Jews too. the Temple) but prayer, devout reading,
meditation and d instruction. Any believer could
preach there. Jesus went regularly to
synagogues where he did read the Bible and
teach the people.
 ◊ What were Jewish sects’ distinctive Scribes were specialists of
beliefs? copying and explaining the
From the 2nd century BC to 70 AD the Law, fully qualified scholars
main Jewish sects were: who by ordination had
1) the Sadducees, powerful people received Moses' official spirit
of Jerusalem who accepted only the mediated by succession. They
Torah and emphasized its rituals; their formed a closed order of men
strong holds were the about 7000 priests learned in the Torah. Some of
of the temple who claimed to descend them were priests, but the
from Zadok, David’s high priest; political majority were lay people and
opportunists, they collaborated willingly Pharisees. As incumbents of
with the Roman forces in order to stay in the teaching office, they
power; they were very harsh to Jesus questioned Jesus and as
and to developing Christianity; members of the Sanhedrin
2) the Pharisees, i.e. “separated eventually took part in his trial
ones”, so called with reference to their and condemnation. Jesus saw
strict observances of ritual purity: their in them a lack of humility,
A scroll in today’s synagogue of societies were mostly composed of small
Cologne (Germany). selflessness and sincerity. His
people with no theological mastery; they most serious charge against
were not many (may be only about them, however, is that they
6,000) but influential because of their moral efforts against the didn't practise what they
hegemony of Hellenism which was threatening Israel’s identity; they demanded. Against their
upheld the divine authority of the prophets and other OT writings with casuistry which defeated
the new beliefs present in them, but also developed an extensive oral God's true will contained in
tradition on Torah’s interpretation and application which they forced the law of love, Jesus brought
upon the people as a heavy burden; though their movement first helped out its full seriousness in the
to save Judaism, it became dangerously rigid and restricted, despising powerful antitheses of the
common people, but some of them had a very open attitude to Jesus Sermon on the Mount.
and his disciples; their strong holds were the many synagogues
throughout the world;
3) the Essenes, who rejected temple’s worship and the whole Jewish life; many of them were
preparing themselves in the desert for the imminent end-time with the coming of two Messiahs (one priest,
another king) and the outpouring of the Holy Spirit; they lived very strictly; some even didn’t marry; the
earnest religiosity of their writings is moving and has many contacts with Jesus’ message.

◊ Who were the most important political parties in Israel?

About politics, the pragmatic Herodians supported the local dynasty submitted to Roman dominion,
while the nationalistic Zealots, i.e. “the enthusiasts”, opposed any collaboration with the colonists and many
times fought for Israel's total liberation. Very
few years had no bloodshed, because they Herod the Great tried to kill the child Jesus
resorted to terror and violence. His son Herod Antipas killed John the Baptist
His grandson Herod Agrippa I killed the Apostle James
◊ What does the NT show about prophecy?
After two hundred years of God's silence, which led Israel to a vivid desire of hearing his word, John the
Baptist, a prophet and more than a prophet, started a new period of prophecy, culminating in Jesus’
ministry. The Spirit’s outpouring announced for the Messiah’s time and promised by him was fulfilled at
Pentecost. The early Church’s strong missionary outreach, closely linked to prophets' ministry, was a logical
consequence of Joel’s prophecy that in the age to come the Spirit would be sent to all believers.

NT CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE
Many years are only approximate
7 BC: John the Baptist’s birth
6 BC: Jesus’ birth in Bethlehem; King Herod the Great tries to kill him; the child Jesus refugee in Egypt
3 BC: Jesus’ family returns to Nazareth, Galilee, where he grows up
27 AD: John the Baptist starts to preach and baptise around the Jordan river
27 AD: Jesus too, after being baptised by John, starts to preach throughout Galilee and Judaea
29 AD: Herod Antipas kills John the Baptist
30 AD: Jesus killed on the cross at Jerusalem; after his resurrection, the Holy Spirit comes to his Church
36 AD: Jews’ persecution against Greek-speaking Jew Christians; Stephen is killed; Paul is converted
44 AD: King Herod Agrippa I kills James of Zebedee; Peter leaves Jerusalem
46 AD: Paul’s missionary journeys to Asia Minor and South-east Europe start
49 AD: Apostles’ Council at Jerusalem about converted Gentiles and Moses’ Law
51 AD: Writing 1Thessalonians, Paul begins the NT books; he will add 12 other letters
62 AD: James the Lesser stoned to death by Jews in Jerusalem
64 AD: Caesar Nero starts Rome’s long persecution against the Christians (Peter and Paul die there)
65 AD: Mark writes the first Gospel, followed by Matthew and Luke in 80-90
70 AD: During the 1st Jewish War (66-73), the Romans destroy Jerusalem and his Temple
80 AD: Growing polemics between Jews and Christians; the latter are expulsed from synagogues
90-100 AD: John of Zebedee writes or completes his 5 books; he is the last Apostle to die
 JESUS’
S’ LIFE AND MESSAGE (6 BC – 30 AD)
“There is salvation in no one else, for there is no other name under heaven given among men
by which we must be saved” (Acts 4:12)
4:12).

◊ What does history say about Jesus?

From the 18th century researchers have attempted to present Jesus as he can be historically known. It is
not his person and life’s full reality, because historical research by its nature can at most establish high
probability but never final and absolute certainty over every detail. Also, our sources about him are
fragmentary, and what is more his mystery is so deep! If the distinction between historical and real is
true for any ancient figure, it is truer of Jesus. At one level he fits the category of history, in so far
fa as he was
a real person, living in concrete circumstances, surrounded by historical characters; moreover, everybody
who studies the Gospels, whether or not he is a believer, finds enough solid evidence of their historicity,
more than that we have about other ther ancient figures; finally, Jesus has enormously marked
mark human history,
as attested by the worldwide use of his emergence to start counting all years, before and after him. At
another level history cannot assess him, because the major part of his truth is beyond its competence: his
coming from the Father, his inner
nner life and awareness, his resurrection and glorification, and his promise of
salvation with the second coming. So, a faith based only on what is critically cally certain would be rather slim.
However, we cannot escape the question of the historicity of his ke key
y events. NT message is not simply an
idea; essential to it is the fact that these events actually occurred in this world. So, the quest for the
historical Jesus helps giving concrete content to our faith statements about the Christ against any tendency
to evaporate him. This quest reaffirms what the world sees as the scandal of the Word made flesh: the
shocking identification of God’s full revelation with a Jew carpenter of 1st century Palestine. We
believe him is true
rue man and true God God, though we cannot ultimately
timately define the interplay between the two. It
was this person, with all his mystery, who impressed his disciples as well any people who met him; him it keeps
on impressing anyone who starts a living relationship with him him. Because he is man, all of us belong to him
and he to us; in him humanity starts anew and reaches its goal.

JESUS’ ORIGINS

◊ What were Jesus’ origins?

Jesus’ provenance is both known and unknown, seemingly easy to
establish, and yet not exhaustively. John grandly starts his Gospel by
proposing Jesus’ eternal being God’s Son, the primordial source from
which all thingss come. On the human side, Matthew’s and Luke’s
Infancy Gospels share twelve elements about Jesus’ origins.
This concordance, in spite of using different traditions and having
distinct theological visions, attests to their truth. According to both, he
was born under King Herod the Great (37 (37-4 BC). His mother was
Mary, a virgin of 15 or 16, no older, who had not yet come to live with
his spouse, Joseph,, a carpenter who earned his daily bread.
bread He was not The newborn Jesus,
Jesus a homeless,
involved in the child’s conception, which happened through the Holy received poor shepherds’ homage
Spirit. In spite of this, his ancestry is traced through his legal father, while lying in a manger as the food that
who came from a branch of David’s house. An angel announced this give us true life..
Saviour’s coming birth, which took place in a cradle near Bethlehem,
after Mary and Joseph began living together. From the start, he did not belong to what is worldly important
and powerful. Simple shepherds informed by angels were the first witnesses to this event occurred in near
obscurity. They represented God’s first love: the poor whom Jesus would bless. They acknowledged him by
his own sign: true poverty. Jesus’ circumcision, on the eight day after his birth, incorporated
incorporat him into the
people of the covenant, submitted to Moses’ law and admitted to Israel’s worship, in which he would
participate throughout his life. His presentation in Jerusalem’s temple on the fortieth day showed him to be
the firstborn Son belonging to the Lord and handed over to him, ready to be sacrificed.. Eventually their poor
family settled in Nazareth, an obscure hill village in South Galilee
Galilee, in the outskirts of the Roman Empire and
of Israel as well. They
hey had first to leave for Egypt because of Herod’s hostility emer
emergedged when wise men from
the East, representing allll humans’ journeying toward Christ, came to pay homage to Jesus as the newborn
king of the Jews. His whole life would
ould be under the sign of persecution.

◊ How did Jesus live his youth?

During the greater part of his existence Jesus shared the condition of
humans vast majority:: a daily life spent without evident greatness. He
humans’
grew up in a family and was by profession an artisan working or
building with hard materials
materials, most likely a carpenter. Living for nearly 30
years in Nazareth, Jesus absorbed the human condition, welcoming it in
his permanent communion with the Father and in his mission’s

Jesus at home in Nazareth. preparation. The

he only event that breaks the Gospels’ silence about this
hidden period is his been found in Jerusalem’s temple when he was 12
years old: then he suggested his being God’s Son
Son. He remained in Jerusalem not as a rebel against his
parents, but precisely as the Son of the Father, ready to obey him straight to the cross and the resurrection
on the third day. Jesus’ legal father doesn’t appear during his public ministry; presumably, he had died. In
contrast, his mother is mentioned, as well four brothers and a few unnamed sisters (from the first centuries
AD debate has raged over their precise relati
relationship:
onship: siblings, children of Joseph by a previous marriage,
cousins). Jesus’ relatives didn’t follow him during his public ministry, though later had a leading position in
Jerusalem Church. Nothing explicit is ever said in the NT about Jesus’ marital stat status;
us; however, in front of
various references to his parents, brothers and sisters, the total silence about a wife and children indicates
that he didn’t marry. The he mocks occasioned by his is unusual celibate status may be the original setting for
his saying about eunuchs.

◊ What kind of education did Jesus get?

Jesus was honoured ed as “Rabbi”, but at his time this title’s use was looser than later on. His opponents
wondered how he could know Scripture when he never got technical training g in Moses’ law under a
recognised teacher. He could read and understand Biblical Hebrew, but ordinarily he used Aramaic, the
common language of Galilean peasants. At times they would use Greek for trade, but it is unlikely that Jesus
regularly used it in his teaching. All in all
all,, nothing in his early life did prepare his fellow townspeople for the
surprising career he was soon to undertake: hence the shock and scandal that greeted him when he
returned home after starting his preaching trips.

JESUS’ WORDS AND DEEDS

◊ Who did prepare Jesus’ ministry?

About 27 AD, under the Roman emperor Tiberius (14 (14-37 AD),
John, the son of Zechariah, a temple priest was preaching in the
Jordan river valley to call Israel to repentance and to an once-and-
for-all cleansing in view of God’s ’s imminent, harsh judgment.
judgment This
strict ascetic and reformer with traits of the OT prophets (especially
Elijah) and possibly he lived for some time in the Essenes’
community, yet his appearance was something of completely
new. His is baptism was different from their usual religious ablutions
ablutions,
for it could not be repeated in order to express a totally new life Crowds went to the Jordan river to see
direction forever. Moreover, John proclaimed that his own role was to and hear John.
prepare a path (Is 40:3) for anoth
another
er coming after him who would baptize with
the Holy Spirit. In that time’s highly charged atmosphere,
atmosphere John’s person and
message produced an extraordinary impression:
impression: at last there was a prophet
again, and his life marked him out as such. This meant that God’s hand was
again plainly acting in history. So, crowds s came to be baptised openly
confessing their sins.
sins

◊ Why did Jesus go to be baptized by John?

Jesus, having reached adulthood, emerged from obscurity joining the
crowds to be baptized: this very fact shows that he accepted John’s mission
and message as well his own mission as God’s lamb or suffering servant who
would take away the world
world’s sin. In this
his act of humble solidarity Jesus
anticipated the cross by taking his place among sinners in order to bring
all humans’ burden according to the Father’s will. This is why Jesus used the
Jesus was baptised by word baptism to refer to his death. The Gospels speak of Jesus’ forty days of
John in the Jordan River. fast, solitude and temptations in the desert immediately after his baptism.

◊ How did Jesus begin his ministry?

Some of Jesus’ first and closest disciples were John’s former
disciples and he initially imitated John by baptizing: this occasioned
some rivalry between their groups. He continued also the Baptist’s
time message, but with a shift. John stressed the fearful
end-time
judgment and punishment to be inflicted on sinners; Jesus
emphasised instead the joy of salvation, just now breaking. He no
longer pointed to another who had to come: he himself was the
fulfilment of God’s promises, the good news to believe in, the one to
whom entrust the heart and the whole life. Jesus didn’t wait people
near the Jordan, but went to them, preaching and healing
Jesus preaching on the shore of the lake.
everywhere, always moving about.. He was usually in the midst of the
crowd, a humanity marked by suffering,
sufferin toil and problems. These poor people came together to hear him, a
voice capable of guiding and enlighten them. They followed him because they knew how deeply moved he
was by human suffering and how impartial, thoughtful and true were his words. These had
something special that left no one indifferent: they had the power to change hearts and projects; they
were demonstrated by his liberating and renewing action which did heal physical and spiritual wounds. wounds
Whoever truly wishes to heal man must se see
e him in his wholeness and must know that his ultimate healing
can only be God’s love.
◊ What was Jesus’ basic message?
Jesus walked the Holy Land’s roads joyfully proclaiming the arrival of God’s rule of justice, love
and peace with the consequent need to repent for all Israel, not just for lonely individuals. He
presented God’s kingdom as a symbol with many hints. He had in mind a spiritual kingdom, already existing
at the time and progressive; so, from the very start, he formed a community of missionary disciples to make
visible love and brotherly solidarity as beginning of this totally new situation. Kingdom didn’t refer to a
specific territory or era, but to an action: God’s definitive intervention with a transforming power superior to
his creation of the world. He had always been king of Israel and of the universe, but all humans (the Jews
among them) had sin and come under Satan. Faithful to his promises, God was to assert his rightful
claim over his rebellious creatures, soon establishing his rule fully and openly. Jesus was the kingdom in
person, for he brought to all the presence of God who cares for everyone, better than any good father or
mother caring for each child. In Jesus, God is now the one who acts and rules, without worldly power, but
through the love that reaches to the end (to the cross). This kingdom applies to man in his being’s depths,
and it opens him toward the true God. Jesus taught it belonged to the poor and lowly, and its message was
a good news especially for them, because the Father was pleased to reveal to the little ones its
secrets. He himself lived in poverty, experiencing tiredness, hunger and thirst.

◊ How did Jesus present God?

Jesus didn’t present God as a distant and fearsome king, a remote power without a name. The heart of
his good news was to state that the divine ruler delighted in revealing himself as a loving Father
who rejoices over regaining his lost children and whose power is his love. His kingdom doesn’t
come with display of force, but works quietly in this world. It can be discovered only in Jesus and in the
characteristics virtues of which he was an example. A whole list of them is found in his beatitudes. The
definitive lot of humankind, when evil will have been vanquished, remains a future experience, but its
outline contributes to define how humans would live already in the present. Hence values and virtues that
match us to God’s will, to be fully affirmed in the future, must be practised now, as far as possible, in the
sinful and imperfect circumstances of the present.
The Hebrew equivalent of the
◊ How did Jesus transmit his message? word parable means very much
A skilled speaker and teacher, Jesus exploited many forms of more than comparison: it is a
speech from Israel’s tradition: most prominent was his use of simile drawn from nature or
parables. In the OT, they were a very elastic form of wisdom speech common life, arresting the hearer
that included proverbs, metaphors, allegories, taunt-songs, bywords by its vividness or strangeness,
of reproach and prophetic statements. Continuing this pattern, and leaving his mind in enough
Jesus employed strange sayings and stories to call a sinful doubt around its precise
Israel to decision in the critical end-time, mocking his application to tease it into active
overconfident hearers, destroying their false security and opening thought. Parables’ original aim
their eyes. With a tone of urgency the parables warned that delay and meaning were sometime lost
was dangerous, for any moment might be too late. The audience during the transmission in the
had to risk all on a decision to accept Jesus’ message. No cost was early Church. We need to ask him
too great, for soon this sinful world’s conditions would be again and again what he wants to
reversed: the sorrowful would be made happy, but the self- say to us in each parable.
satisfied would be made miserable. Far from pleasant stories, Jesus’
parables were at times strong attacks on Israel’s whole religious world. They promised a new world through
a revolution produced by God, not humans. Indeed, Jesus’ parables speak about his kingdom as present
in seed form, for which is to come is already here in a hidden way. Moreover, they already communicate
something of it to those who accepted being challenged by and drawn into his message. This turnaround or
conversion in people’s lives was harsh yet necessary to be saved. Again and again, Jesus’ words
exceed humans’ capacity to understand: believing means submitting to this loftiness and slowly growing into
it. The possibility of refusal is very real, for the parables lack the necessary proof.

Sayings by Jesus may be put into a story which serves as a framework for it: this story, whether
miracle, controversy or anecdote, is there only to set off the saying. Otherwise they are floating, because
people have remembered them but not the context in which Jesus spoke.

Exorcism aims to expel evil spirits from

◊ What were Jesus’ most characteristic deeds? persons and places. Healing concerns physical
According to the mentality of Jesus’ time, there sickness. Both achieve a real defeat of evil and of
should be a clear division between saint and sinner, the Evil One’s power over human body and person;
between pure and impure. But he had a very such liberation is associated with God’s kingdom.
different attitude: his compassion was one of the Jesus cured the suffering without drugs. In his
things that upset his contemporaries the most. hands whatever became a medicine, as his word
From his ministry’s beginning he disconcerted was. Just as in his time, so today some are
people by welcoming society’s outcasts: lepers, interested in exorcisms and charismatic healing,
demon-possessed, all the sick and the excluded. while others are not. Jesus used both to get
His relationships with all those who approached him attention as well as to express God’s love,
were entirely unique: he did listen, understand, compassion and power to save his people.
protect, heal, comfort and give hope. His person
57
was nothing but love, a love given gratuitously. Everything in him spoke of mercy; nothing in him missed
compassion. In special way, he made God’s forgiveness visible and tangible in his whole life: Jesus acted
out the loving embrace of a God welcoming sinners home. He delighted in associating with his days’
religiously marginalized or lost, i.e. not only common people who didn’t know well the Scriptures, but also
toll collectors and other Jews considered to have left the covenant. This practice put Jesus in a constant
state of ritual impurity according to strict law-observant persons. Because his message was one of joy that
the end-time banquet was at hand, he anticipated it in the meals he shared with sinners without requiring
them to follow Jewish procedures of repentance and sacrifice. In keeping with this festive mood, he didn’t
practice and teach regular voluntary fasting. This way distinguished him from the Baptist, and was probably
a major reason why zealous Jews opposed him as an “eater and wine-drinker”.

◊ How have to be understood Jesus’ miracles? Miracle stories usually have five points:
Jesus’ miracles must be understood in this • An introduction which presents the case
context of giving godly joy and making Israel • A request for intervention which shows the faith
whole again. Surely, his contemporaries saw him
of who asks
as an exorcist and a healer. His extraordinary deeds
were never denied in antiquity, even by his • Jesus’ intervention
enemies, who referred them to the power of the • The result
devil, while he credited them to God’s Spirit. They • The spectators’ reaction: joy, admiration, fear
were not simply kind actions done to free individuals
from the earthly evils of hunger, injustice, illness and death, but concrete ways of stating and effecting
God’s triumph over evil’s powers in the final hour of this world. The miracles were signs and partial
realizations of what was about to come fully in God’s kingdom. Nevertheless he didn’t come to
resolve all problems here below, but to free humans from the sin, which thwarted them in their call as God’s
children and caused all forms of slavery. Jesus showed himself to be a physician of bodies, but especially of
souls. The sick recovered health, but also dignity, joy and hope. Miracles were signs which encouraged faith;
this is way they were always accompanied by words that enlightened to bring out a true conversion. Taken
together, Jesus’ words and deeds affirmed that the kingdom was in a sense both future and yet already
present in and through his own ministry.

◊ How did Jesus approach Moses’ law?

In the light of God’s free offer of forgiveness and salvation in the last time before judgment, Jesus
specified how those who converted should live, demanding them a total commitment and the practice of
virtue. As a true Jew he basically affirmed Moses’ law as God’s will, but rejecting any fragmentation
of it into countless petty norms. Because world’s end-time corresponds to beginning-time, Jesus
radicalised the law by reaching back to God’s original will in creation and in giving the law. Jointly
Jesus, without excluding external good works, internalised the law by reaching into the human heart
to purify this source of all actions. In this process, sometimes he simply deepened or broadened the thrust
of the law (e.g. equalising angry words with murder or impure thoughts with adultery), sometimes he
arrived to overturn the letter of the law (e.g. prohibiting divorce and oath, or even dumping food laws).
Moreover, his ethics pointed to an ever greater perfection. He did not focus on justice’s minimum
requirements as Moses’ law had done, neither did he point to a maximum. Simply, no limits were set: so
totally new horizons opened wide: “You must therefore be perfect just as your heavenly Father is perfect”
(Mt 5:48). Christ proposed such ideal not fully attainable in this life and certainly not within the grasp of
human by his own efforts. While the Torah presented a very definite social order, giving a juridical
framework for war and peace, for just politics and for daily life, there was nothing like that in Jesus’
teaching. He offers no concrete program for structuring society, but his call to perfect charity, which is not of
this world, must be the goal of all strivings on the earth. It should be seen as a principle of dynamic
evolution, a law of constant progress in relationships with God and all humans. As a result, Jesus’
follower is made constantly aware of his own weakness and sinfulness, but without pessimism or despair.
Finally, his own law was totally different from Moses’ one but it was precisely by being such that the new
fulfilled the former.

◊ What did Jesus’ authority in fulfilling Moses’ law show?

We are struck by Jesus’ presentation of the relationship of the two Torah in a series of antitheses: “It was
said ... but I say to you”. Many people’s alarm was precisely over the fact that a man dared to speak with
God’s own authority. Remarkably, Jesus didn’t found his surprising teachings in the prophets’ validating
claim (“The word of the Lord came to me, saying…”) or in scribes’ appeal to earlier authorities (“Rabbi X said
in the name of Rabbi Y…”) or in contorted arguments from a chain of biblical texts. On the contrary, he
asserted to know directly God’s will in any given situation: he summed up this claim in his
characteristic solemn affirmation using “Amen” not as a response but as an introduction to a new statement:
“Amen, I say to you…” Someone who spoke like this was no longer a prophet in the traditional sense, an
ambassador and trustee of another; he himself was the reference point of the righteous life, its goal and
centre. He understood himself as the Torah, God’s Word in person. Perfection, the state of being holy as God
is holy, as demanded by the Torah, now consists in following Jesus. His “I” is accorded a status that no
teacher of the Law can allow himself: he openly claims to be on the same level as the Lawgiver. But his “I”
does by no means revolve around itself alone. The only requirement to be admitted into his new family is
joining him in doing the Father’s will, thereby attaining to the heart of the obedience intended by the Torah.
In this way, he has brought Israel’s God to all nations, so that they now pray to him and recognize OT as the
58
word of the living God without feeling themselves bound to the letter of the Law, as a catalogue of concrete
social forms fixed for all times and for all people. He frees humans to discover what of earthly order does
accord with God’s will and then to work out their own juridical arrangements. This universality, Abraham’s
faith extended now in Jesus’ Church to all nations, is the prophesied fruit of the Messiah’s work.

◊ What was Jesus’ most peculiar moral teaching?

When asked which is “the greatest of the commandments”, Jesus pointed to two biblical precepts founded
on one value, the most important, love. They open up a limitless moral programme. He stressed
unrestricted love of God and neighbour, indeed, even love of enemies. All his sayings that deal with
obligations toward others show how Jesus highlighted the need to use mercy without measure, love without
limits. Such fierce moral demands made sense and were possible only in the context of the proclamation of
the end-time which he claimed to bring. Such commands were doable only for who had experienced
through him God’s merciful forgiveness and unconditional acceptance. Radical demand flowed from
radical grace. If through Jesus religion became a matter of grace, then ethics became a matter of gratitude.
These new morals derived from the fact that the future kingdom had already invaded and transformed
the lives of those who accepted the good news of its coming. Both Matthew and Luke present the
beatitudes – starting with that of the poor and ending with that of who suffers persecution – as a sort of
synthesis of Jesus’ moral teaching and behaviour. They are not a code of abstract norms and duties, but by
presenting the right conduct, the art of living, the road to happiness, they reveals at the same time God’s
future action, and so God himself.

◊ What was Jesus’ position in contemporary Judaism?

Jesus, seeing the crowds who followed him, realised that they were tired and without true guides and he
felt deep compassion for them. As Jew he had points of contact with almost every branch of Judaism, but
was totally identifiable with none, since he foresaw a radically new situation for Israel. The coming of the
kingdom explains why he didn’t directly address and take stands on burning political and social questions:
he didn’t propose the reform of contemporary society, but announced its end. Nevertheless, his
freeing behaviour about the law and religious outcasts could not help but have social implications.
Throughout his lifetime Jesus was a layman. The mortal struggle between him and his opponents had
elements not only of Galilean versus Judean, of the poor versus the rich, of the charismatic versus the
institutional, of the end-time versus the worldly, but also of the laity versus the priests. This helps to
explain why Jerusalem’s priests were most prominent in killing him. They had already flexed their
muscles against John the Baptist and his possible challenge to their monopoly on religious authority. This
attitude became an ongoing embarrassment to them. It is not surprising then that Jesus did take a stand in
relation to temple, their centre of power and influence, using it as the setting for a significant amount of his
teaching and healing activity during the pilgrimage feasts. Probably beforehand the dramatic cleansing of
the temple was a programmatic announcement encouraging a radical review of the earlier means of
mediation between God and Israel. Beginning with the temple and its sacrificial worship, through the
succession of Jewish feasts, Jesus did show how he fulfilled and surpassed the OT institutions,
opening up their meaning in the context of his own identity and mission.

◊ How did people follow Jesus?

Jesus did not leave anyone indifferent. As soon as he appeared, friendly and hostile groups formed. Some
people, struck by Jesus’ personality, readily accepted his call in a stark way by leaving their
families and ordinary livelihood to travel with him, receive his teaching at length, assist his needs, and
share his ministry. Contrary to the custom, at least some were directly called to do so by Jesus and
attached permanently to his person. Noteworthy is his matchless summon, “Let the dead bury their dead”,
an example of his radical call to break certain commandments for the sake of the kingdom. Very singular
were also his easy approach to women, his inclusion of them in his travelling staff, and his willingness to
teach them. In him nothing reflects his days’ discrimination against them. On the contrary, his words and
works always express the respect and honour due to them, and they followed him in the good and in the bad
times. Their faith and love for Jesus was an essential element of his community, as would be vividly shown
at the foot of the cross and at the resurrection. He came down to earth to live and die for love. He called
both men and women to live the new commandment: “Love one another as I have loved you”. The women,
however, have a special ability in understanding such message.
JESUS’ TWELVE APOSTLES
◊ What is the aim of choosing twelve Apostles? First, Simon called Peter
Out of those literal followers Jesus formed a special inner group Andrew
called the Twelve, whose names vary slightly in their four NT lists. James son of Zebedee
Simon, whom Jesus called Peter (i.e. Rock of his Church), held the first John
place in this group as the one entrusted with the keys of the kingdom. Philip
The Apostles were young, though a few not so much. John was very Bartholomew
young. Astonished by Jesus, they hurried to inform their friends of their Thomas
discovering. Later however they did not behave very well. They had a Matthew
wide range of temperaments and came from a variety of Israel’s cultural James son of Alphaeus
backgrounds and approaches, though none of them belonged to the Judas Thaddaeus
leading circles. This helps understand how difficult it was to gradually Simon the Zealot
initiate them into Jesus’ mysterious new way overcoming many kinds of Judas Iscariot
tension. They personify the Church of any ages and her difficult task of
59
purifying and unifying all in Christ. Jesus’ choice of precisely twelve men symbolized his mission to gather
the scattered twelve tribes of Israel back into one holy people in the end-time, thus fulfilling OT prophesies.
He didn’t choose eleven men making himself the twelfth member of the group, but he stood above and over
the nucleus he was creating as the exemplar and concrete realization of what he was calling all
Israel to be: the restored people of God in the last days. Within this context, it makes perfect sense that
Jesus gave the Twelve a share in his authority and sent out them on a limited mission to their fellow
Israelites. There is no contradiction between Jesus’ end-time perspective and his assignment of specific roles
to certain people in renewing Israel: the Essenes had did the same. Later he sent other 70 or 72 disciples,
an intimation of the Gospel’s universal character. Afterward the Church came into existence because the
Jews as God’s chosen people didn’t believe in Jesus. Their “no” leads to the new phase in salvation history to
which the Lord’s death and resurrection and the Gentiles’ Church belong.

◊ What people did Jesus try to reach?

Not all who accepted Jesus’ message followed him on his journeys. Others retained their ordinary
forms of living while implementing his message in their daily lives and giving him also financial support
and hospitality. He could count on disciples resident in and around Jerusalem too, a point which supports
John’s presentation of Jesus visiting the holy city a number of times throughout a multiyear
ministry. Granted Jesus’ desire to re-gather the whole people of God, it would have been strange if he had
not visited the capital of the nation often. Synoptic presentation of a ministry in and around Galilee, with
only one visit to Jerusalem at the end is due to Mark. The fact that Jesus saw his own task in terms of re-
gathering Israel explains why he undertook no programmatic mission to the Samaritans or the
Gentiles. Yet he didn’t avoid any contact with these groups and was willing at times to perform exorcism or
miracles for them. In fact, he prophesied that in the final great reversal, Gentiles would be included in
the banquet with the Patriarchs, while unbelieving Israelites would be shout out.

JESUS’ IDENTITY

◊ How did Jesus understand himself?

Jesus had nor identity crisis nor desperate need to define himself: he was quite sure of who he was.
Unfortunately, no one else was: friends and foes alike tried to understand him using various categories and
titles, but without complete satisfaction. God was always at the centre of Jesus’ message, yet precisely
because he himself was the Son, his entire preaching was at the same time a
message about his own mystery. Jesus made himself the key figure in the
end-time drama he announced and inaugurated. It was through his preaching and
healing that the kingdom was breaking in. His hearers would be judged on the last
day according to how they reacted to Jesus’ words in that moment of decision. He
would be the criterion used for the final judgment, and the judge himself. That
alone involved a huge claim to a unique status and role at the peak of the
whole history of salvation. He put himself on an equal footing with God, an
idea to which he could only slowly lead people.

◊ What was Jesus’ fundamental self-awareness?

Jesus enjoyed a deep experience of God as his own Father: his
communion with him was his personality’s true centre. He recognised him in himself
and saw everything and everyone in the Father’s light. He dared to address him
with the intimate Aramaic word ‘Abba’ (“Dad”, “My own dear Father”) which was
used in addressing human fathers, but not God: its religious usage was unknown
and probably offensive to Jews. The Gospels, especially Luke, often note that Jesus
prayed, in solitude or at night, at mealtimes, at the time of important events. He Jesus’ transfiguration
prayed for his killers, for Peter, for his disciples and those who would come after at night on a mountain.
them, but also for himself. These prayers show that he was in permanent touch
with the Father, who never left him on his own, and whom Jesus knew that always would hear him. From
this total confidence in and abandonment to God sprang Jesus’ amazing behaviour and teaching which made
the disciples repeatedly able to sense in him the presence of the living God himself. He invited his
disciples into his childlike relationship to God in order to fulfil completely his plan of love for
mankind. In its light Jesus hinted to himself as “the Son”, claiming mutual and exclusive
knowledge between the Father and him. He called himself so especially in reference to his tragic death,
the last in the line of rejected prophets. It was in such a context that his transfiguration took place on a
mountain before three apostles, privileged to see him as the only one
who truly can speak face-to-face with the Father. It was the dialogue
of love within God himself, the dialogue that God eternally is.

◊ Can we place Jesus in his time’s Jewish categories?

1st century Jews' hopes varied widely and no description of the
end-time agent of God was normative; indeed, some groups expected
no such agent. Jesus fits into many categories, but no one fits exactly.
He fits no title, though many titles converge on him.
* Jesus acted like “a prophet”, though different from the Baptist,
Jerusalem’s Temple during Jesus’ life.
at a time when no other assumed that role. Jesus went further,
behaving as the end-time prophet, empowered by God’s Spirit to proclaim Israel’s final chance to repent.
Jesus referred to himself as a prophet indirectly, and especially in a context of rejection. Since in his time
there was a growing spirituality concerning OT prophets as unwanted figures and often as martyrs, Jesus
implicitly was announcing his tragic death. Many were waiting for “the prophet” announced by Moses (Dt
18:15) and greater than him. They could acknowledge that Jesus’ teaching did not come from any school,
but from his totally unique intimacy with the heavenly Father.
* The title of “Messiah” is more difficult to discuss, since there was no one concept of what a/the
Messiah should be; indeed, some expectations had no relation with a special “anointed one”. Because Jesus
saw himself as the end-time prophet anointed with the Spirit, in that sense he would be a Messiah. His
disciples thought of him as the royal David’s son Messiah, but when Peter confessed him as such, Jesus
reacted with great reserve. Even his enemies interpreted him in this sense; it is confirmed by the charge on
which they brought him before Pilate: being “King of the Jews”.
* The peculiar name “Son of Man” goes back to Jesus and fits exactly with his method of speaking in
riddles and parables so as to lead gradually to the hidden reality than can be discovered only through
following him. It didn’t exist as a title in Judaism before him and didn’t appear in any Christian statements:
it occurs almost exclusively on Jesus’ lips in the NT, though it is present in all of the Gospel traditions. He
could use this enigmatic designation to surprisingly present himself as the powerful kingdom's lowly
messenger, who would be vindicated by God in the future. Indeed, the three predictions of the Son of Man's
destiny in John have him being “lifted up” in a double, inseparable sense: on the cross and into the heaven.
First crowds followed Jesus enthusiastically, but their expectations were so ambiguous, filled with
nationalistic hope, that he disappointed them. They felt oppressed not so much by their sins as by their
everyday sufferings, their lack of freedom, the wretched conditions of their existence. So, they gradually left
him in parallel with the growth of pressure from his opponents. These rejected his attacks on their religious
system, with the Temple at its centre, his way of behaving towards sinners and women, his very free
interpretation of Moses’ Law. Unless Jesus’ person and words radically surpassed his time’s hopes and
expectations, there is no way to explain why he was crucified or why he made such an impact.

JESUS’ LAST DAYS IN JERUSALEM

◊ Where did Jesus go to end his life?

In the first months of 30 AD Jesus went with his disciples
from Galilee to Jerusalem for the last time. It was a physical
ascent for it was going up to the Temple, but it was moreover a
spiritual ascent towards his self-offering on the cross, “loving to
the end”, which is the real mountain of God. After his greatest
sign, Lazarus’ raising on the fourth day after his death, Jesus
symbolically claimed Messiah’s status entering David’s city
seated on an ass’ colt. This solemn entry, full of allusions to OT
texts, manifested the kingdom’s coming which he was going to
accomplish by the Passover of his death and resurrection. Such
action, which he wanted be understood as fulfilment of prophecies, Jesus’ entrance in Jerusalem.
forced Israel’s capital to choose for or against Jesus, its final
prophet. Both deeds contributed to priests’ decision to strike at him during this visit, as opposed to his
earlier stays.

◊ How did Jesus understand and face his death?

Jesus’ attitude toward death is important for Christian faith. A first, general principle is that usually a
person dies as he lived. Except sudden reversals, his way of dying flows from and explains his way of living.
Founding his existence on total confidence in and surrender to God, who was coming to rule as Father,
Jesus’ message and behaviour consisted of radical love for God and neighbour, of humble service and
sacrifice for others, even for enemies. Jesus was indeed the “man for others” whose whole life
interprets his death and vice versa. In view of the mounting opposition against him, he would have been
very inexpert not to foresee the risk of a violent death when visiting the capital at Passover, when the great
festal crowds would make easier a lynch-mob. Besides, Jesus as the end-time prophet had to consider
the prospect of martyrdom and its meaning: 1st century Jews thought martyrs’ blood had an atoning
power for Israel’s sins. More concretely, John’s killing by Herod Antipas turned this theology into a real
possibility for Jesus. Using the image of the killed prophet or the Lord’s servant, he spoke of his approaching
death as part of God’s mysterious plan to save Israel. When Peter defy this idea, Jesus rebuked him in the
strongest terms: “Get behind me, Satan!” So, he entered Jerusalem to take his last step with which he
summed up his whole existence, giving himself without reserve, keeping nothing for himself, not even life.
For more clarity on how Jesus understood his death, we must turn to the Last Supper with his friends.

◊ What was the meaning of Jesus’ Last Supper?

On Thursday sunset, as the 14th of Nisan (Preparation Day) began, Jesus had a last meal with the
Twelve at the home of a Jerusalem supporter. Though the official Passover meal was to be held on the next
evening, this supper had at least some Passover touches. At the beginning and the end respectively, Jesus
used bread and wine to represent his coming sacrifice which he accepted to restore Sinai’s covenant
and bring in God’s kingdom. He saw this supper as the last in a whole series of meals he shared with
disciples and sinners alike in order to anticipate God’s communication of forgiveness and salvation. This
supper was a pledge that, despite his apparent failure, God would vindicate Jesus even beyond
death and bring him and his followers to the end-time banquet. Hence he insisted that the disciples all
would share his one cup rather than drink from their own cups: they were to hold fast to him as he died,
so that they might share his triumph in the kingdom. He offered himself to them, putting his Body and Blood
in their hands, so as to be with them always. Jesus’ final meal was also a teaching moment: once again, he
urgently set forth the heart of his message, the new commandment of loving each other as he loved them.
Jesus then prayed, turning his pain into an offering to the Father in order to give mankind God’s eternal life.

◊ How was Jesus arrested?

After eating, Jesus led his disciples to a small plot of land on or
at the foot of the Olives’ Mountain. His agony there had link with
the apparently contrasting Transfiguration. While he was praying,
he didn’t conceal his deep human distress in facing a violent and
unjust death, but with absolute trust handed over himself to the
Father. Afterwards he was arrested by an armed band leaded
by Judas, one of the Twelve. The group was under the control of
the high priest Caiaphas (18-36 AD), though there was Roman
participation. Jesus rejected armed resistance, he gave up
himself, while his disciples fled in shameful confusion.

Jesus’ hearing at night by the high priest. ◊ What were the charges against Jesus?
Between the arrest and the trial before Pontius Pilate, the
prefect of Judea (26-36 AD), Jesus was held in custody by the priestly authorities. Peter, who had followed
him at a distance, was confronted by priests’ servants and in a panic denied his relationship to Jesus though
he quickly repented. At least a hearing and perhaps a trial resulted in formal charges against Jesus
which were presented to the prefect. The religious accusations (threats against the temple, or teaching
contrary to the law, or leading the people astray as a false prophet, or claiming transcendent status) were
summed up under the label of blasphemy, broadly understood. Pilate, however, would have been interested
only in political crimes, and so Jewish authorities translated their concerns presenting Jesus as a
revolutionary, a false claimant to the throne. In a country
Sanhedrin was the supreme Jewish
where there was no firm boundary between politics and
Council who administered the law. It
religion, “King of the Jews” was the charge on which
consisted of 70 members not counting
Jesus was condemned, as an advertisement above his head
the high priest who was its president.
on the cross proclaimed. The separation - essential to his
At Jesus’ time they were priests,
message - of politics from faith was ultimately possible only
scribes, elders and other respected
through the cross, this total loss of all external power. Only
citizens from both main Jewish sects,
through faith in the Crucified One does the new people of God
Pharisees and Sadducees. Under
arise, following the new manner of God’s dominion in the
Rome’s dominion the Sanhedrin had
world. All through history, people look upon Jesus’ disfigured
authority to arrest, judge and punish
face and recognise in his powerless love the glory of God come
Jews in relation to certain religious and
not to be served but to serve and give his life as a ransom for
civil matters, but not to carry out
all of us.
sentences of death.
◊ How did Jesus die?
At the end of the Roman trial, almost certainly on 7th April 30 (if not, on 3rd
April 33), Jesus was condemned to die on the cross, the worst form of death,
that reserved for slaves and criminals. First he received the scourging, a cruel
mercy, intended to hasten death. So weakened was Jesus that he could not carry
his crossbeam; thus, the soldiers pressed into service one Simone from Cyrene (in
North Africa). The execution took place outside the city walls at Golgotha
(Skull Place). Two robbers or revolutionaries were crucified along with Jesus.
Mockery and abuse, narrated at various points during the trial, were also hurled at
Jesus as he hung on the cross. The only sympathetic witnesses were some female
disciples from Galilee, with Jesus’ mother and his beloved disciple. Although the
crucified sometimes lingered for days, Jesus’ death occurred quickly; hence
there was no need to hasten it by breaking his legs, as the two were done. Haste
was important, since at sundown would start Passover which that year coincided
with Sabbath. The special solemnity reinforced the general Jewish rule that
corpses were
JESUS’ SEVEN WORDS FROM THE CROSS
not to be left
“My God, my God, why have you abandoned me?” (Mt 27:46) Jesus on the cross in
hanging
“Forgive them, Father” (Lk 23:34) Mary and John’s
overnight, lest
“Today you will be with me in paradise” (Lk 23:43) presence.
the Holy Land
“Father, into your hands I commend my spirit” (Lk 23:46)
be defiled.
“He is your son… She is your mother” (Jn 19:26-27)
Jesus’ body would be disposed of hastily
“I am thirsty” (Jn 19:28)
in a common grave; but Joseph of
“It is finished” (Jn 19:30)
Arimathea, an influential Jew,
obtained from Pilate the corpse for (temporary?) burial in a tomb he owned nearby, while Mary
Magdalene and other Galilean women witnessed it.
 JESUS’ RESURRECTION

◊ Was Jesus’ resurrection an ordinary historical event?

No one said that he/she saw Jesus in the process of being raised, but
that they saw the risen Jesus. His resurrection was an event
surpassing time and space as he entered into eternal life: it take
place within God’s mystery between him and the Father. By its very nature
it lies outside history’s range:: it breaks open history and ushers in a new
dimension that is definitive. All the same his resurrection happened at a
precise moment in history and left an indelible mark upon it. Therefore it
can be attested by witnesses as an event of an entirely new kind, which
surpassed all that could be imagined. The empty tomb and other effects of
Jesus’ apparition to Mary
the resurrection do belong to our world. The following are also historical
Magdalene.
facts: that there were witnesses who boldly claimed that Jesus appeared to
them after his death, that they included first women and then disciples who had deserted him out of fear
and then did a incredible turnaround after his shocking death, that they were capable of propagating his
Church, and that some of them laid down their lives to defend the truth of their meetings with the risen
Jesus. How we do react to these facts and to the historical Jesus brings us beyond practical investigation
into the sphere of religious choice of faith or unbelief.

◊ How can we believe that Jesus is alive?

Being Christians is not the result of good ideas but of an encounter
with a living person: the glorified Lord. Like the search for his corpse,
the quest for the historical Jesus is overtaken by this
th faith experience: his
relations with his disciples do continue
continue.. For all those who believe in him,
Jesus is not only the Risen One: he is the resurrection and the life itself. In
him, our time is taken up into eternity. His new form of life is a
universal event. The gospels recall his earthly story in this eternal light.
lig
Interest in him has sense because he is the Living One immersed in every
epoch, hence also in our own.
own He not only was, he also is is, and we shall
be with him forever. Jesus is our reliable travelling companion in the
today and the now of our lives, while introducing us to unknown horizons of
life beyond death. If he would not been raised, we could still to piece
together from the Christian tradition a series of interesting ideas about God
The risen Jesus shows his and humans, a kind of religious worldview: but the faith itself would wo be
wounds to his disciples. dead. Jesus would be a leader who despite his failure remains great and
causes us to reflect, but his authority would extend only so far as his
message is of interest to us. Only if he is risen has anything really new occurred that changes the world and
humans’ situation. Then he becomes the criterion on which we can rely.

◊ What are the main reasons for being Christians

Christians?
Resurrection and love are two distinct reasons for being Christians: his resurrection as a new
dimension of being human, a decisive evolutionary leap in quality produced by God in Jesus and promised to
all; his love as a way of life that distinguishes God’s children and by now unfolds a future of hope for the
world. Both come together: resurrection is love’s triumph on the dea
death.
th. If we truly love God and our fellow
humans, in Jesus we too shall live forever. The Risen is the beginning of a new creation where love rules
every relationship. Jesus’ Church is the home of those who believe in him as the spring of
brotherhood among all humans.

In the NT there are two different types of Resurrection testimony:

• some “narrate” very different traditions about encounters with the risen Jesus and his words in
those appearances; in them women play a key role, preceding
preced men; just as there were only
women standing by the cross, apart from John, so too the first encounter with the risen Lord was
destined to be for them.
• out of these narrations,, “confessions” grew to express Christian identity, condensing the
essentials in short, fixed phrases that establish the kernel of what happened and that insist on
their binding character. In these official confessions only men are named as witnesses, for in
Israel women’s testimony was considered unreliable.
The meaning is like this:s: the Church’s juridical structure is founded on men (Peter and his fellow
apostles), but in the day-to-day day life it is women, and laypersons at large, who are constantly
accompanying Jesus to the cross, and so it is they who foremost come to experience hi
his resurrection.
 THE APOSTOLIC AGE (30-100 AD)
“With great power the apostles gave their testimony to the resurrection of the Lord Jesus, and
great grace was upon them all” (Acts 4:33).

◊ What did follow Jesus’ resurrection?

After Jesus’ resurrection his followers banded together. Due to his Passover, on the next feast of
Pentecost (i.e. Fiftieth Day), amid the Spirit’s creational wind and Sinai-like fire, God renewed his
covenant that would now affect all peoples. Jesus’ resurrection and the Spirit’s coming enabled the
disciples to discover Jesus’ mystery as the Son of God. Their memories of the few years they had spent with
him took on a new importance, and they began to try to reconstruct them. At once they started to proclaim
to Israel the good news: “God has made this Jesus whom you crucified both Lord and Messiah” (Acts 2:36).
Christian faith is based on this event, so meaningful that the disciples had to use a variety of images in their
attempts to express it. They called for faith in Jesus as the risen Son of God and the only means of
salvation. After the initial success among Palestinian Jews, the community gradually became aware of its
worldwide mission. So, that news was spread “from Jerusalem to the end of the earth” (Acts 1:8),
addressed first to Diaspora Jews and then to other nations (the so-called Gentiles). This progress had two
related outcomes: the Gentiles’ integration into a new people of God breaching any ethnic wall and the
refusal by the Jews’ majority.

◊ What were the features of Jerusalem Church’s Although there were Jesus’ followers who had
life? not received his baptism, the whole NT suggests
Acts 2:42 mentions four features of her life that it very fast became a standard feature of
pattern: prayer, breaking bread (i.e. Christian life. As a visible action it helped to
eucharist), Apostles’ teaching and shared designate who belonged to Jesus. The wide
goods. Indeed, these latter caused the first distribution of the term “communion” in NT books
recorded dispute within the community: shows that the baptised felt strongly they had
Jerusalem’s Christian Jews of both Hebrew and much in common. The name become the most
Hellenist languages and cultures were now popular, i.e. “Church” (“assembly”), reflects the
quarrelling about temple worship and the basic Exodus in which Israel came into being: though in
Jewish customs (circumcision, the Sabbath, food the four Gospels this name appears on Jesus’ lips
laws an purity regulations). May be the latter were only twice, he is presented as her builder, founder
trying to force the first to conformity by shutting off or cornerstone. Col and Eph direct our attention to
common funds from the Hellenist widows, who her as body of Christ, his bride whom he “loved
depended totally on these. Their meeting about the and gave himself up for her”, “the fullness of him
question had major consequences, because its who fills all in all”. 1Tim and Tit make her structure
acceptation of pluralism facilitated the a leitmotif: while the apostles were disappearing
missionary thrust. Cultural and theological and false teachers were emerging, the remedy was
differences deemed less important than their regular Church order, with supervisors (bishops),
common belief in Jesus. The Hellenists were given elders (priests) and deacons in the place of older
their own administrators, i.e. the seven (Stephen charismatic figures. At the beginning of the 2nd
and others). Such and similar structures’ gradual century, bishop Ignatius of Antioch’s letters could
development was seen as part of God’s refer to “the Catholic Church” and show this
guidance for the Church in reply to prayer. threefold order as universal.

◊ What was the Christians’ situation among the Jews?

At first the Twelve were persecuted by the Sanhedrin, but eventually they
won an unwilling tolerance. They remained Jews, though being an amazing
group within Judaism as the witnesses to the risen Jesus. Possibly in 36 AD “a
great persecution of the Church” took place, in which Stephen was killed. It
was against Hellenists, not Hebrew Christians, and therefore presumably was
motivated less by belief in Jesus than by their new understanding of Moses’
Law which paved the way for Paul’s teachings. This persecution caused the
Greek-speaking Christians to leave Jerusalem and to start a
widespread mission. Their acceptance of Gentiles in the Church without first
At Jesus’ time, the Great imposing them to become Jews provoked concern and even dissent among
Sanhedrin was the Jews’ Hebrew Christians. In the short interval when Judea was not ruled by Roman
supreme court; it had prefects, the new king, Herod Agrippa I (37-44) supported the Pharisees,
sessions in the Temple twice largely persecuted Christians and put to the sword James, son of Zebedee.
a week. Official Judaism gradually rejected Jesus’ followers.

◊ What were the different attitudes about Gentile converts and Moses’ law?
Jerusalem Council (probably in 49) debated about Gentiles’ conversion. This issue caused among
Christians at least four diverse attitudes as attested in NT writings: 1) Conservative Jew Christians
(Pharisees who believed Jesus or circumcision party) wanted Gentiles into Christianity provided they first
became Jews. 2) Peter and James agreed that they would be converted without circumcision, but insisted
on Gentiles’ observance of certain Jewish laws. 3) Paul assumed the tremendous task of crushing Judaist
Christians’ resistance, devoting his life to emancipate Christianity from those bonds which threatened to
strangle it holding it fast to its Jewish soil. He nowhere expressed his view of the Law’s demands on Jews
who believed Jesus, but resisted any imposition on Gentiles as contrary to Gospel’s freedom and to the truth
that salvation depends on Jesus’ cross, not on Law’s observance.
observance. Stressing love’s primacy, however, he
taught it hinders anyone from causing weak faithful to sin by going against their conscience which wants
them to follow the Law. 4) In time emerged a harsher break with Jews (Heb 8:13 says the new
covenant has made the first outdated, and Jn 15:25 reports Jesus calling Torah, “their law”). It is
remarkable that communion withstood this wide range of differences facing problems they had to
solve like every generation.

◊ What did happen in the last third of the 1st century?

The First Jewish War (66-73) 73) was not only Jews’ war against
Romans, but also a cruel civil war between rival factions. The
Christians,, following Jesus’ ethics of love and non non-violence,
refused to join the national revolt against Rome’s dominationdomination.
Even
ven before the beginning of the siege of Jerusalem they withdrew across
the Jordan to Pella: this
his furthered their alienation from Israel. The
resistance’s outcome was the total destruction of Jerusalem and its
temple by the Romans (70). It brought home a truth of tremendous
import. The native heart from which Christianity had sprung was not to The second Temple’s end (70 AD).
remain its permanent headquarters. The Lord’s word was fulfilled: Until today the Jews hope there w
will
Judaism was now actually rejected. For the Jews, this meant the bee a third one.
definitive end of their sacrifices and a decisive break with the
past. The OT had to be reread anew. Afterward, Judaism took a different form: religious practice shifted to
synagogue worship and a more intensive study of the Torah. The influence of the Jerusalem Sanhedrin,
headed by the high priest, waned. An academic Sanhedrin of 72 Pharisee elders in Jamnia (or Jabneh, south
of modern Tel Aviv) took over its authority trying to save Jews’ identity limiting pluralism: Essenes and
Sadducees became only bad memories; the Christians eventually were excluded from synagogues.
Without this umbrella, their faith became,
became under Roman law, an illicit superstition more exposed to official
persecution: it was started (64) against them by the emperor Nero.. This contributed to their
growing polemic against “the synagogue of Satan” and the Jews whose father was the devil. At the same
time, no longer could Jewish Christianity prove dangerous to the Church’s new spirit and universalism
because the very soil from which it would have to draw the strength for any successful opposition was that
of the homeland, now in ruins.

◊ How did the Church herself change at that time?

After the killing (62(62-67)
67) of the early Church’s three prominent figures
(James in Jerusalem, Peter and Paul in Rome), many issues took a different turn.
The direction became more pastoral, as the care for the communities founded between
the 30s and the 60s became a major concern. We know only few new Christian
leaders; rather, the trend was to write to a new generation in dead apostles’
behalf: James’ letter may be an example. But this period’s most important books
were certainly the four Gospels. At the same time the Church saw an internal
transition from Jewish to Gentile majority and dominance. Jerusalem’s fall
meant that at Gentile Christians no longer had to take in account the conservative Jew
Church, whose role had been central. Eventually she came to an end: in 135, after
another terrible war, r, Jerusalem became a pagan city and the Christian community
Peter’s crucifixion in there had a bishop of Gentile birth. By the late 1st century Rome’s Church was
Rome. pre-eminent. More and more clearly Christianity, begun within Judaism as a sect
expecting the imminent end of the world, appeared as a new religion, with a
particular belief, a distinctive litera ture and a fixed organisation centred on the episcopate. The
literature
last NT writings view faith as the acceptance of a set of statements, and do appeal to an authoritative
tradition against what was considered deviation. Catholic Church’s features began to emerge before the end
of the Apostles’ age. Israel’s institutions were regarded as finished: what was permanently worthwhile in
them was simply taken over as pertaining to Christians, not to “unbelieving Jews”. The place of temple’s
sacrifices was taken by the Eucharist,
ucharist, a pure offering magnifying God’s name among the Gentiles as foretold
by Mal 1:11. Yet vibrant elements of Jewish Christianity were preserved in Matthew’s gospel and
James’ letter.

◊ What was John’s special view and experience?

In Acts, receiving the Holy Spirit is seen as part of the baptismal entry into the believers’ communion. Yet
it was especially John who favoured animated imagery like the vine and the branches to portray Jesus not
presenc As God’s Son he has God’s life (6:57) and gives it to all who
as a past founder, but as a living presence.
believe in him in a birth of water and Spirit, and he nourishes it through the food and drink of his flesh and
blood. This gift of eternal life was the really important element for John. He didn’tdidn’t suggest any chain of
teachers to preserve Jesus’ message: that is the work of the Spirit who guides the Christians in the
way of truth. Such amazing vision of the Church didn’t offer a solution when John’s followers disagreed
among themselves, each group roup claiming to be guided by the Spirit. So, at the end of the 1st century, his
writings acknowledged the need for Church structures against the first evidence of broken
communion.
 THE FOUR GOSPELS
“There are also many other things which Jesus did; were every one of themthem to be written, I
the books that would be written” (Jn 21:25).
suppose that the world itself could not contain the

◊ What does ‘Gospel’ mean?

Gospel comes from two old English words (“god (“god-spel” meaning “good news”)) used to translate the
Greek term “Ευαγγηλιον”, Euangelion.. It was known to secular authors and was used above all to announce
a victory or great events in the life of the king
king,, or a message by him which obviously would change the
world for the better. It is not just information,
information, but action, efficacious power which comes to save. This word
is present 72 times in the NT referring to Jesus’ person and message as fulfilment of OT prophecies about
the living God’s power coming to act.. Because Mark used it at the beginning of his book,book the first of this
literary genre, any other similar to it was also called Gospel. The Church
accepted only the first four, written in apostolic time, and refused all the
others, written too late, from 150 AD on. Before the 4th century, the whole
fourfold collection was usually called “the Gospel”, the one and only Gospel of
Christ; its four components were distinguished by adding the words “according
to Matthew” and so on, though no Gospel identifies its author by name.

◊ Why are the Gospels the heart of all the Scriptures?

Today we use also the plural “Gospels”, meaning the four books which are
the heart of all the Scriptures because they are our main source for
Jesus’ life and teaching. The fourfold Gospel holds a unique place in the
Church, as is evident both in the reverence which the worship accords it and in
the extraordinary attraction it has exercised on the saints at all times. “There is
no doctrine which could be better, more precious and more splendid than the
text of the Gospel. Behold and retain what our Lord and Master, Christ, has
The four Evangelists’ taught by his word and accomplished by his deeds” (St. Caesarea the Younger).
symbols. “Above all it is the Gospels that occupy my mind when I am at prayer, my poor p
soul has so many needs, and yet this is the one thing needful. I am always
finding fresh lights there, hidden and fascinating meanings” (St. Therese of the Child Jesus).

◊ Why are the Gospels the most important source of our knowledge of Jesus?
We are so used to talk about Gospels that we don’t see how new this kind of literature was when it first
appeared. With it Jesus, the one who proclaimed the good news became the subject of the proclamation; the
single Gospel he preached became texts reporting
report Jesus’ history. We cannot exaggerate their
the importance for
our knowledge of what Jesus did and said. Apart from them we have only scattered references to him
in a few Roman (by Pliny, Tacitus, Suetonius) and Jewish (by Joseph Flavius) works. He lived,
lived simply, to the
full; he spoke too, and that’s all: he himself left no writing. Even the other NT books, while providing
priceless material for the theology of Jesus’ person and saving life, death and resurrection, tell us very little
about his activities and teaching. An intelligent and faith faith-filled
filled reading of the Gospels, then, is
necessary for a Christian knowledge of our Saviour. Such a reading requires some information on how
they were composed. At one time or another we have all dreamed of having photographs photo of Jesus,
recordings of his words s on CD, so to be in direct touch with Jesus
Jesus.. In fact the Gospels give us something
much better: through them, his disciples tell us who he really was, how they gradually discovered his
mystery, and what changed their lives. Their witnesses some years afterwards show Jesus at a
deeper level than a newspaper account. They introduces us to the believers’ living community, and it is
within this Church that we are invited to encounter the Lord Jesus. Our communities, today, have to
continue the work of discovering Jesus through our life and questions, in order to faithfully show him to the
world as the good news it needs.

◊ What is the convenience of having four Gospels?

Having
aving four Gospels gives us a much more comprehensive picture of Jesus than if
there had been only one. Each representation of him has something special and
important to bring to the whole. In all of these four inspired versions Jesus is clearly
the same but each one’s stress on different aspects of his life, message and
work gives us distinct insights into the God God-man’s infinite mystery. What we
have are Jesus’ deeds and words interpreted by authentic witnesses in the lilight
ght of their
lives. So, each Gospel tells us about Jesus, but it tells us as much about the An ancient picture
communities in which it was formed. Similarly, the life of our communities today is of Jesus as the
always the starting point from which we are better able to understand him, on condition
condition world’s Alfa and
that we respect each one of these witnesses as they were inspired by the Holy Spirit. Omega.

◊ How does Mark represent Jesus?

Mark, writing for a persecuted Church, emphasizes Jesus as the one who brings God’s
kingdom but who is, from beginning to end, misunderstood, rejected, and finally put to death. Mark
presents us with the everyday Jesus, a man like ourselves
ourselves,, and reports certain features which stun who is
accustomed to see him as God’s Son
Son. Because
ecause he followed the path of humble service and suffering,
sufferi the
Jews - and his disciples as well - found it hard to recognize him as the Messiah. In Mark we have sometimes
the illusion of discovering Jesus through Peter’s eyes. He emphasizes actions rather than teachings and
rarely uses the past tense; this is his conviction: the Jesus whom he portrays is always present in the life of
his community which believes in him, proclaims him and honours him.

◊ How does Matthew represent Jesus?

When we change from Mark to Matthew, we get the impression that we are moving into a different
country: here we are never quite sure whether we are beside Jesus in the year 30 or at a Church’s
liturgy in the 80s. Or better, Matthew puts us in both places at the same time, revealing to us the
historical Jesus’ face through the glorious features of the Risen Lord celebrated by the Church. In many
occasion he presents himself and is proclaimed Son of God. Matthew’s Jesus is solemn, potent,
without emotions. Writing for a largely Jewish Christian community, Matthew focuses on Jesus’
relationship to Jews’ faith. He stresses how Jesus was the fulfilment of all the prophecies and
divine promises of the OT, the new Lawgiver, the Teacher of a new covenant, the founder of a new and
purified Israel. He strongly denounces the two-faced outlook of the Pharisees and judges them for failing
to believe in Christ. He systematically presents Jesus’ teaching for the Church’s inner life and
missionary work.

◊ How does Luke represent Jesus?

Luke did not know Jesus personally: so the Jesus whom he discovered is not primarily the itinerant
prophet of Galilee but the glorified Lord showing himself to Paul on the Damascus road. Easter’s glory
surrounds Jesus from his birth onwards. Luke is the only evangelist to call him “Lord” when he is talking
about him. He portrays him as the promised universal Saviour, the Messiah son of David and the Son of
God. For him Jesus is the rejected Prophet who is the hope of the poor and outcasts, namely the
needy, sick, women and sinners to whom he promises and grants God’s forgiveness and blessing. Jesus is
also fully man. He lives what he proclaims so perfectly that he is the model of the perfect man, transfigured
by the Spirit, living in his Father’s arms. He constantly lives in the Father’s presence and his prayer
demonstrates it. Confronted with him, men must make their choice for him, today, simply because he is who
is, so full of tenderness but also terribly demanding. This total faith which gets salvation is the source of joy
which irradiates the Gospel and transforms the disciple.

◊ How does John represent Jesus?

John goes deepest into God’s revelation showing Jesus as the eternal Word and Wisdom, the
one sent by the Father into the world to give life to it through the knowledge of the truth. His
Gospel is far more concerned than the other three to bring out the meaning of Jesus’ life and of all he
did and said in the light of the complete understanding made possible by the Spirit after the
resurrection. Jesus is his Father’s perfect revelation.

◊ What were the three stages in forming the Gospels?

In the formation of the Gospels we can distinguish three steps:
1. The life and teaching of Jesus (about 6 BC-30 AD). The Church holds firmly that the four Gospels,
whose historicity she affirms without doubt, faithfully hand on what Jesus, the Son of God, while living
among men, really did and taught for their eternal salvation, until the day when he was taken up.
2. The oral tradition (about 30-100 AD). After the Lord went to heaven, his apostles handed on to
their hearers what he had said and done, but with that fuller understanding which they, instructed by the
glorious events of Christ and enlightened by the Spirit of truth, now enjoyed.
3. The written Gospels (about 65-100 AD). Four authors selected several of the many elements
handed on, either orally or already in written form, synthesizing or explaining them with an eye to the
situation of their Christian communities. They maintained the form of preaching, but always telling the
honest truth about Jesus. Each one’s aim is well summed by Jn 20:31: to give a selection of Jesus’ deeds
and words in order to induce faith in him and so to share his life.

◊ Why are three of the Gospels called Mt 8:2–3 Mk 1:40–42 Lk 5:12–13

‘synoptic’?
And behold, And, calling out to him, And behold,
The four Gospels fall naturally into a leper came there comes to him a leper a man full of leprosy.
two groups: on one side the first three But, upon seeing Jesus,
(by Mark, Matthew and Luke) which and worships and kneeling and he fell upon his face
are very similar; on the other John’s by and requested
itself because it is rather different. The him, saying: saying to him: him, saying:
first three are called “synoptic” Lord, if you wish, If you wish, Lord, if you wish,
I can be cleansed. I can be cleansed. I can be cleansed.
(from Greek words meaning “at And, moved with compassion,
one glance”) for they follow the And he stretched out his he stretched out his And he stretched out his
same general outline in narrating hand and touched him, hand and touched him hand and touched him,
Jesus’ public ministry, and report much saying: and says to him: saying:
the same incidents in his career and I wish it; be cleansed. I wish it; be cleansed. I wish it; be cleansed.
And immediately And immediately And immediately
the same accounts of his teaching. his leprosy the leprosy the leprosy
When placed in parallel columns so to left him, left him.
be seen together it becomes evident was cleansed. and he was cleansed.
that many of their narratives are
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very often word for word the same. To explain why, is the so called Synoptic Question. A commo common
oral tradition as their base is certain, but by itself it could never account for the many striking
similarities. A written tradition would be a better explanation, but the theory that the three authors just
drew independently on such source(s) could nev never explain passages where their likeness and
divergences show that at times they did copy or correct one another.

◊ What do the synoptic Gospels show after detailed study?

Detailed study shows that:
1) almost the entire Gospel of Mark is contained in those of Matthew and Luke;
2) Matthew and Luke share a great deal of Jesus’ teaching which is not found in Mark, but
without any direct dependence in either direction between them;
3) both Matthew and Luke contain valuable information about Jesus that is p proper to each of
them. This is most evident in their accounts of Jesus’ infancy.

◊ What is the most satisfying solution to the Synoptic Question?

Many solutions have been proposed to explain this body of similarities and differences among these
three Gospels.
pels. It was long thought that Matthew’s was the first one to be written, that Mark abbreviated it
for his own purposes and that Luke borrowed heavily from it rearranging much of its material. But a major
difficulty with this theory is explaining why Mark would have omitted so much valuable Matthew’s material
(for example, the entire Sermon on the Mount with the Lord’s
Prayer). Today the vast majority of both Catholic and Protestant
experts accepts a more satisfying solution to the problem,
though it is still
ll incapable of absolute proof. It was firstly
proposed near the end of the 19th century, when scholars showed
that:
1) Mark was the first Gospel to be written; he created
the literary genre of Gospel, i.e. an orderly, written account of
Jesus’ ministry. Both Matthew and Luke followed this model
and copied it almost entirely (80 and 65 % respectively).
Mark’s narrative thus became the framework for their Gospels.
2) Matthew and Luke, independently of each other, had
to use another written document (called Q from the German
word “Quelle”, meaning “Source”). It no longer exists: so its
contents and nature are known only from the use Matthew and
Luke made of it. It was not a Gospel since it contained little or no
account of Jesus’ activities, death and resurrection.
resurre It was,
rather, a collection of his teachings and parables, like the
material of the Sermon on the Mount (which Matthew has
gathered into chapters 5-7 7 while Luke has distributed it
throughout his Gospel). Mark has not this material because he
was not familiar with Q.
3) Both Matthew and Luke used different material not
known to other Gospel writers.. From these sources, for example, they derived their quite different
Infancy Narratives.

◊ Were the Synoptic writers original authors?

The Synoptic writers
rs were not mere copyist but each of them was an author in his own right. They
derived their material from sources, but they used it creatively, providing us with distinct portraits of
Jesus, each produced by a writer who was both a skilled artist and an insightful
insightful theologian.

◊ What is the style of each of the Gospels?

Mark’s Greek is rough, strongly redolent of Aramaic, often faulty, but fresh, lively and attractive.
Matthew’s Greek is less marked by Aramaic as well as more correct though less picturesque.
picturesqu
Luke excels when writing independently, but out of respect for his sources he incorporates their
imperfections after polishing them a little. Occasionally he goes out of his way to imitate the LXX.
John’s Gospel shows that he thinks in Aramaic but his Greek reek is good though it is not of a
learned person; his vocabulary is the poorest among all the books of the NT (only 1,011 different words).

SOME MATERIAL COMMON TO ALL GOSPELS

Matthew Mark Luke John

John the Baptist 3:1-6 1:2-6 3:1-6 1:19--23
John’s preaching 3:1-12 1:7-8 3:15-18 1:24--28
Jesus’ baptism 3:13-17 1:9-11 3:21-22 1:29--34
First disciples’ call 4:18-22 1:16-20 5:1-11 1:35--51
The temple’s cleansing 21:12-13 11:15-17 19:45-46 2:14--22
Five thousand fed 14:13-21 6:32-44 9:10b-17 6:1--15
Peter’s confession of faith 16:13-20 8:27-30 9:18-21 6:67--71
 Glorious entry in Jerusalem 21:1-9 11:1-10 19:28-40 12:12-19
Jesus’ anointed by a woman 26:6-13 14:3-9 7:36-50 12:1-8
The last supper 26:26-35 14:22-31 22:15-34 13:1-17:26
Jesus arrested 26:47-56 14:53-62 22:47-53 18:2-12
Jesus before the Sanhedrin 26:57-68 14:63-65 22:54-71 18:13-24
The trial before Pilate 27:11-14 15:2-5 23:2-5 18:29-38
Jesus’ crucifixion 27:33-37 15:22-26 23:33-34 19:17-27
Jesus’ death 27:45-56 15:33-41 23:44-49 19:28-30
Jesus’ burial 27:57-61 15:42-47 23:50-56 19:38-42
The women at Jesus’ tomb 28:1-8 16:1-8 24:1-12 20:1-13

SOME MATERIAL PECULIAR TO EACH GOSPEL

Matthew: Events: Angelic dream appearance to Joseph (1:18-25); the child Jesus visited by wise men from
the east (2:1-12); the flight to Egypt (2:13-25); the slaughter of Bethlehem’s male
children (2:16-18); Jesus’ family settling in Nazareth (2:19-23); Jesus promising the
primacy to Peter (16:17-19); the tax paid by Jesus and Peter (27:24-27); Judah’s
suicide (27:3-10); the guards at Jesus’ tomb (27:62-66).
Parables: the city on a hill (5:14); the weeds among wheat (13:24-30); the hidden treasure
(13:44); the pearl found by a merchant (45-46); the net full of good and bad fish
(13:47-48); the forgiven nonpayer not forgiving his fellow servant (18:23-35); the
workers in the vineyard (20:1-16); the willing and the unwilling sons (21:28-32); the
wise and the foolish virgins (25:1-13).
Mark: Events: Jesus teaching on clean and unclean (7:14-23); healing of a deaf man (7:31-37); a boy
running away naked (14:51-52).
Parables: the seed growing by itself (4:26-29).
Luke: Events: John’s and Jesus’ annunciation, birth and circumcision (1:5-2:21); Jesus’ presentation in
the temple (2:22-40); the boy Jesus’ Passover in Jerusalem (2:41-52); the Samaritan
rejection and non-retaliation (9:51-56); the sending of seventy (-two) disciples (10:1-
2); Jesus’ comments on facts of chronicle (13:1-5); a Samaritan leper’s gratitude and
faith (17:11-19); Zacchaeus’ conversion (19:1-10); the condemned Jesus’ call for
repentance to Jerusalem’s women (23:26-31); the crucified Jesus’ prayer for his
enemies (23:32-34); the good criminal’s conversion (23:40-43); the risen Jesus and
Emmaus’ disciples (24:13-35).
Parables: the good Samaritan (10:29-37); the rich fool (12:13-21); the unfruitful fig tree (13:6-
9); the builder of a tower (14:28-30); the king going to war (14:31-32); the lost sheep
(15:3-7): the lost coin (15:8-10); the lost son (15:11-32); the unfair steward (16:1-
8); the rich and the poor (16:19-31); the wicked judge (18:1-8); the Pharisee’s and
the publican’s prayers (18:9-14).
John: Events: Jesus proclaimed Lamb of God (1:29-34); Philip’s and Nathaniel’s calls (1:43-51); the
wedding in Cana (2:1-12); Nicodemus’ visit to Jesus (3:1-21); the Samaritan woman
(4:1-42); the cripple’s healing at the pool (5:1-18); Jesus at Shelters’ feast in
Jerusalem (7:1-8:59); healing of a man born blind (9:1-12); Lazarus’ resurrection
(11:1-16); Jesus washing his disciples’ feet (13:1-20); the promise of the Holy Spirit
(14:15-31); Jesus’ prayer for his disciples (17:1-26); the risen Jesus and Thomas
(10:24-29); the risen Jesus and Peter (21:15-19).
Parables: the bridegroom and his friend (3:29); the slave and the son (8:35); the shepherd
(10:1-21); the one who walks at night (11:9-10); the grain of wheat (12:24); the vine
and its branches (15:1-8); the birth pangs (16:21).

THE GOSPEL OF MARK:

JESUS, THE CHRIST, SON OF GOD

◊ Who was Mark?

The Gospel according to Mark is the shortest. Many agree it was the first to be written. From the
beginning of the 2nd century it has been unanimously attributed to John Mark. He was son of Mary, a
leading Christian woman of Jerusalem, in whose house the early Church used to meet (Acts 12:12).
When he was a boy he himself could see Jesus. A cousin of Barnabas (Col 4:10), he went with him and Paul
on their first missionary journey but left them to return home (Acts 12:25; 13:5; 15:36-39). For this reason
Paul refused to take him on his second mission causing his parting from Barnabas. However they were later
reconciled, since he was later a companion and assistant to Paul (Col 4:10) and Peter in Rome (1Pt
5:13).

◊ Who did Mark write his Gospel for, and when did he write it?
Mark wrote in Rome; this earliest tradition is supported by Latin loanwords present in the Greek text.
Moreover he wrote for non-Jews, since he has little concern to show the Gospel’s connection with the OT.
On the contrary, he feels the need to explain Jewish customs and Aramaic expressions, to give geographical
details and to highlight the message’s meaning for Pagans. The same tradition says he wrote after Peter’s

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death during the persecution started in 64 by the emperor Nero. Yet, the prediction of Jerusalem temple’s
destruction in 70 appears to be written before the event, whereas its parallels in Matthew and Luke fit the
known facts. Accordingly he wrote between 65 and 70. His aim was to deepen the faith of his suffering
community: this dramatic situation colours his whole narrative and shapes his presentation of Jesus. It was
not a quiet faith: it came up against opposition and was forced to take risks. He wanted above all provide
Roman Christians in order to face persecution and resist their world’s temptations. Other purposes
maybe were: to preserve Peter’s memories, to combat some deviations, to provide a readings book for
Christian worship.

Mark wrote in Rome; this earliest tradition is supported by Latin loanwords present in the Greek text.
Moreover he wrote for non-Jews, since he has little concern to show the Gospel’s connection with the OT.
On the contrary, he feels the need to explain Jewish customs and Aramaic expressions, to give geographical
details and to highlight the message’s meaning for Pagans. The same tradition says he wrote after Peter’s
death during the persecution started in 64 by the emperor Nero. Yet, the prediction of Jerusalem temple’s
destruction in 70 appears to be written before the event, whereas its parallels in Matthew and Luke fit the
known facts. Accordingly he wrote between 65 and 70. His aim was to deepen the faith of his suffering
community: this dramatic situation colours his whole narrative and shapes his presentation of Jesus. It was
not a quiet faith: it came up against opposition and was forced to take risks. He wanted above all provide
Roman Christians in order to face persecution and resist their world’s temptations. Other purposes
maybe were: to preserve Peter’s memories, to combat some deviations, to provide a readings book for
Christian worship.

◊ Has Mark’s Gospel any structure?

Mark did not make it all up himself: he used various kinds of traditions: sayings, parables,
controversies, healing stories, other miracles and probably a passion narrative. Some of them may also have
been grouped. Until recently anyone thought he wrote without order, but today experts show how he
imposed a tight geographical-theological structure on his sources, writing bridge passages between
them and adding comments for his readers. He did not claim to represent events as they actually happened
but as they were seen by Peter and his fellow disciples as they followed they teacher on Palestine’s roads.
Afterwards, Matthew and Luke (but not John) followed his framework.

◊ What does the geographical aspect of Mark’s Gospel feature?

Mark’s geographical aspect features Jesus’ movement from Galilee to Jerusalem. They are in
opposition: in the eyes of the religious authorities Galilee of the Gentiles had not very pure belief, but Jesus
opened it up and the crowds gave him an enthusiastic welcome. By contrast, Jerusalem seemed to be a city
shut in on itself, a refuge for people certain of their truth and not allowing any contradiction. From the
beginning of Jesus’ ministry, the fiercest attacks on him came from there.

◊ What is Mark’s outline?

In the prologue (1:1-13), Mark lets his readers into the secret: the man Jesus is Christ and Son of God.
So the reader knows what is going on. However he is invited to share with the disciples their slow discovery
of Jesus’ mystery. Then the first half of the Gospel describes his activity in Galilee and beyond. We
see: a) the revelation of his disputed authority in work and word (1:14-3:6); b) the rejection of him by his
own people (3:7-6:6a); c) the misunderstanding of him even by his disciples (6:6b-8:26). This part is
articulated by three summaries (1:14-15; 3:7-12; 6:6b) each of which is followed by news about the
disciples (1:16-20; 3:13-19; 6:7-30) and ends showing how Jesus’ true identity was misunderstood (3:6;
6:1-6a; 8:17-21).
The second half also falls into three sections but it focuses on Jerusalem: a) the journey from
Galilee, when Jesus clarifies the nature of his authority and its consequences for who follows him (8:27-
10:52); b) the symbolic actions and teachings during the first part of Passion week in Jerusalem where he
meets inflexible resistance (11:1-13-37); c) his eventual acceptance of a cruel and tragic death (at the
hands of those who rejected his authority) before his resurrection (14:1-16:8). Moreover, the first of these
three sections is articulated by three predictions of the Passion (8:31; 9:30-31; 10:33-34) each of which is
followed by a mention of the disciples’ lack of understanding (8:32-
33; 9:32-34; 10:35-37) and by an admonition to them (8:34-38; Controversy (discussion
9:35-37; 10:38-45). between teachers) was a genre
in which they were trained. We
◊ How is Mark’s outline significant? often find the following pattern:
• An action or saying of Jesus
Apart from individual sequence of facts, this broad outline is
artificial since it is likely (and to judge by John’s Gospel fairly provokes amazement, often
certain) that Jesus visited Jerusalem several times before the last insincere, on the part of the
Passover of his life. All the same, it is both factually and audience
theologically significant. It means that the general public at first • The debate begins
received Jesus warmly but their enthusiasm faded as they found he • At the end, the real point at
will not fulfil their political hopes. As a result, he left Galilee to
issue emerges. It is
concentrate on the instruction of a small group of followers. Peter’s
profession of faith at Caesarea Philippi showed that he had secured necessary to make a choice,
their belief: this was a key turning-point and occasioned a change and often the parties differ
in Jesus’ tactics. We feel Jesus breathed a sigh of relief; one step has
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been taken: his disciples have seen one part of his mystery. At the same time, however, he started to lead
them towards the second stage: he would be put to death!

◊ Why is Mark intent on explaining the growing opposition against Jesus in Jerusalem?
After that turning-point Jesus focused on Jerusalem and on the way he taught his disciples the true
nature of his being Messiah, for he knew that in the holy city opposition continued mounting. The Gospel is
intent on explaining this scandal, not only by contrasting the cross with the triumph of the resurrection but
also by showing the hostility itself was an integral part of God’s mysterious plan. Jesus’ mission was
not to be carried out by force or for political ends, but it was necessary that he would suffer to free the
whole mankind (10:45; 14:24), since this had been foretold by the OT (9:12; 14:21,49). This paradox is
Mark’s central interest: how Jesus, while remaining misunderstood and rejected, was God’s winning envoy.
Persecution and even death could not defeat him: when unwanted by Israel he founded a New Israel
(3:7-19) and when his family refused to have faith in him he formed a new family of believers (3:33-35).

◊ What is Mark’s theology?

Many times Mark calls Jesus “teacher” and says he was teaching, but does record only few of his sayings.
The large space given to exorcisms and healings proves that he revered Jesus as a wonder-worker, but for
him the passion and death are the high point of his revelation. Without the cross, Jesus’ portrayal as teacher
and wonder-worker would lack its balance and directing principle. Mark’s real good news is the crucified
Messiah’s manifestation. Because it is centred on Jesus’ rejection, suffering and death, it has been said “a
Passion Narrative with a long introduction”: this is only a small overstatement. Fully conscious that Roman
Christians were facing torture and death for their faith, Mark stressed that Jesus’ life was one of humility and
submission and that true believers must walk the same path.
Thus from Jesus’ first proclamation of God’s Kingdom (1:14-15), he and his message are
progressively refused by Israel’s leaders (2:1-3:6) and also by his own relatives (3:7-6:1-6a). When his
disciples do recognize him as the Messiah (8:27-30) it is soon evident that even they misunderstand
what kind of Messiah he is. So he must explain the path of suffering which his Father has willed him to
walk. Eventually the disciples betray (14:10-11), desert (14:50) and deny him (14:66-72). It is a Pagan
soldier who does recognize Jesus for whom he really is, the Son of God (15:39): he does so not
because of miracles or any display of power, but only because Jesus died in that way. The
message is clear: in this life Jesus is to be found in suffering (glory will come later). May be for this reason
the risen Christ doesn’t appear in this Gospel proper (16:9-20 is later writers’ appendix which shortly
sums up Lk 24 and Jn 20). Mark is satisfied with proclaiming the resurrection (16:1-8) without emphasizing
it. It is the suffering Jesus who has most meaning for Christians, particularly for the persecuted ones.

◊ What is the ‘Messianic secret’ in Mark?

Jesus’ hiding of his being the Messiah has been called “Messianic secret”. Before his process he never
took for himself this title and also forbade others to mention it. He even silenced the demons that did
recognize him. Rather he used the modest and mysterious expression “Son of Man” (2:10). The reason was
that the Jews expected an earthly Messiah who would bring political liberation and material prosperity. If
Jesus had announced that he was indeed the Messiah he would have caused false hopes since that was not
the kind of Messiah his Father had sent him to be. Instead people had to believe Jesus as he was, not
as they wanted him to be. Mark stressed this secret but didn’t invent it: only, it accorded perfectly with
his aim to present Jesus as one who suffers and is misunderstood rather than as one who comes in glory.
Only before the Sanhedrin, when he knew of being already condemned and that there was therefore no
danger of being taken as a worldly King, Jesus clearly declared himself to be Christ. Mark continues to make
us ask questions: are we ready to leave the ideas we have of him in order to accept him as he is: totally
upsetting?

◊ Who is the salvation age passed down from?

The salvation age prophesied in the OT is the time of proclaiming the good news which also
calls to regret. It begins with John the Baptist, is taken up by Jesus, and is continued by the disciples and
eventually in the Church’s universal mission. Significantly, however, Mark reserves to Jesus the
proclamation of the coming of God’s kingdom. In Judaism of his time the “kingdom” referred to the
definitive display of God’s lordship at the end of history and to its acknowledgment by all creation. Jesus
aimed at deepening the people’s understanding so to prepare them to accept the coming kingdom as a
mystery. He taught about it through parables, but his life was its best parable. Whoever wishes to
understand it must look at Jesus, for he is God’s perfect intervention in human history. His repeated
conquering Satan’s kingdom proves that God’s kingdom acts in him (3:23-27). His healings foresee what life
in this kingdom will be like. Its nature as the revelation of God’s love and mercy is verified in Jesus’ concern
for sinners (2:5,16-17) and for those most in need of God’s nearness (1:40-45; 3:1-6; 5:21-43). The
kingdom is not merely a promise for the future, but also a reality in the present: though it is now largely
hidden, in Jesus it is inaugurated and anticipated. It is a total transformation of everyday life for those
who give up their self-centred concerns and submit in faith to Jesus’ person and message (1:15).
Basically the kingdom is living as his disciples, i.e. “being with” Jesus and sharing his mission of preaching
and healing (3:14-15). The first disciples’ relationship with him and experience of his person serve as a
pattern for all ages, because all peoples to the end of the earth are destined to become Jesus’ disciples.

◊ How does Mark use the Twelve to illustrate discipleship?

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 Discipleship is Mark’s other major theme; he uses the twelve apostles to illustrate it in
parallelism with his community. The passages relating the call of the first ones (1:16-20;
(1:16 20; 2:13-14;
2:13 3:13-19;
6:6b-13) are among the most positive stories in the Gospel. As the narrative proceeds, however, their
ignorance, slowness to listen and understand, ambition, greed and fearfulness are openly
displayed. Mark doesn’t hesitate to show all their human weakness. In the first half of the Gospel they are
examples to be imitated, but in the second half they are examples to be avoided. The effect of this shift is to
highlight Jesus as the only one who deserves total imitation. With the invitation “Follow me!” he
presents himself as a guide who knows both the destination and the way to reach it. His path is not a norm
imposed externally. He himself walks along it and asks no more of the disciples than to follow his example.
Discipleship doesn’t imply one success after another, but rathe
ratherr repeated failures and a constant coming
back to Jesus. It is faith in spite of mistakes, frustration and suffering. Most of all it implies
determination not to be served, but to serve. Jesus’ service is limitless and includes the sacrifice of his life as
the highest expression of love. For this reason discipleship includes to accept persecution, even to die a
violent death. Only when the disciples have learned the lesson of the cross they are fit to meet their Risen
Lord in Galilee (14:27-28; 28; 16:7) and to take up his mission. They, therefore, don’t show only the
discipleship’s difficulties, but also that difficulties can be overcome, and so they encourage the reader to
true discipleship despite hardships.

◊ What relevance has Mark’s Gospel in Africa?

Mark describes single events in a vivid way. His narratives are always sprinkled with touches from real
life and make an emotional impact. People who love storytelling do find his Gospel very interesting. Many
Africans, in spite of the modern mass media, still learn by oral communication. It would be fruitful to
experiment on how easy or difficult it is to narrate anew Gospel stories according to Mark.
Jesus suffered for a noble cause, to protect sinners, women, children, sick and other despised people.
Africa is often described as a dark and fragmented continent: it needs heroes and heroines who will work to
improve the situation of oppressed people. In doing so, they have to expect opposition and suffering like
Jesus. While all must be done to reduce pain, let’s’s take courage from him who was willing to suffer in
order to assist the neglected.
In Mark Jesus is always with his disciples; they are appointed at a very early stage. Against this
background, Jesus’ solitude appears all the more dramatic. In the first half of the Gospel the disciples appear
as committed followers of Jesus, but as time goes by they depart from their teacher’s direction and come to
abandon him. What happened to them is constantly repeated in history. Now many Africans Africa follow
Jesus, but for how long? Why are they following him? How deep is their faith? May the study of Mark’s
Gospel contribute to boost Africans’ faith in Jesus, the non violent and not political Liberator.

◊ A help to read the text:

Mk 1:1-8: Mark has no infancy narrative but, after the title which introduces Jesus as Christ and Son of
God, he relates OT promises to John the Baptist, a prophet after Elijah’s pattern. His preaching and baptism
set up the way for the “stronger one” who would baptise with the Holy Spirit.
Mk 1:9-13: As preparation for his ministry, Jesus undergoes baptism and is tested by Satan in the
desert. After John has introduced him, God himself confirms him as his beloved Son. Both witnesses help us
to understand what follows. Mark’s short version of Je Jesus’
sus’ temptations is to be seen against the background
of Jewish’s belief that in the last days the evil spirit would be conquered in a great contest of strength.
JESUS MISUNDERSTOOD IN GALILEE
Mk 1:14-15: John’s arrest indicates Jesus’ destiny. After returning to Galilee, he starts to preach the
good news. His ministry’s first summary set in an end-time
end time context all he says and
does in the rest of the Gospel.
20: Jesus’ call of his first four disciples provides a model of response.
Mk 1:16-20:
So compelling is he that no preparation is needed for these fishermen to leave
behind family and financial security. He gives them a new role: to fish people. Three
of them had a special place among the Twelve, he gave them a new name and used
to take them alone for further, deeper revelations.
34: In an eventful day in Capernaum, Peter’s hometown, Jesus reveals
Mk 1:21-34:
himself as a healer and a teacher endowed with authority.
45: Jesus in prayer decides to broaden his mission. By touching the
Mk 1:35-45:
leper Jesus risks himself by love and opens the way to take care of the stigmatized
(like today HIV/AIDS victims). The healing ends with Jesus’ command to follow
Moses’ law: so, it prepares the following five stories which introduce various
Jesus healing a leper. opponents
ponents who move from admiration to plotting against Jesus’ life.
3:6: Jesus’ deeds (forgiving sins, mixing with sinners, healing on the
Mk 2:1-3:6:
Sabbath etc.) cause debates. During them, Jesus reveals himself as the Son of Man who can forgive sins,
the Physician
ician come to save people, the Bridegroom bringing new wine and joy, the Lord of Sabbath who
deems man more important than any law.
Mk 3:7-12: This second summary tells of the general enthusiastic welcome accorded to Jesus the healer.
Mk 3:13-19: Jesus’ appointment
pointment of the Twelve is the main step in his constitution of the new people of
God, hinting at Israel’s tribes and pointing to the endend-time
time people of God’s kingdom. Mark presents here his
ideal of discipleship: being with Jesus and sharing his ministry.
Mk 3:20-35: The opposition arrives to attribute to the Evil One what is the Holy Spirit’s work. A such
attitude makes salvation impossible for it means to shutting oneself off from God’s grace and forgiveness.
 Mk 4:1-34: After saying often that Jesus taug taught, finally Mark
reports his teaching. It consists especially of parables
comparing God’s kingdom with the marvellous growth of seeds
and the abundant harvest coming at the end. This form of
speech allowed Jesus to involve his hearers more than plain
speech h could do, but Mark intended it as Jesus’ voluntary hiding
of the mystery of the kingdom to the crowds.
Mk 4:35-5:43: Jesus’ teaching is followed by three miracle
stories (a fourth is inserted into the third, according to the
typical Mark’s sandwich device) ce) in which he reveals his power
over Satan in nature, possession, disease and death.
Mk 6:1-6a: The second section of Mark’s first half ends with
a story of the rejection of Jesus even by his own people, in the Jesus calming the lake of Galilee.
same way as the first one ended in Pharisees and Herodians’ plot
against him.
Mk 6:6b-34: The opening part of this third section uses again tthe he sandwich device to present Jesus’
disciples sent out on a mission, John the Baptist’s martyrdom, and then the disciples’ return. Missionary
discipleship may involve suffering and death, and John’s destiny foreshadows that of Jesus and his disciples.
In sending them, Jesus bans to take anything for the journey because they have to trust in God totally and
to show they have no economic interest. Coming back, they give Jesus report of their work, and he invites
them to a lonely place for a rest.
Mk 6:35-7:37: This and the following part have a similar structure (perhaps they formed a pre-Mark pre
“breads’ book”, so called for using many times the word “bread”. The main episode of both parts is a
wonderful feeding of thousands, which point forward to the end end-time banquet at which the Messiah will
preside. Both are followed by a crossing the lake, a controversy, a dialogue about bread and a healing.
Mk 8:1-26: The second part of the “breads’ book” is peculiarly intended for Gentiles, according to the
Syro-Phoenician n woman’s precedent argument which explained God’s plan for them.
JESUS’ ACKNOWLEDGMENT BY PETER AS HINGE OF THE GOSPEL
Mk 8:27-38: Peter’s statement of faith in Jesus does climax Jesus’ self revelation with the disciples’ first
acknowledgment of him as the he Christ, and introduce his sufferings’ theme which will be developed in the
Gospel’s second half. Peter’s declaration is correct, but needs explanation in the following three predictions
of Passion and relative instructions, so that Jesus’ disciples and Mark’s readers can learn how Jesus’ death
fits in with his identity as the Messiah, and what it implies for them.
JESUS’ INSTRUCTIONS TO HIS DISCIPLES ON THE WAY TO
JERUSALEM
Mk 9:1-29:
9:1 On a high mountain Jesus’ face and garments shine: this
transfiguration is intended to strengthen his three favourite disciples’ faith
establishing his glorious identity as the beloved Son of God. The following
talk balances it placing his divine Sonship iin n the context of Jews’ faith and
expectations (the whole OT, represented by Moses and Elijah, was
preparatory to Jesus) and referring to his death and resurrection. The
epileptic boy’s healing is narrated as a symbol of Jesus’ resurrection from
Jesus talking with his friends. death, which
which calls to believe him who alone can free from demoniac
power.
Mk 9:30-50: The second part of Jesus’ journey starts with a new
prediction, misunderstanding and instructions. Then a few complementary
episodes follow.
Mk 10:1-31: On his way to Jerusalem, Jesus’ teaching about marriage,
children and riches is a further challenge to those who wish to follow him
and enter God’s kingdom. According to him the married couple constitutes
“one flesh” and therefore their relationship cannot be dissolved. Only those
who recognize and receive God’s kingdom as a gift (as a child with no claim
to power or status) can expect to be part of it. Wealth is an obstacle, while
rewards of discipleship are infinitely greater than the sacrifices needed. The
episode of the rich young man explains the limitless generosity required by
Jesus. From a minimal morality he passes on to a personalised programme Jesus challenging a young rich to
consisting in following him in line with the dynamism of a love whose source follow him in absolute poverty.
lies in heaven.
Mk 10:32-52: This is the third and last part of Jesus’ journey, starting with a new prediction,
misunderstanding and instructions. The miraculous cure of Bartimaeus, which is instantaneous instantaneo and without
any healing gesture, is opposed to the cure of the blind man narrated in 8:22-26. 8:22 26. They are symbolic of the
difficult but successful work of self-revelation
revelation by Jesus to his disciples.
JESUS’ PASSION WEEK IN JERUSALEM
Mk 11:1-11: Three chapters rs deal with Jesus’ ministry in the holy city. Together with the following Passion
narrative it has all been fitted by Mark in a week’s time. In all the Gospels Jesus’ arrival in Jerusalem is a
point of no little interest, for it is his entry as a Messiah in David’s capital city, as expressed by the
association with the Mont of Olives, the sending for the colt, and the reference to the kingdom of our father
David. Unable to deny that he is the promised David’s son, he seeks to show the kind of Messiah he is, is no
man of war, but lowly, and riding upon an ass. The crowd is puzzled, but penetrates his meaning sufficiently
to see that he is not to be the Messiah of their hopes.
Mk 11:12-25: These two prophetic actions expressed symbolically Jesus’ judgment against his people.
Mk 11:27-12:44: In Jerusalem Jesus had a new series of debates with various expressions of
contemporary Judaism about the current questions. It is interrupted by an allegory of how Israel’s rejection
of the prophets was climaxed by its murder of Jesus, and how God consequently dispossessed the Jews of
their birthright. It ends with a warning against their leaders and a word of praise for a poor widow’s
generosity corresponding to Jesus’ readiness to give all to God in the next days.
Mk 13:1-37: The second and last extended speech in Mark concerns the end-time and explains in
apocalyptic style what Jesus as the Son of Man means for Jerusalem, for his disciples and for humans in
general, while urging all to awareness. Even a superficial reading reveals a double perspective: one to Jesus’
own generation and another to all men. In the Synoptics, this
address is Jesus’ goodbye.
Mk 14:1-11: The centre of this introduction to the Passion is an
unnamed woman who anoints Jesus, pointing to his dignity as
Messiah, and forward to his burial. Her spiritual insight and
generosity are contrasted with the spiritual blindness of the Jews’
leaders and Judas.
Mk 14:12-31: This story’s aim is to show that Jesus was about
to celebrate his own Passover in full awareness and explained its
meaning through bread and wine.
Mk 14:32-52: This story, which sums up how Jesus confronted
the climax of his life, was told often in the early Church because his
Peter using his sword to defend Jesus in the agreement with his Father’s will contrasted with the sleeping
garden. disciples.
Mk 14:53-72: In order to encourage his persecuted readers,
Mark again uses the sandwich technique to place side-by-side Jesus’ faithfulness and Peter’s fear and sin.
Mk 15:1-15: The Gospels present Jew authorities as the prime movers and Pilate as merely giving up to
their press. Mark actually passes over the verdict. Jesus acts as Second Isaiah’s silent Servant.
Mk 15:16-41: The four incidents of this peak of the whole Gospel tell of Jesus’ death as king of the Jews
in harmony with the OT. The full revelation of Jesus becomes manifest. The pagan centurion’s confession of
him as Son of God contrasts the Sanhedrin’s disbelief during the precedent trial. It is juxtaposed also with
the torn veil of the temple and so it has symbolic meaning for the mission to the Gentiles.
Mk 15:42-47: The account of Jesus’ hasty burial by a pious Jews, in which his own apostles have no part,
confirm his death; the details are recounted in view of the coming episode of the empty tomb.
JESUS’ LIFE AFTER DEATH
Mk 16:1-8: The four Gospels agree in recording the discovery of the empty tomb; afterward each goes
its own way. The stress is not on what happened but on the Easter message: “He is not here. Why seek the
living among the dead?” The resurrection itself is not described: it never is, and never could be.
Mk 16:9-20: This is a summary of the risen Christ’s appearances, with other material, whose style is
different from Mark’s and could be derived from various NT writings. Perhaps the original ending was lost, so
early Christians saw the need to complete the book with this conclusion.

◊ Study questions:
1. Comment on each of the following statements from Mark’s gospel:
a) “My son, your sins are forgiven”. (2:5)
b) “Who do you say that I am?” (8:29)
c) “If your foot causes you to sin, cut it off; it is better for you to enter life lame than with two feet
to be thrown into hell”. (9:45)
d) “I do not know this man of whom you speak”. (14:71)
2. With reference to the whole gospel of Mark, interpret the statement, "A prophet is not without honour,
except in his own country, and among his own kin, and in his own house" (6:4).
3. "Ask me for whatever you wish, and I will grant it... even half of my kingdom" (Mk 6:22). Narrate what
prompted this promise, and then say what we must learn from the episode.
4. “For the Son of man also came not to be served but to serve, and to give his life as a ransom for many”
(Mk 10:45). Explain the context of this quotation and then give four lessons we can get from the story.
5. Explain the context and the lesson you can obtain from this text: "Is not this why you are wrong, that you
know neither the Scriptures nor the power of God? For when they rise from the dead, they neither marry nor
are given in marriage..." (Mk 12:24-25).
6. Analyse the following statement with reference to yourself: "If I must die with you, I will not deny you"
(Mk 14:31).
7. Using Mark’s Gospel, advise a new Christian whose family completely opposes his faith and has isolated
him. Give him five points concerning the importance of remaining faithful to Jesus despite any challenges he
has to face.
8. What do you understand by the expression “Messianic secret” as applied by Mark? Illustrate your answer
by using five examples from his Gospel.
9. “Mark’s Gospel is said to have been written to non-Jews”. Justify this statement by giving at least five
points.
 THE GOSPEL OF MATTHEW:
JESUS, NEW MOSES WHO TAUGHT HIS CHURCH THE TRUE PERFECTION

◊ Who was the author of Matthew’s Gospel?

This Gospel stands first among NT books because it acquired early distinction in Church’s
worship and preaching as the most complete store of Jesus’ teaching. Another reason is that its writer
was considered to be Matthew, the former tax collector present in the four lists of apostles (Mk 3:8; Mt
10:3; Lk 6:15; Acts 1:13b). Modern research makes it highly unlikely. The earliest tradition about this
apostle as an author says he collected Jesus’ sayings in Aramaic. Maybe his compilation influenced this
Gospel, but this is a full account of Jesus’ ministry, i.e. deeds and words, not only sayings. In common
with Luke (unlike Mark and John) it even includes a highly theological account of Jesus’ birth and (like
all Gospels) concludes with a narrative of his death and resurrection. Still, its excellent Greek shows
no sign of being a translation from Aramaic. On top, it clearly depends for much of its content on Mark:
why would an eyewitness need to copy from someone who was not?

◊ Why does Matthew’s Gospel frequently quote the Old Testament?

This mature synthesis shows its author was rooted in Jewish tradition. The verse 13:52 (“Every
scribe who has been made a disciple of the kingdom of the Heavens is like a householder who brings forth
from his treasure new things and old”) is often taken as a description of him and his working methods. From
the start of his Gospel, Matthew claims the OT for Jesus, even when it comes to apparent minutiae: more
than 130 passages refer to it. By frequently quoting the OT to show its fulfilment by Jesus, he develops the
idea of the continuity within the discontinuity between NT and OT. In God’s kingdom, which contains
mankind’s definitive salvation in time and eternity, the old is not destroyed but fulfilled, i.e. its hopes
are not only realized but also perfected. This applies to Jesus’ person, work and teaching as well: the OT is
fulfilled also in his lowliness which seems to block his work. Reading the OT one can find light about the
puzzling aspects of Jesus’ story, especially his death on the cross. Though refused by his people, he is
gifted with majesty even in his earthly life, for he is “God with us”, a covenant term which frames the
whole Gospel (1:23; 28:18-20). To show this, it is not the only one to use arguments from the OT, but it
relies so heavily on them that among its chief features are the “fulfilment quotations” which act as
meditations on the events. This is a characteristic of Matthew: for all essential events, to give a proof from
OT, for it anticipated and inwardly prepared the way for them. He demonstrates that the ancient words
come true in Jesus’ story, and that his story proceeds from God’s word.

◊ Why is this gospel the most Jewish of the four?

Matthew is the most Jewish of the Gospels because not only it shows great interest in details of Jews’
customs, but also it frequently uses their techniques and methods or arguments. Typically Jewish too is the
concern about the final judgment and retribution and its tremendous scenario. This accounts for the
interest in showing that Christ’s new Law fulfils the old one. Matthew presents Jesus as the new
Moses, who repeats in his life Moses’ story and gives the law of the NT, stressing moral imperatives (5-7)
and the obedience to God’s will as the essence of true righteousness. Moses’ Law continues to
embody that will, but free of Pharisees’ legalism and imbued with the spirit of love and mercy that Jesus
both preached and exemplified.

◊ When and for whom was Matthew’s Gospel written?

It is fair to date the Gospel between 80 and 90 for it was written for a Christian community in or
around Palestine whose many Jewish members had been recently excluded from official Judaism
by the largely Pharisaic school of Jamnia. This decision faced them with a crisis of faith as they had now to
choose either fidelity to Jesus and his Church or devotion to Jewish law and traditions in which they had
been raised. In this context of conflict, the writer made a strong call for their lifelong fidelity to Jesus,
showing that he was the fulfilment of all that is worth in Judaism. It was the obvious conclusion of a long
history of revelation and salvation by God which has always proceeded by leaps as well as by stages. To be
a Jew implies making the last leap to Christ. In following him, the Jewish Christians lose nothing that
they valued before. In leaving him, on the contrary, they would leave the very heart of biblical faith and
stick to a religion and people that had rejected the Messiah. A text which appears only in Mt present him as
the only way of arriving to know the Father. This approach explains the number and vigour of the attacks
on Pharisees throughout the text, stressing their unfaithfulness to the OT and the newness of Jesus’
message that his followers must hold.

◊ What were the aims of Matthew’s Gospel?

The writer faithfully conveyed traditions he received from the early Church about Jesus and Christian
life. At the same time he creatively shaped them into new combinations to achieve several purposes: to
instruct and push members of his community; to provide liturgical reading and sermon material; to gain
friendly outsiders and to offer arguments against opponents. We must marvel at the delicate balance he
attained. Later Christians were quick to find his masterpieces in the five great speeches (confronted
with Moses’ five books). We should conclude that his primary aim was to write a handbook for Church
leaders to assist them in preaching, teaching, worship, mission and discussions. But he inserted it into the
story of a living person, Jesus, to keep it focused on him and his kingdom as the good news of salvation,
far from becoming a scholarly thought.

75
◊ Is Matthew’s outline different from that of Mark?
Mark’s broad outline of Christ’s life occurs in Matthew as well, but with a different stress, for he
used his sources with great freedom to achieve his carefully planned work following ancient composition
techniques. The most unified and detailed outline of his Gospel shows alternate rings of narrative and
speech, built up around seven parables about the kingdom of the Heavens (ch. 13).

◊ What are Matthew’s focuses?

This Gospel has two focuses not to be separated: Jesus as the Christ and the near approach of
God’s kingdom which he proclaims and starts up. The whole book could be read with either focus in view,
for Jesus is the promised Messiah whose coming heralds the arrival of God’s kingdom. His being the Christ,
David’s son, the King of the Jews, but also the Son of the Living God, is established in the Infancy Narrative
and developed throughout the Gospel. In it different people prostrate themselves before him, though they
should do so only before God. Rejecting or accepting him decides whether a person belong to the true Israel.
His arrival take place every time one meets the little ones with whom he identifies himself. At the same
time, God’s kingdom (and the beginning of its realization) is the theme of all his five great speeches that
punctuate the entire story, giving it its final horizon and goal as a dramatic account of the Kingdom’s
coming. It will be taken away from the Jews to be given to others: the last will be the first, and Israel’s
Messiah becomes the world’s Messiah. Enthroned as sovereign judge and lord of the whole world, Jesus has
definitively won. Now the territory has to be occupied, so he sends his disciples to establish his victory
throughout the earth.

◊ Why Matthew is called the Church’s gospel?

The kingdom’s authentic life is the reason for Matthew’s emphasis on the Church: she is not identical
with this kingdom, but is the privileged place where it is manifested in the world. The Church, the
believers’ community which replaces OT Israel who was first invited to the Messiah’s feast but refused.
For him the Church, composed of those rejected from Judaism and those converted from Paganism, is the
true people of God, allied to him in the person and through the sacrifice of Jesus. His Gospel is written from
a Church perspective, introducing us to the heart of her adoration of the Risen Lord. The very word “Church”
is used in two places in Matthew (16:18; 18:18) and not at all in any other Gospel. Matthew is concerned
with the Church’s organization and the brotherly life required in her. Building on Jesus’ sayings, he speaks of
the ideals that Christians should strive for, and of the leaders who should guide them with humble and
loving care and, when needed, with the authority of Christ himself (16:13-20; 18:1-35). He stresses the
importance of Peter as the foundation stone of this new Israel and of his fellow apostles,
consistently toning down or omitting Jesus’ rebukes to them reported by Mark. But no illusions about
the Church: she is a mix of saints and sinners until the final sorting out (13:36-43; 22:11-14; 25):
anyone can fall (26:69-75) and prophets can be false (7:15). She runs the risk of having only little faith.
Yet, Matthew stresses her universal mission in order to bring the permanent presence of Christ and his
word to the world (28:18-20). The life style that fits such a mission (10:1-42) and concern for the straying
sheep, for the little ones, for forgiveness and humility are other central guidelines.

◊ What can this gospel teach Africans about their own culture?
This Gospel was written for Jewish Christians caught between their ancestors’ religion and their own new
faith in Christ. So it can be read today in the context of traditional societies' opposition to Jesus’
message and to its acceptance by new believers. Many Africans becoming Christians find themselves in
such situation. If they truly want follow Christ, they must make difficult choices. It is not easy to leave
traditional beliefs and practices contrary to Jesus’ teaching. Here Matthew can give light and strength to
African converts. If Jesus stated he had not come to delete Jewish law but to perfect it, this applies
also to any genuine values found in African religions and cultures which agree with the Christian faith,
such as the importance of family and community, the relationship with the ancestors and the reconciliation
as a contribution to peace. Jesus' message must be embodied in our cultures, elevating them to a
superior level. In this way it will be easier to understand and practice our Christian faith while remaining true
to ourselves as Africans. Sometimes, however, we should criticize negative aspects of African cultures
in the light of Jesus’ teaching. This will often be painful but it is a must for following him. Moreover,
anything opposing his message cannot be genuine human value and there is nothing to lose in giving it up.

◊ A help to read the text:

BIRTH AND BEGINNINGS

76
 Mt 1:1-17: From the beginning, Matthew presents his double prospective: he introduces Jesus as King
David’s end-time heir restoring Israel, but also as son of Abraham, the father of all believers, including
Gentiles. The family tree is a Near Eastern way of starting a book: though hard for us, it teaches an
important lesson, briefly including the whole of OT history and thought into the Gospel as Jesus’ nearby
background, necessary to understand him. It is divided into three parts, each being supposed to have 14
generations: the symbolism involves the numerical value of David’s Hebrew name (d=4 + w=6 + d=4). The
monotony is broken up especially by the striking mention of five women (Tamar, Rahab, Ruth, Bathsheba
and Mary) whose marital union had something extraordinary and who did show initiative and play an
important role in God’s plan. It is a paradox to present a genealogy through Joseph only to break the
pattern at the end, carefully constructed to avoid saying that he fathered Jesus. But broken patterns are a
feature of the Gospel throughout.
Mt. 1:18-25: These verses teach Mary’s virginity, an outward sign of the Son’s inner reality. God’s
intervention in the birth of his chosen ones (Isaac, Jacob, Samuel) was a tradition in Israel’s faith, but here
he goes further, replacing the male role. The fulfilment formula (occurring 10 times in Mt) stresses God’s
initiative. Like Israel’s patriarchs, Joseph obeys the angel’s instructions. In naming the child, he acts as legal
father of his wife’s son.
Mt 2:1-23: Jesus’ birth is related to wider political and social events. The magi, a class of wise men,
represent the pagan world coming to worship the royal Messiah in a Marian context. Herod’s wild behaviour
is in character. The quotations refer Jesus’ events to Moses and the exodus to say that he starts all Israel’s
restoration. So, chapters 1-2 have introduced Jesus as the all-around saviour figure: son of Abraham, Son of
God and Emmanuel, son of David, new Moses, new Jeremiah and new Samson.
Mt 3:1-12: Rather suddenly Matthew moves from Jesus’ infancy to the start of his public ministry, joining
Mark’s narrative about John the Baptist, but putting in his mouth Jesus’ central message about the kingdom.
Mt 3:13-17: Mark’s frank account of Jesus’ baptism made uncomfortable the early Church, because it
seemed strange that the sinless Jesus would receive it. So, in the dialogue between him and John, Matthew
explained his gesture as acceptance of God’s will without reserve, for it was the Father who asked him to
associate with the sinners in order to save them. By entering the Jordan, Jesus, without sin, showed his
solidarity with those who acknowledged their sins and chose to change their lives in accordance with God.
Mt 4:1-11: Jesus’ 40-day fast in Matthew and Luke’s source was connected with Moses and Elijah in the
desert and with the great trial of God’s patience by the Israelites in the
exodus. All of Jesus’ answers to the tempter quote Deut 6-8. So, he set an
example for us, using God’s word, the sword of the Spirit, to win.
Mt 4:12-22: Jesus’ move to Galilee after the Baptist has been “handed
over” to prison and execution may be understood both as a courageous
taking up of his mission and as a prudent seeking greater safety. Matthew
quotes Isaiah to defend the Messiah’s activity in this surprising place rather
than in Jews’ capital.
THE SPEECH ON THE MOUNT
Mt 4:23-5:2: After a summary report of Jesus’ ministry, Matthew
introduces solemnly his first, longest and most important speech, which he
constructed gathering scattered material. His editing may be seen in several
places. The mountain of revelation symbolises the Sinai; likewise Jesus
replaces
Jesus preaching on the mount. Moses. THE EIGHT BEATITUDES
The Blessed are the poor in spirit,
sermon covers the main areas of for theirs is the kingdom of heaven.
Israel’s ethical and religious life, Blessed are those who mourn,
plunging us immediately into the heart for they shall be comforted.
of what it means to be a faithful son of Blessed are the meek,
God in this world. The dominant for they shall inherit the earth.
themes are God’s kingdom and its Blessed are those who hunger and thirst for righteousness,
perfect morality, of which Jesus is not for they shall be satisfied.
only the one who reveals it but also the Blessed are the merciful,
model. After a start with 7+1 for they shall obtain mercy.
beatitudes, we read about the high Blessed are the pure in heart,
standard of his new ethics. Disciples for they shall see God.
who strive to imitate Jesus are told to Blessed are the peacemakers,
adopt a better way of life, anticipating for they shall be called sons of God.
the coming kingdom and reflecting Blessed are those who are persecuted for righteousness’ sake,
God’s righteousness. for theirs is the kingdom of heaven.
Mt 5:3-16: Jesus’ teaching begins
with a cry of joy, based on the nearness of God’s kingdom. Beatitude is an exclamation of congratulations
that recognizes an existing state of happiness, for one is on the right path. The poor, the afflicted, the meek,
the hungry, the persecuted, etc. are happy because God has special care for them, since king’s duty is to
protect the weak. Jesus himself is their best figure. Two sayings about salt and light state the missionary
meaning of disciples’ life according to the beatitudes. What a shame when Christians fail as individuals or as
groups!
Mt 5:17-48: The first four verses give the basic legal principles of the speech reflecting Jewish
Christians’ outlook, which through Matthew has powerfully influenced Church history moderating any
 radicalisation of Paul’s attitude about Moses’ law. Indeed both did cherish herish the Decalogue and centre it on
love. Jesus’ fulfilment of the OT in his person, way of life and teaching is the fullest revelation of God’s
requests. The following six arguments go beyond OT by deepening it, returning to God’s God original will and
correcting
ecting false interpretations. It is notable that all the given examples of the greater righteousness
indicate duties towards others. The final verse proposes God’s s perfection as model for his children, for in
Christianity every moral norm is now situated within
within the context of a child’s relationship with him.
Mt 6:1-18: Almsgiving, prayer and fasting constituted a Jewish list of works of piety deemed necessary
to be righteous. Here Jesus reforms Pharisees’ attitudes stressing the interior dispositions which should
motivate these duties so that they may help a living, personal relationship with the Father. In each case the
disciple’s efforts should issue in an intimate union with him, putting aside any calculation, quest for profit or
human praise. After the introductory
ntroductory verse, there follow three units of very similar structure. This pattern is
broken by Matthew’s insertion of the Lord’s Prayer (having 7 petitions, his favourite number) and other
material to form a catechism on this matter.
Mt 6:19-34: A centrall element in the righteous living proposed by Jesus is correct stewardship of
resources without anxiety for earthly needs.
Mt 7:1-29: Summing up this part of the s speech,, verse 12 gives us the “Golden Rule”. Words and
miracles are not enough to show commitment;
commitment; deeds of love should authenticate them. The texts about
judgment warn us about the destructive effects of evil conduct: conduct we have to choosecho between two
alternatives.
JESUS' AUTHORITY Y AND INVITATION
Mt 8:1-9:38: Having just shown Jesus as the Messiah of the Word, Matthew now presents him as the
Messiah of the deed, rejoining Mark’s outline. He expands it with miracles drawn from elsewhere, but he
shortens the stories and drains strong emotions. Positively, he shap shapes
es them into model conversations that
stress four themes: authority of Jesus, faith, discipleship and salvation. The ten miracles are as follow:
cleansing of a leper, cure of a centurion’s servant, healing of Peter’s mother-in-law,
mother law, many sick healed at
evening,
ing, stilling of a storm, many demons expulsed in Pagan agan zone, forgiveness and healing of a paralytic,
healing of a woman with haemorrhage and resurrection of a little girl, healing of two blind men, healing of a
dumb. Matthew breaks up the monotony of the series with buffer news. Jesus shows his power over nature,
sickness, death and devils, but ut his miracles are not elaborate
elaborated:: in this they differ from the fantastic ones
reported of Jewish and Pagan agan personalities. Most notably, they differ because of the spiritual
iritual meaning Jesus
attaches to them. It is only with great consideration that he works any miracle at all.
MISSION SPEECH
Mt 10:1-42: The second great speech is about the missionary task to the twelve. Matthew compiled it
from Mark and Q and reworked it for his community’s apostolic work. So, as heirs to God’s choice and
promise, the Jews are to be the first to receive salvation’s offer
offer; but verses 17-39
39 suppose a wider horizon.
JESUS REJECTED BY HIS GENERATION
Mt 11:1-12:50: This narrative section is about Jesus being rejected by his generation. In contrast h he
exalts John the Baptist and cries of joy for God’s revelation to the little ones through Jesus himself. This
prayer gives us a most important clue to his self-understanding
self understanding as absolute Son of the absolute Father. A
mutuality of unique knowledge and love between them is asserted. Then Jesus speaks as the Wisdom in
person, as the giver ver of rest and comfort, inviting everybody to follow his interpretation of Moses’ law. In
comparison with that of the Pharisees, his own is quantitatively easier because sorter
and centred on the essential, though it is qualitatively more difficult, because
becau the
demands of love of God and neighbour are unlimited.
THE KINGDOM'S PARABLES SPEECH
Mt 13:1-52:52: This third great speech consists of seven parables and some
explanations of them. It is the high point of the entire Gospel. Everything is
concentrated on God’s kingdom, which, however, remains mysterious. But in Matthew
understanding is a characteristic of the good disciple as we read at the end. He adds to
Mark four peculiar par
parables
ables the weeds among the wheat, the treasure, the pearl and
the dragnet. The second and the third stress the behaviour of those who joyfully sell all
to possess the kingdom. The given interpretation of the other
two is that the kingdom is a mix of saints and sinners. The final
sorting out must be left to God and his angelic agents. In the
meantime patient tolerance must guide those in it.
JESUS ACKNOWLEDGED BY HIS DISCIPLES
Mt 13:53-17:27: In this narrative section of his “Church book” boo (13:53-18:35),
Matthew follows Mark very closely, but in three episodes (the walking on the water,
the establishment of the Church and the paying of the temple tax) he gives
prominence to Peter, associated with Jesus more than his fellow apostles. The new n
name he is given (“rock”) symbolises his part in Jesus’ new assembly. This end end-time
community is to have its beginning here on earth in the form of an
Jesus saves Peter. organised society whose leader he is appointed.
COMMUNITY SPEECH
Mt 18:1-35: This chapter, addressed to Peter and the other leading disciples, is Peter in popes’ dress
about community relations. It gives rules for God’s family until the kingdom comes, with the kingdom’s
stressing littleness and brotherhood. Its different parts concern relations to keys he was given by
outsiders, to those who are led, and to all with
within the community. Jesus.
 JESUS' AUTHORITY AND INVITATION
Mt 19:1-20:34: In this new narrative section Matthew again follows Mark, but inserts the parable of the
workmen in the vineyard to explain that if God brings into his kingdom late-comers (sinners and pagans),
those who were called first (the Jews) have no right to be offended.
Mt 21:1-22:46: Again Matthew follows Mark, but inserts two parables (the two sons and the wedding
feasts) around that of the wicked tenants to stress its lesson about many Jews’ refuse of God’s salvation.
WOES AND END-TIME SPEECH
Mt 23:1-39: This is a new collection of harsh sayings against attitudes of Scribes and Pharisees, whose
inner corruption leads to Jerusalem’s destruction. It aims to warn again disciples and readers.
Mt 24:1-44: This end-time speech combines the announcement of Jerusalem’s ruin with that of the end
of the world. Though separated in time, the first event is the inevitable forerunner and foreshadow of the
second. The kingdom’s people are not spared from suffering, but will eventually win.
Mt 24:45-25:46: Matthew adds to Mark’s end-time speech three parables on watchfulness (the
conscientious steward, the ten wedding attendants and the talents), which prepare for Jesus’ return and the
great final judgment, when people will be judged by their works of mercy.
DEATH AND NEW BEGINNING
Mt 26:1-27:61: Matthew follows Mark again in narrating Jesus’ passion. His several expansions generally
flow from his source’s narrative logic, developing three main themes: Christology (especially through
prophetic knowledge and fulfilment), emphasis on Jews’ responsibility, and a series of moral examples,
primarily that of Jesus, but also of Peter and Judas, the women, other disciples, and the pagan soldiers.
Mt 27:62-28:15: Matthew presents Jesus’ vindication by God increasing its dignity and splendour over
against Mark. This event, accessible only to faith, is surrounded by peculiar passages on the guards at the
tomb, in order to confirm the resurrection against Jews’ lies diffused to the time of the Gospel’s composition.
Mt 28:16-20: This brief ending is so rich that it would be hard to say more in the same number of
words. The glorified Christ has on earth just as in heaven a limitless power received from his Father. His
disciples use it in his name by baptising and forming Christians. According to Matthew’s interest, they are to
carry on Jesus’ teaching ministry, focusing on this Gospel’s great speeches. Their mission now is universal:
salvation, first proclaimed to Israel as God’s plan demanded, must be offered to all nations. In this so long
and laborious work the Lord promises that, as Emmanuel, he will be always present and active with his own,
until God’s kingdom will come in fullness.

◊ Study questions:
1. The beatitudes are the core of Jesus’ revelation of the Father and of the perfect morality. Report them
according to Matthew and then propose ways of fulfil them in today context.
2. “You are the salt of the earth... you are the light of the world” (Mt 5:13). According to these words said
by Jesus, what are the most important responsibilities we are given as his followers?
3. How would you help a Christian who doesn’t go to Church basing himself on Jesus’ words about praying in
the secret? Use arguments from Jesus’ life and teaching.
4. From Matthew 7:1-12, discuss Jesus’ five important teachings on conduct leading to good relationship
among his disciples (including today’s Christians).
5. By giving five points, analyse Jesus’ teaching on marriage and divorce as presented in Matthew 19:3-12.
6. "Truly I say to you, the tax collectors and the harlots will go into the kingdom of God before you" (Mt
21:31). Explain the context of this harsh statement. What did Jesus actually man by it? How is it applicable
and fitting to Christians today?
7. “As you did this to one of the least of brothers of mine, you did it to me... As you neglected to do ... you
neglected to do it to me” (cfr. Mt 25:31-46). Applying Jesus’ presentation of the last judgment, give at least
four points on how good works can benefit some special people in the society. Then show their religious
importance according to the Gospel.

THE GOSPEL OF LUKE:

JESUS, KIND BUT REJECTED PROPHET COME TO SAVE EVERYONE

◊ Who did write this Gospel and its complementary book?

This Gospel is the first book of a two-part work whose second one is the Acts of the Apostles. Taken
together, they present salvation history from the Baptist’s and Jesus’ conception to Paul’s
preaching in Rome, the capital of pagan world. Their unique quality derives from the author’s attractive
personality, which shines throughout as of both a most gifted writer and a man of marked sensibility.
The text doesn’t yield his name nor provide enough information to deduce it. Yet the tradition has always
identified him with Luke, Paul’s beloved physician from Antioch of Syria. There is no reason why
anyone would invent this datum making such minor figure the author of one quarter of the NT, nor why not
to place the composition in this city, the third-largest in the Roman Empire, with a consistent Jewish
presence. Indeed this Gospel addresses a mostly Greek Church with wealthy members that is painfully
rethinking her mission in a hostile environment and facing internal controversies. On the last front she
battles against Jewish Christians (represented in this Gospel’s Pharisees) who are seeking to apply strict
requirements to who wants to join the Church.

◊ When did Luke write?

It has been said that Luke wrote at the end of Paul’s Roman house arrest (61-63 AD), because Acts stops
then. Yet he wrote after Mark since, like Matthew, Luke depends on that Gospel (as well as on the source
79
called Q and his own particular traditions). Moreover his Gospel (21:5-38) knows of Jerusalem’s destruction
by the Romans in 70, but its date can be no later than the second generation of Christians, for he says (1:2)
was informed by eyewitnesses. The years 80-85 are then the probable time of composition.

◊ What worries did Luke answer?

The reason he composed his books can be deduced from their main concerns. Jerusalem’s fall and its
temple’s destruction had raised many doubts about God’s faithfulness. If his promises to Israel had
thus come to nothing, why should his promises in Christ be trusted? Luke answered showing that God
through Jesus was faithful, but in a surprising way to include pagans and mixed outcasts as well
as Israelites who regretted their initial refusal of Jesus. Luke’s main answer and attractive feature was
presenting him as the kind but rejected prophet. He, of course, made the most of the traditional
portrayals of Jesus (as Messiah, Son of God, Suffering Servant, etc.), not only for their own value, but to
boost the fact that in him all of God’s promises have been fulfilled. But he depicted Jesus especially as
the prophet of a new age (6:16 -21), who proclaimed God’s love, mercy and forgiveness to all, and yet was
rejected by his own people who thus refused what God had promised (6:22-30). So God didn’t fail, the
Jewish leaders did. Yet the repentance and fidelity of a chosen remnant (who Luke terms “the people”, in
Greek “λαός”, from which we get the word laity) assures the move from the Old Israel to the New. Thus God
keep on showing mercy to his people, even as he punishes them for rejecting his offer of salvation.

◊ What is the main argument of Luke’s writings?

The main argument of Luke-Acts is the continuity of salvation history through its central
crossroads: Jesus’ life and his Church’s birth. The Jews’ persistent rejection of the Gospel and the
mostly Gentile Christianity’s ongoing alienation from the biblical people of promise caused a crisis: how could
non-Jews find value in something which had its roots in Judaism but which most Jews repudiated? Facing
this, to argue his thesis of the continuity between Old and New Israel, Luke had to establish the historical
link between Israel and Jesus on one hand (Gospel) and between Jesus and the Church on the
other (Acts). Thus he displayed the full span of God’s plan in which the present Church proves to be the
proper destination of his way with Israel. The same twelve men who witnessed the Christ event from the
beginning, are there to guarantee the flawless continuity from Jesus’ preaching of the kingdom in Galilee to
the Church’s proclamation of his resurrection in Rome. God’s saving work through the Messiah Jesus, is
fulfilled in the Church under the Holy Spirit’s impetus and leadership.

◊ What is God’s place in Luke’s Gospel?

To say that God keeps his promises is to remind that the central character in Luke-Acts is he, who is at
work through persons and nations, laws and institutions. Some Christians tend to forget what Luke
highlights: salvation history is God’s story. It is he who inspired prophets, called John the Baptist, sent
Jesus, raised up him, and conveys the Holy Spirit. He is not the God only of Israel and the Church but also of
Adam, of all nations, and of all creation. Since he continues with his plan, every time and place fits in it. His
call of all in Christ is not limited to any culture. His word’s embodiment in every one is the Holy Spirit’s work
which first happened to Jesus’ mother. In return for his own faithfulness, God requires obedient hearing
and patient endurance. It is not a short-lived decision, but a response which grows and matures.
Essential to it is prayer, an important topic in Luke (3:21; 5:16; 6:12; 9:28; 11:1-8; 18:1-8).

◊ What is Luke’s position about the OT?

Luke likes to show that God fulfilled his promises by Jesus’ birth, life, death as well resurrection. He often
refers to the OT, but differently from Matthew he does not try to cite precise texts. In his gospel Jesus
criticises legalism and lays aside some rules of the Law, but defend its validity (16:17) and follows Israel’s
tradition of prayer and worship. So his Gospel begins and ends in the temple during prayer, the child
Jesus is circumcised and is presented in the temple, and God’s new people is founded on twelve apostles, a
number symbolic of Israel. In Acts, the early Church continues to worship in Jewish temple and synagogues,
and Paul himself, the main missionary to the pagans, strongly defends his loyalty to Judaism. Luke shows a
particular understanding for the Jews; the passions stirred up by the separation between them and the
nascent Church left their traces in both Matthew and John, but nowhere in Luke.

◊ Did Luke write as historian or theologian?

Before he wrote, Luke investigated everything “from the beginning” (1:3): this claim in his
composition was usual in Greek historians’ writings. At the same time his books form a major theological
work, for the historian Luke is a believer. What he narrates is for him good news which he wants to share.
His account therefore never has the cool tones of a description; it is always at the same time an exhortation
to enter the marvellous life which he has discovered. He uses history in the service of theology and
with a pastoral purpose: to confirm the ancient apostolic teaching, to clear doubts and difficulties that
Greek converts would face in their new faith and to provide them with further reading for the sake of
reflection and study.

◊ What is Luke’s geographical plan?

Luke set to work with an eye to exact information and orderly narrative, but respect for his sources
didn’t lead him, any more than Mark or Matthew, to go after chronology. He followed Mark’s plan with
some changes and omissions; the clearest difference is his great insertion (9:51-18:14) in which
he uses the journey to Jerusalem as frame for his most particular information. By this means he
80
brings out one of his chief notions: namely that the Holy City is the chosen stage for the drama of
salvation (9:31; 13:33; 18:31; 19:11). Because it is from Jerusalem that the good news’ proclamation to
the whole world began (24:47; Act 1:8), his Gospel had to start and end there (1:5ff; 24:52ff): the
risen Jesus’ appearances and conversations recorded by Luke didn’t take place in Galilee (24:13-51).

◊ For Luke, who is called to salvation?

Luke stresses more than the other Gospels that God’s visit is for salvation: Jesus is a saviour (2:11),
brings salvation (1:69; 19:9) and works saving acts (7:50; 8:36; 8:50). The salvation dominates in his
typical parables, above all in those of the lost sheep, the lost coin and the lost son (15:3-32). The
universality of the offer of salvation extends horizontally to the whole world through all of time,
and vertically to all kinds of persons. For this reason Luke cares to situate Gospel events within
world history (3:1-2) and to narrate the Church’s spread to the ends of the
Publicans
earth (Acts 1:8). His pagan origin and his wide travelling probably caused his
were Jews who
openness to all groups of peoples, with preference for minorities: Samaritans,
collected taxes
lepers, publicans, soldiers, despised public sinners, unlettered shepherds and the
on behalf of
poor. In his view is also important the Gentiles’ place among God’s people.
Roman colonial
authority. They
◊ What is Luke’s most remarked feature?
tended to
Luke’s most remarked feature is his concern for oppressed and criticism of self-
increase taxation
satisfied rich. His attention to the poor appears early in Mary’s song (1:46-55), in the
for their own
favour shown to the shepherds (2:8-14) and in the Baptist’s social message (3:10-
benefit. For both
14). It is publicly announced by Jesus in his village’s synagogue (4:16-21), and then
reasons they
becomes a refrain in his teaching (14:12,21). It is not that he turns his back on
were regarded
wealthy: he offers his good news to anyone (19:1-10) and rich women do follow him
as public
financing his mission (8:1-3). Even so, he states God’s preference for the poor, the
sinners.
hungry, the mourners and the excluded (6:20-23), offering to poor, maimed, blind,
and lame places at the great feast table (14:21-23). This is joined to a challenge to human hopes and
values: God’s saved people must produce “good fruits… evidence of repentance” (3:8). On this the gentle,
tolerant Luke takes a firm stand, insisting on complete detachment, especially from riches (6:34ff;
12:33; 14:12-14,25-34; 16:9-13). Those who are powerful, who seek to justify themselves, who have no
need of consolation and who despise the poor, are themselves lowered, or in the end, cut off from the
people. On the contrary, those normally deemed unworthy or unimportant, all who are rejected by
human standards but accept God’s presence in Jesus are raised up by him, becoming part of the
restored Israel (1:53; 4:18; 6:20-24; 7:22; 14:21; 16:19-31). Moreover, throughout his narrative Luke
gives positive attention to the women (like Elizabeth, Anne, those who followed Jesus serving him,
Martha and Mary, the first witnesses to Jesus’ resurrection), and his portrayal of the Virgin Mary as the
model of faithful symbolises the way God reverses human weakness.

◊ What are some titles of Luke’s Gospel?

It is easy to see why Luke has been called the Gospel of universal salvation, of prayer, of mercy, of
the poor and of women: these titles only hint at the richness of his version of the good news. These
qualities, joint to that joy in God and thankfulness for his gifts which fill both Luke (2:14; 5:26; 10:17;
13:17; 18:43; 19:37; 24:51ff) and Acts, make them such a warm and human work.

◊ Why did Luke add the Acts of the Apostles to his Gospel?
Luke is the most modern of the Gospels. His Greek education has given him a concern for clarity. He
found it necessary to tell the story of the Church as well as that of Jesus: the latter alone was not
enough for his purpose. The salvation event includes both the ministry of Jesus and the proclamation by the
Church. Luke is the only Synoptic to give the Holy Spirit a major role (1:15,35,41,67; 2:25-27;
4:1,14,18; 10:21; 11:13; 24:49). He shows that under Holy Spirit’s leadership and impulsion Jesus
continues to live and act in human history through his Church, so that his
salvation ministry is still effective for people separated from him by place and
time. Indeed, Luke is very concerned with her missionary expansion from
Jerusalem to Rome.

◊ A help to read the text:

Lk 1:1-4: Luke alone introduces the Gospel with a finely crafted Greek
sentence. This prologue contains the addressee (Theophilus might be Luke’s
patron, if he was a real person and not a false name for any reader, because it
means “God’s Friend”) and the purpose of the book: to give an orderly account of
Jesus’ events read as having been fulfilled by God to save humans and inviting
the reader to answer in faith.
DAWN OF GOD’S FULFILMENT OF PROMISE
Lk 1:5-25: The announcement of John the Baptist’s birth is the first of seven
stories in Luke’s Infancy Gospel (1-2). Their thrust lies in the statements (by
Gabriel, Mary, Elizabeth, Zechariah, the angel saying to the shepherds, Simeon
and the 12-year-old Jesus) which cause in us awareness of what is happening.
Luke invites to believe in Jesus as Saviour, Christ and Lord in reflecting not only upon his resurrection but
also upon his life’s beginning. He asks for a deeper faith in God, whose grace is sovereign and generous
beyond measure, creating possibilities in impossible situations. Luke wants us to take in the joy, trust,
endurance, expectation and exultation of Mary and all those who responded to the faithful God’s actions in
their lives.
Lk 1:26-38: Parallel to the first, this second story refers to the annunciation, i.e. the revelation to the
Virgin Mary that she will conceive and bear a child who shall be the Son of God. Her wholeheartedly answer
to God’s plan contrasts
trasts Zechariah’s, the righteous priest who failed to believe.
Lk 1:39-56: The so called “visitation” brings together the two mothers-to-be mothers be so that Elizabeth’s child
might be presented as the forerunner of Mary’s child. Both women extol praises: after the Virgin, as model
believer, is congratulated by Elizabeth for her trust in God’s faithfulness, she herself exalts God as active in
her life and in all humans. Her revolutionary song (whose first
word in Latin is “Magnificat”) is the initial one among four in First fruits are much sought after:after
this Gospel. what we have first seems to us to be
Lk 1:57
1:57-80: After providing best. So,, from the beginning, humans
sufficient narrative detail to keep his offered to God/gods the first fruits of
drama moving, Luke stops the action the harvest. It also happened in Canaan
to translate it through a second that the firstborn could be offered in
marvellous song (whose first word in sacrifice, especially in dramatic
Latin is “Benedictus”) in which situations. God forbade this kind of
Zechariah
ariah praises God for what he has sacrifice: the Israelites had to redeem
rede
done in Jesus and then foretells John’s their firstborns, offering an animal
role as his forerunner. instead.
Lk 2:1-21:21: In Jesus’ birth and
circumcision, parallel to the story on John’s, again Jesus appears in advantage. The
angels’ song (whose first word in Latin is “Gloria”) presents him as the Davidic
Messiah who will lead to the end end-time
time gift of peace. In the powerlessness of his
babyhood Jesus is the Saviour and bringer of peace peace to all in contrast to the mighty
Roman ruler, Caesar Augustus, worship worshipped as Saviour and peace’s source. His worldwide census causes the
baby to be born in Bethlehem, the place of the promise, and in connection with the whole humankind. The
angel’s revelation is accepted by lowly shepherds and pondered by Mary, who models the need of reflecting
on salvation events in Jesus, though she doesn’t understand all at once.
Lk 2:22-40: Jesus’ presentation in Jerusalem’s temple as the consecrated one is the setting for the dual
witness of Simeon and Anna. Its focus is Luke’s fourth song (whose first words in Latin are “Nunc Dimittis”),
with his characteristic theme of universalism. The two old persons embody both
The child Jesus leaving Israel’s waiting for the Lord and God’s service as heart of temple worship. The pair
Jerusalem’s Temple expresses that man and woman stand together and side by side before God, as
with Joseph and Mary Jesuss and Mary who is told that she will partake in her Son’s sufferings.
after Passover. Lk 2:41-52:52: This story anticipates Jesus’ later journey to Jerusalem and reveals
his relationship to his Father. Luke concludes his Infancy Gospel in the temple,
where it started, and prepares
repares for the whole Gospel
Gospel’s end, which describes Jesus’ disciples in the temple,
praising God. Verse 49 records Jesus’ first words: no longer others, but he himself states who he is, the Son
of God. His answer to Mary’s anguished question is that he did only what the Son should do, that is, to be
with his Father. With this term he unlocks his mystery. Afterward he willingly submits to obedience,
foretelling the cross, while Mary continues her journey of faith.
PREPARATION FOR JESUS’ PUBLIC MINISTRY
Lk 3:1-20: This section on John the Baptist, set in the context of world and religious history, describes his
call to prepare the Lord’s ways, depicts how ordinary and outcast folks got ready
and highlights the difference between John and the Messiah.
Lk 3:21-4:13: Luke devotes three sections to the question of who is the Jesus
near to start his ministry: God’s beloved Son and Holy Spirit’s agent, culmination of
God’s plan for creation, faithful Son who conquers evil’s powers. Jesus’ ministry
begins at baptism with prayer (3:22) as it will end with prayer (22:46), because his
power to save stems from God through the Holy Spirit, given in response to prayer.
If Luke’s and Matthew’s genealogies have more differences than similarities, it is
because both don’t intend nd to provide family records, but to explain what Jesus
means for the salvation of all. Luke places the final temptation in Jerusalem, where Jesus had to overcome
all of them on the cross.
MINISTRY IN GALILEE
Lk 4:14-30: This programmatic account of Jesus’ ministry is a prime example of Luke’s ordering of
materials according to fulfilment’s s principle. For the Christ’s initial self
self-presentation,
presentation, he uses a passage from
Mark which doesn’t concern the beginning of Jesus’ ministry and a summarized text from fro Isaiah which
explains he has the Spirit to help who is economically, physically and socially unlucky. This first of six
incidents dealing with Jesus’ activities on the Sabbath explains this day is inferior to him for he has to fulfil
God’s promises to such people.
Lk 4:31-44: This well-knit knit unity is based on Mark 1:21-39.
1:21
Lk 5:1-11: This passage makes four major points: these fishermen give Jesus the first truly positive
response; he calls them to follow his life life-style
style known from chapter 4; Luke starts to paint his admiring
portrait of Peter; Peter’s missionary success, like his catch of fish, is not his own
doing, but the Lord’s. Mary embraces Elizabeth.
Lk 5:12-6:11: This section is based on Mark 1:41 1:41-3:6.
 Lk 6:12-49: After Jesus’ choice of twelve associates who symbolise the new Israel and continue his
proclamation of the kingdom, the speech on the plain details what membership in it entails. Through his
version, shorter than Matthew’s speech on the mountain (5 (5-7),
7), Luke preaches to his fellow
fello Greek Christians,
some of whom are wealthy, about imitating God’s generosity by lending money, forgiving debts and giving
kindly, without falling back into the worldly principle of reciprocity and expect to be returned any help.
Lk 7:1-9:6: This section highlights Jesus as crossing over boundaries separating clean from unclean to
restore people to life and community. It begins with stories of Jesus curing a sick man and raising to life a
dead boy (a peculiarly Lucan narrative among many from Mark). It end endss with stories of Jesus curing a sick
woman and raising a dead girl to life. Throughout pulses the theme of who does and who doesn’t respond
generously to God’s messengers. When we eventually read that Jesus sent forth the Twelve to heal and
preach as he himself
imself did, we know well what that activity involve and who will respond to them.
Lk 9:7-50: This section uses passages from Mark but with many omissions. It functions as a switching
station between Jesus’ Galilean ministry and his long journey to Jerusale
Jerusalem (9:51-19:27).
19:27). Obedient to God’s
will (9:22,44), Jesus goes on his way to the city that symbolizes the continuity between old and new in
God’s plan. There Jesus will complete his exodus (9:31) to God and from there the Christian mission will
travel to the ends of the earth (Acts 1:8). On his way to Jerusalem, Jesus teaches his disciples and
witnesses the meaning of his way that leads to life in God. He instructs them about missionary travels,
prayer and the use of possessions, and delivers challenging para parables.
bles. Neither Jesus’ journey nor the
Christians’ one will be free from trials. As we walk with him, we should be mindful of his Father’s imperative,
“Listen to him” (9:35), the faithful and resolute Son who teaches in words and deeds.
THE LONG WAY TO JERUSALEM
Lk 9:51-62: Jesus meets with opposition from the start of his journey to Jerusalem just as it was at the
beginning of his Galilean ministry. But he is firm in fulfilling God’s will without revenge against enemies.
Three sayings challenge to view life from a totally new angle: that of discipleship as following him.
Lk 10:1-24: This is Luke’s longest reflection on the mission’s nature and on its joys and sorrows’
sorrows causes.
Lk 10:25-37: A powerful lesson about mercy toward anyone in need, the Good Samaritan’s Sama parable
proclaims that non-Jews Jews can observe the law and thus enter into eternal life. Jesus’ final question turns the
lawyer’s on its head: don’t ask about who belongs to God’s people and thus deserves my neighbourly
attention, but rather ask about the conduct required from you as a member of God’s chosen people.
Lk 10:38-42: Balancing the precedent lesson on merciful activity, this passage teaches that all following
of Jesus depends on careful listening to his word, which is the best part. To the fore fore is Luke’s universalism
as he depicts Jesus acting contrary to Jews’ cultural norms, especially teaching a woman in her own house.
Lk 11:1-13: Luke writes a catechism on prayer for Greek Christians, whose knowledge of God needs
development and who need support to keep on praying in a hostile environment. To have its own distinctive
form of prayer was and still is the mark of a religious community. Luke’s form of the Our Father has only five
petitions. In answer to the prayer of Jesus’ disciples, who want to pray, live and act as he did, God gives
them the gift of the Holy Spirit, who sums up joy, strength, courage for witness and therefore for life.
Lk 11:14-36: Luke links here disparate passages around controversies about the source of Jesus’
kingdom power, er, alternating teachings on Christology and discipleship.
Lk 11:37-54: The amazement of Jesus’ host at his failure to ritually wash before the meal provides the
occasion for Jesus’ speech at table against Pharisees.
Lk 12:1-59: Pharisees’ opposition against Jesus will continue in that to be experienced by his disciples. It
finds an ally in human greed. Besides these external problems, there are the
internal ones caused by selfish Church officials. Finally we are told that both thet
Pharisees and the crowds are guilty of hypocrisy.
13:1-30: Though Jesus is kind, he requires anyone to repent before it is
Lk 13:1
too late. Afterward he shows in action the meaning of God’s kingdom, and
illustrates it through two comforting parables on its growth. Then he stresses
again the need for repentance through total commitment to himself.
himself
Lk 13:31-14:35:
13:31 In front of opposition, Luke highlights Jesus’ obedience to
God’s will and his loving care for the holy city. Again
gain at table Jesus teaches the
rightt behaviour and presents himself as the host of God’s end end-time banquet, to
which all are invited, though many fail to accept the offer. offer The last verses
develop the full hearted-response
hearted response needed facing God’s gratuity call.
15:1-32: Joy fills these three parables
Lk 15:1 arables about the lost and found sheep,
coin and son, in which Luke backs God’s mercy which breaks through all human
restrictions of how he should act toward sinners. His mercy, indeed, is as foolish
Peter, James and John
as a shepherd who dumps 99 sheep to save 1, as a woman w who turns her house
contemplating Jesus’ glory
upside down to recover a little sum, and as a Jewish father who joyfully
among Moses and Elijah on
welcomes home his son become a pagan. Because disciples have such a God,
a mountain at night.
they can trustingly get on Jesus’ way to him. Self-righteous
Self righteous people are
challenged to make merry with converted sinners and the God who delights in
their company.
Lk 16:1-17:10: The peak of this chapter on using possession to benefit others is the two-steps story
about the poor Lazarus. Will the rich man’s five brothers (and we readers) follow his example or heed OT
and Jesus’ teaching about care of the needy?
Lk 17:11-19: The Samaritan’s thanks and faith show that salvation is for all peoples.
Lk 17:20-18:8: Luke’s first end-timetime speech stresses the speed of Jesus’ coming and the people’s need to
be prepared for it. The final parable teaches in particular the importance of steadfast prayer.
 Lk 18:9-17: In this new parable, Luke keeps on teaching to pray, but
especially to stop self-confident
confident boasting on one’s good deeds, though they are
a must. In contrast with the Pharisee, disciples should approach God as little
child with no medals of achievement.
Lk 18:18-43: These verses are based on Mark 10:1710:17-52.
Lk 19:1-27: Zacchaeus’ story shows how Jesus’ presence and love bring
about what is humanly impossible: a rich man frees himself from liking wealth
and so gets through the needle’s eye! The following parable pushes for courage
in responding to Jesus, the king whose role in human future is decisive. His
disciple has to take the risks of his decisions, without being paralysed by fear.
JESUS REJECTED
ECTED BY JERUSALEM
Lk 19:28-21:38: Here Luke depends largely on Mark 11:1-13-37,
11:1 though
developing his own themes. Jesus, the king who brings God’s peace, takes possession of the temple and
there teaches the people daily.. All that he teaches highlights who he is and what true worship is. This
teaching amid controversy with religious leaders predicts opposition for the members of the new Israel,
whose cornerstone is Jesus, the rejected one.
Lk 22:1-23:56a: While basically following Mark’s account of Jesus’ passion, Luke stresses both the saving
power of the suffering righteous one, and God’ graciousness in vindicating him. He promotes deeper faith in
Jesus and a more eager commitment to follow his path to God.
JESUS’ VINDICATION, PROMISE OF THE SPIRIT AND ASCENSION
Lk 23:56b-24:12: Through appearances of the risen Christ in Jerusalem the disciples journey from sorrow
to joy and have their eyes opened to see in him what God has in store for all.
Lk 24:13-35: This fine, unique story shines with Luke’s themes, like journey, faith as seeing, and
hospitality.
Lk 24:36-53: This mainly Lucan material mixes together the themes of
peace, table fellowship, God’s promises ffulfilled in Jesus, forgiveness of sins, Peter crying after denying
Jerusalem, witness, Holy Spirit, Jesus’ completion of his journey to God, and Jesus at night.
temple. The whole Gospel culminates in the disciples’ posture: they worship
Jesus.

◊ Study questions:
1. Using Mary’s song “Magnificat” as s an example, show how Luke describes Jesus’ mission as evidence of
God’s concern for the poor and the down
down-trodden.
2. “Did you not know that I must be in my Father’s house?” (Lk 2:49) Briefly narrate the story and then give
three lessons drawn from it.
3. “The Spirit of the Lord is upon me...” (Lk 4:18). Why did Jesus use these prophetic words? How do they
relate to his followers’ mission?
4. “Master, we toiled all night and took nothing! But at your word I will let down the nets” (Lk 5:5). Give the
context
ntext of this statement and then write down what this story teach you.
5. “Truly I tell you, not even in Israel have I seen such faith” (Lk 7:9). Explain the event which led Jesus to
say these words, and then write down what does it teach us today?
6. Mention
tion three conditions for becoming Jesus’ disciple as written by Luke and then explain the way we
have to fulfil them today.
7. Luke's gospel is a useful weapon to fight for and defend human rights because of its concern for
underprivileged people. Discuss this statement using four such groups by citing two examples for each of
them.
8. “All those in need are my neighbours”. Support this statement by referring to the Good Samaritan’s
parable.
9. Relate the parable of the rich fool and that of the dishonest steward and explain what challenge we
Christians have to get from Jesus’ attitude toward assets?
10. Luke’s Gospel presents the parables of the lost sheep, coin and son. What did cause Jesus to give these
three parables? Summarise that of the prodigal son and then interpret it taking into consideration the father,
the two sons and the feast. Suggest three solutions for restoring youths who have nothing to do and are
involving themselves in crimes.
11. Relate the lost son’s parable and our contemporary situation.
12.. It is believed that Luke was a Gentile who wrote his Gospel mainly for Gentiles. Give eight reasons to
support this statement.
13.. Explain four sources of conflict Jesus had with Jewish religious leaders as reported by Luke, and then
show the teachings Jesus gave them in each conflict story.
14. “Luke’s Gospel advocates women’s empowerment”. Discuss this statement by using at least five
occasion from the Gospel itself.

THE GOSPEL OF JOHN:

JESUS, GOD’S WISDOM BECOME OUR WAY, TRUTH AND LIFE

◊ Who did write the fourth Gospel?

 This Gospel, holding the fourth place in the lists, is the endend-stage
stage of a slow process that has brought
together parts of different times,, with corrections, additions and revisions. Its lack of unity in both
structure and style and of consistency in events’ succession suggests it had more than one author.
But this
his unique presentation of Jesus has its roots in the Church’s early tradition
tradition; moreover its witness
claims being apostolic and depending on Jesus’ beloved disciple, John, at first a fisherman but may be
also a Jew priest, son of Zebedee and Salome
Salome. He must always be considered a source in his own right,
for he was among Jesus’ very first
irst followers
followers,, lived beneath to him, was faithful until the cross and was the
first apostle to reach his tomb and the faith in his resurrection. This book, however, is also the result of
many years of search for a deeper insight of Jesus’ mystery. All ll this was published by the
eyewitness’ disciples soon after his death. death Unwilling
nwilling to dump a number of fragments, they inserted
them into the Gospel though uncertain of their right place (so, chapters 15 15-17
17 were placed after the farewell
of 14:31). This final
nal redaction should be dated about 95-100 at Ephesus in Asia Minor, the centre for
John’s last years, where perhaps he and his followers moved because of Jews’ costly persecution against
them. John presumes the readers to be already familiar with Jesus’ s story, its
persons and places, and also with Christian beliefs such as his titles, baptism, Lord’s John’s position at
Supper, and Spirit. Then, they must be Greek-speaking Jews who didn’t believe table with Jesus during
in Jesus (20:30-31), but also Christians whose faith needed being built up or his Last Supper.
corrected.

◊ How did John develop his faith’s understanding?

John developed his understanding through many years of meditation on his own experience with
Jesus and on that of his Church’s while giving witness to it in different environments (14:26;
16:12-15). Both friendly
riendly and unfriendly encounters with groups both inside and outside her influenced
John’s thought and book. Because of his conviction that what happens to the Church guided by the
Holy Spirit happens to Christ, the faith reflection on her history
history was incorporated into the Gospel. John
broadened and deepened his theology as his Church gradually admitted Jewish Christians whose
understanding of Jesus was close to that of the Synoptics, Samaritans with their own traditions, Jewish
Christians from outside the Holy Land with their more universal outlook, and Greeks who caused her to
look far beyond Jewish thought’s borders. At the same time, the opposition by outside groups caused John’s
Church to think and rethink. There were, for example, Pharisee leaders who expelled Christians from
Judaism (22-23; 16:1-4a)4a) and whose hostility is responsible for the condemnation of the “Jews”, how this
Gospel call them. The Baptist’s followers trying to exalt him more than Jesus resulted in the insistence on
his subordination to Jesus (1:35-37;
37; 3:1
3:1-3; 10:40-42). Jews who feared to admit publicly their faith in
him were encouraged in such figures as Nicodemus and Joseph of Arimathea (3:1 (3:1-36;
36; 7:50-51;
7:50 19:38-42).
Jewish Christians who accepted Jesus as Messiah but not as God and who didn’t hold the Eucharist as
his sacramental flesh and blood are represented by the disciples who no longer walk with him (6:60-66).
Peter represents other apostolic communities who moderated erated that inclination of John’s Church to reject
authoritative shepherds which ragged her at the end of the 1st century, as his epistles show.

◊ What is John’s historical value?

There is growing agreement on John’s independence and historical value. Recent cent discoveries have
confirmed he is more precise than the Synoptics about chronology and geography. Many truthful details
display his close familiarity with Jews’ mind and practices. He represents Jesus as transcendent and yet
real and entirely human, with our body and our psychology, simple and humble even in his risen glory.
Finally, no one has stressed more than him that he does testify to what actually happened, the “flesh” of
history. Iff John had not been convinced of the historical truth of all he wrote, his work would remain an
enigma. But in this context history is different from modern concept. Following Jesus’ resurrection and his
sending out of the Spirit, this Gospel escorts us beyond the external into the depth of words and events that
come from God and lead back to him. John’s absorbing concern was the “meaning” of Jesus’ both
divine and human events which flowered in time but were rooted in eternity. So he carefully selected
them, choosing those which could be presented symbolically: no und understanding
erstanding of John is possible without
appreciating symbolism. It is used not just to elucidate what is hidden, but to make it come alive giving it
new overtones. His universal symbols don’t compromise history but
presupposes it, for they are inherent in tthe events. John saw spiritual depths
even in the most material elements of Jesus’ history and how in him were
realized the “types” of the OT (1:29; 2:21; 3:14; 6:35; 10:11; 15:1). This is the
cause of its being called “the spiritual Gospel”. It suggests rather than spells
out, it evokes rather than explains. The words in it are very simple, everyday
words, yet specialists have still not succeeded in plumbing their depths. It is a
storehouse of riches: whenever we read it, we discover new insights missed before.
b
John deliberately begins from concrete things and situations, but he shows how they
can bring us to a higher level, to create a bond with God.

◊ Why is John’s Gospel very keen on worship?

John relates Jesus’ life to Jewish liturgical year and assoc associates his
miracles with its principal celebrations: three feasts of Passover (2:13; 6:4;
11:55), one unnamed feast which happened to be the Sabbath (5:1), one feast of Shelters (7:2) and one
feast of Dedication (10:22). Naming a feast creates an atmosphere for the reader and provides a religious
frame to present Jesus’ claims and ministry. He does step into the context of the feasts, fulfil their promise,
and open up the future. In so doing, he makes his own the worship symbols of sacred time, bread, water,
light, sacred space, and shepherding, associated with these feast days. Moreover, the setting for both
Christ’s miracles and speeches is often the temple. This Gospel’s plan thus implies that Jesus fulfilled the
Jewish religion’s institutions, bringing ththem to an end. The Christians then don’t need to miss them
after the temple was demolished and they were expelled from the synagogues: in Jesus they have God’s
presence and saving work. He himself is the definitive temple, altar and lamb of sacrifice, the focus of a
religion restored “in Spirit and in truth” (4:24), but also expressed and realized in sacraments,
which often crops up in John, especially baptism (3:1-21)
(3:1 and Eucharist (6). It is liturgy where Jesus’ words
and deeds make sense. The whole Gospel is pervaded by the concept of the Christian Passover replacing the
Jewish one, like the soul’s cleansing by Word (15:3) and Spirit (20:22ff) replaces Jewish purifying rites: so,
Jesus’ life is directly related to a liturgical Christianity.

◊ What is the main perspective of John?

From John’s opening words Jesus is presented as the revelation of the Father, the bodily
manifestation of his presence, his truth, his power and his love. Whatever people ask him, Jesus has only
one answer: the Father. Jesus is always completely free, completely himself, but at the same time he is
totally related to the Father, with the Father. He is the Word made flesh, come to give life (1:14): this
ation dominates John’s thought. Jesus is sent to declare God’s secrets bearing witness to all he
Incarnation
has seen and heard from the Father. As credentials he has been given certain works to performs
which require more than human power; through them is hinted his glory to be revealed fully when
he will be “lifted up” (Isa 53:12) to return to the Father by way of the cross to resume the glory he had
“before the world was made” (17:5ff,24). Jesus’ miracles, then, while similar to those in the Synoptics,
have a different
ent function in John. He calls them signs, each of them revealing some aspect of Jesus’
mission to make known the Father. So, a blind man’s healing illustrates that Jesus is the light of the world,
the multiplication of bread presents him as the bread of llife
ife and Lazarus’ raising manifests him as the
resurrection and the life. These richly symbolic signs, seven in numbers, make up the first part of the
Gospel (1-12).

◊ Why has John’s Gospel long speeches associated with the signs?
Associated with the signs, and often intimately interpretative of them, are Jesus’ long speeches
that are, in effect, prolonged and deep meditations on his person and mission, i.e. on his
relationship to the Father and the people to whom he is God’s self self-revelation.
evelation. Often these speeches are
spoken in dialogue with Jesus’ disciples or enemies, as John tries to develop the Incarnation as both
revelatory and redemptive. In this gospel a speech (for example, 8:12 8:12-20) is
shaped by repetitions, antitheses, inclus
inclusions,
ions, and chiasms. It progresses in a
spiral: in each construction the thought is self self-contained,
contained, but when we take it
with the next section, we are led to look at it on a deeper level. Another
technique is the misunderstanding by Jesus’ friends and enemies of what
he says and which often turns on a double meaning (2:19-21; 3:3-5;
4:10-15;
15; 4:31-34;
4:31 6:32-35; 6:51-53; 7:33-36; 8:21-22; 22; 8:31-35;
8:31 8:51-53;
8:56-58;
58; 11:11
11:11-15; 11:23-25; 12:32-34; 13:36-38; 38; 14:4-6;
14:4 14:7-9; 16:16-
19). It is also characteristic of Joh
John to break into the narrative and speak in his
own voice as the reliable interpreter of Jesus (2:21; 6:6,71; 7:39; 8:27; 12:33; 13:11; 18:32;
21:19,23). Sometimes he provides a looking back comment that indicates the understanding achieved after
the resurrection
ection (2:22; 12:16; 13:7; 20:9).

◊ What is the definitive sign?

The definitive sign of God’s presence and love in Jesus is his glorification. In John it includes
his death, resurrection and returneturn to the Father. This final revelation and its implications are explained
by Jesus in the Farewell Speeches to his disciples (13:31
(13:31-16:33),
16:33), and are portrayed by John in his highly
theological narrative of Jesus’ trial, crucifixion and triumph over deat
death. The plot of the Gospel is focused
on this “hour” through cycles of acceptance and progressive rejection. Beyond
Roman governor Pontius the Jews who unwanted Jesus looms something more fundamental: the world
Pilate judging Jesus on (1:9-10),
10), i.e. the darkness controlled by Satan who challenges God and an
Good Friday. his Anointed. Everybody is involved in this dramatic conflict of the spirit: the
world, face to face with the Word, receives its verdict (12:31-32)
(12:31 and admits
defeat (16:7-11,33).

◊ Why has John’s Gospel been described as a Book of Witnesses and a Trial of Jesus?
It is amazing, in so spiritual a book, to be plunged into the heart of a trial. Legal terms appear
constantly. In many ways John’s gospel resembles a trial with the themes of witness and judgment
running through it. Dramatic examples are th the
e accusation following the healing at the Pool of Bethesda,
the cure of the blind man at the Pool of Siloam, the Sanhedrin’s meeting following Lazarus’ raising, the
Roman trial of Jesus by Pilate and the story of the adulteress. The opposition suggests that
tha Jesus cannot
produce another witness to confirm his own testimony, or if he can, then he is being challenged to do so.
Jesus’ answer could be read as: “Of course there is a witness other than myself, in fact there are several: it
is the Father who empowersrs my deeds, sent John the Baptist, inspired the Scriptures and appointed Moses,
all of whom are my witnesses”. Jesus is on trial throughout the book, but in keeping with John’s ironic
examination, for they are more
attitude, it is those putting him on trial who are really under examination,
interested in their own image, than in the unique opportunity of seeing God’s glory revealed in Jesus. The
Son of Man was expected to pass judgment at the end of time. Yet Jesus doesn’t want to condemn, but to
save; however he is the light that forces people to reveal themselves as they truly are: in their choice for or
against him they get their own judgment. Those who refuse him are guilty and place themselves outside the
order of salvation, for it is the refusal of God’ loving rule revealed in his envoy’s coming.

◊ What was John’s final aim in writing his Gospel?

John proclaims that Jesus is Messiah and son of God so THE SEVEN “I AM…” SAYINGS IN JOHN
that the reader may believe in him to reach life “I am the bread of life” (6:35)
(20:31). His favourite vocabulary consists of expressions “I am the light of the world” (8:12)
on new life and new birth (the word ζωή, zoee, is used 36 “I am the gate” (10:9)
times). It is the gospel of the great life-giving metaphors: “I am the good shepherd” (10:11)
Jesus proclaims his relationship with the community in “I am the resurrection and the life” (11:25)
terms of his being the bread of life, the true vine, the way, “I am the way, the truth and the life” (14:8)
the truth and the life, the light of the world, the good “I am the vine” (15:1,5).
shepherd, the door of the sheepfold, the resurrection, the
life and the donor of life-giving water. In these sayings Jesus discloses what the Father has given humans in
the Son: the fact that they are seven is hardly accidental. At the same time he shows what people should do
to draw benefit from the gifts his presence brings: come to him, believe in him, follow him and remain in
him. Finally, in John, Jesus uses the formula “I am” even as an absolute on four occasions: it corresponds to
God’s own name of old, YHWH. He is able to give life because God’s life is in him in original and
inexhaustible fullness. He can give God because he is one with God, for he is the Son. He himself is the gift,
he is life. If all life flowed through the Word, and he has come to give life abundantly (10:10), he does
confirm and perfect the African culture, whose fundamental principle is life. Wars, corruption, bribery and
the like destroy life and must be banished. Moreover, this abundance of life is not just private happiness, not
individual joy. It is the world having attained its rightful form, the unity of God and the world. It concerns
not only this earth and our relatives or tribe, but is offered eternally to all humans.

◊ How did John use the concepts of life and death, light and darkness?
As researchers recover the diversity of 1st century Judaism, John’s background comes more sharply into
focus. He was influenced by the Essenes who, in view of an imminent coming of God, stressed the
importance of knowledge, unity and mutual love, and contrasted pairs as life/death (3:36),
light/darkness (1:5; 3:19-21; 8:12; 12:35-36,46), truth/lie (8:44-45) and spirit/flesh (1:13; 3:6; 6:63),
above/below (8:23), heaven/earth (3:31), God/Satan (13:27). John used in a spiritual and ethical sense
this dualism characteristic of the original Jew-Christian setting. He did so to present the division between
believers, who are righteous and have eternal life, and unbelievers, who are under God’s judgment. But he
didn’t support the notion of good and evil as equally powerful and contending forces in the universe or the
vision of spirit as good and matter as evil.

◊ What other contributions can John give African religious culture?

In John, Jesus is primarily the Father’s revelation. Our continent’s traditions are rich in concepts and
descriptions of God (Creator, Potter, Father, Provider, etc.). Despite this wealth it remains true for Africans
as for any other people, that no one has ever seen God. “The only Son… has revealed him” (1:18).
Our human knowledge of God, based on religious instinct or philosophical reasoning alone, will always
remain imperfect and even faulty without Christ, the only one who can complete it. Moreover, some African
names of God are also good to say who Jesus is: for example a name like Sun for God can help Africans
to understand Jesus as the Light of the World. Likewise, in African religions God is usually approached
through mediators such as ancestors who, because of their closeness to him, can facilitate our relationships
with him. So, Africans should be able to appreciate Jesus’ role as the mediator and the way to the
Father: he is our main ancestor. Finally, John’s Prologue speaks of the eternal Word who became flesh.
In our continent the word is believed to be powerful: it can destroy or build up. God’s Word doesn’t wipe
out but save the world. Our words must participate in his Word in order to bring peace and build
up African society and Church. Are our words doing so or are we poisoning our communities through them?

◊ A help to read the text:

PROLOGUE
Jn 1:1-18: This prologue adapted an earlier song to the eternal Word and his activity in creation, in
guiding and illuminating humans (who often reject God’s wisdom), and then to his incarnation which has
enabled them to partake of God’s fullness. It gives an advance of what is to come in the body of the Gospel,
introducing the central character (it is both Jesus and his Father, since their unity functions as a single
driving force throughout), the main themes (life, truth, witness, dwelling, glory and the world) and a
summary of the plot. So it provides an advantaged understanding of Jesus’ origin and identity in order to
help us to assess critically the other characters and to appreciate the irony and dramatic effects in the
various events and conversations.
BOOK OF SIGNS
Jn 1:19-51: John the Baptist ties together the preceding verses and the following narrative which
supports the lofty expression of faith in the prologue. He fulfils his role as witness first by denying any claim
about himself, then by pointing to Jesus as the “Lamb of God”, and finally by sending his own disciples to
him. This section, built around a collection of messianic titles, starts the narrative of Jesus’ ministry known
87
as “Book of Signs” (1:19-12:50) which culminates in his rejection by “his own”.
Jn 2:1-12: The wedding at Cana is the peak of the initial series of days inaugurating Jesus’ ministry. It
forms also an inclusion with the crucifixion scene where the “hour” introduced at Cana is fulfilled, the “glory”
first manifested there is established, and the “mother of Jesus” (called by him “woman”, an allusion to her
rich symbolism in the OT) figures in the final scene of the public ministry as she did at its inauguration. This
first “sign” refers to a nuptial setting and imagery against which Jesus, in conformity to the Synoptics, is
portrayed as Israel's bridegroom: he becomes the host and provides abundant wine for the messianic
banquet.
Jn 2:13-25: Jesus’ dramatic challenge in Jerusalem’s temple is a sign, even if not a miraculous one. It is
a symbolic narrative, especially in the second part, where the saying about destroying the temple fits into
the unfolding revelation of Jesus’ relationship to the Father, and opens onto the future presence of the Risen
Lord and the indwelling of the Holy Spirit in the community. It prepares also for the saying on “true
worshippers” in 4:21.
Jn 3:1-36: Jesus’ two programmatic actions as bridegroom and Lamb of God are followed by a series of
three representative responses, each foreshadowing a significant mission of the Church: Jews, Samaritans
and Greeks. They are arranged in geographical order representing local, social, cultural and religious
distance from the centre of Judaism in Jerusalem. In typical ironic style the responses are in reverse order to
the distance. The first is that of Nicodemus, a teacher in Israel, who remains confused and falls silent,
represents the devout Jews having problems in believing to Jesus.
Jn 4:1-42: In contrast to Nicodemus who came by night and faded away letting Jesus talking to himself,
the nameless Samaritan woman, member of a people regarded by the Jews as half caste, heretical, inferior
and unclean, engaged in lively dialogue with Jesus in the full light of day. Its main stress is on the place and
nature of true worship, resulting from Samaritans’ two great questions, whether they belonged to the
covenant people and whether their own worship was valid. The whole scene, charged with wedding
symbolism, is one of growing recognition and witness.
Jn 4:43-54: This short story is extremely significant, for it brings to a climax the three stories of
emerging faith in Jesus. The (may be Gentile) official came to believe him without seeing any evidence: this
is the authentic faith that leads to life, the stated purpose of John’s gospel. But afterwards it will stress more
negative reactions: lack of faith, division among the crowd, and open hostility to Jesus, especially by the
authorities. The underlying pattern is of two parties in dispute on the revelation, whether it is in Jesus’ truth
or in Moses’ law. These displays of opposition take place for the most part in the temple area during a series
of Jewish feasts (ordered as they occur during the year). They reach a crossroads with Jesus’ final
withdrawal to the far side of Jordan where his mission began (10:40-42), and arrive to a peak after Lazarus'
raising until the Jews persuade Pilate to hand Jesus over for crucifixion.
Jn 5:1-47: A cripple’s healing on the Sabbath occasioned a speech on Jesus’ relationship to the Father
and his power to give life. It illustrates the point implied in 4:50: the real source of faith is Jesus’ word, not
the signs. His declaration that he is the Father’s agent on earth, acting and speaking on God’s behalf,
gathers force in the following chapters as he makes deep claims about his identity (eternal existence and
unity with the Father) and authority. The discussion has a nature of trial, for Jesus’ utterances give rise to
charges of blasphemy to which he responds in a way that cause attempts to arrest and kill him (by stoning).
Several times it is said the Jews desired to do so, but God’s plan was an obstacle until the time would arrive.
Jn 6:1-71: This new section (the scene switches from Jerusalem to Galilee) parallels the sequence of
events in Mark 6:30-54 and 8:11-33: multitude’s feeding in the desert, walking on the sea, request for a
sign, comment on bread, Peter’s confession, Passion. The three temptations presented by Matthew and Luke
after Jesus’ baptism (to fulfil physical need, to grasp at power and to impress with signs) are all present
here as the crowds follow Jesus because of the physical food they have received, as they desire to make him
king, and as they demand from him a sign. The Israelites didn’t understand Moses, and now they
misunderstand Jesus. In John the Eucharist's institution is not described during the Last Supper, but its
teaching is contained here: Jesus' stress on eating his flesh and drinking his blood corresponds to his words
in the Synoptics during that supper. He not only gives, but is the bread come down from heaven.
Jn 7:1-52: In this and the following chapters, Jesus sets his identity in relief against the main symbols
(water and light) and historical figures (Moses and Abraham) associated with the feast of the Shelters. In
the context of the water and light rituals Jesus proclaims himself the source of life-giving water and the light
of the world. In discussions about Moses and Abraham he reveals his own superior origins and authority.
Jn 7:53-8:11: This well known story of Jesus and the woman taken in adultery presents him alike the
merciful Jesus of Luke but, in John’s context, it takes on and further highlights the nearby Christology. It is
placed in this section where there is an ongoing stress on the Jews’ judgment and condemnation of Jesus,
set in ironic opposition to his own role as God-appointed judge and Son of Man with power over life and
death. Left alone with the woman, Jesus acts as the serene judge balancing forgiveness and the injunction
not to sin again.
Jn 8:12-59: In his speech at the Treasury Jesus declares himself the light of the world through the truth
he brings to set free whom receives it.
Jn 9:1-41: The one who has declared himself light now gives sight to a man born in darkness. The
account symbolically presents the way one comes to believe in Jesus and to take on the task of witnessing
to him. This is the only story in Jesus’ ministry where he is not the main character: the blind man takes
centre stage. In opposition to the unthankful cripple of chapter 5, he argues Jesus must be “from God”, not
the sinner that the Jewish teachers claim he is. After the man’s expulsion from the synagogue, Jesus reveals
himself to be the “Son of Man”, and the healed man comes to worship him with true faith. This story showed
John’ disciples how had to react when confronted with hostile authorities.
88
 Jn 10:1-21: Jesus continues to comment on leadership and authority, their nature and how they would
be acquired and exercised. He introduces an image field which can be approached from many angles and
applied to many aspects. He really is who he claims to be: the model shepherd and the door of the
sheepfold, in contrast to his opponents, whom he describes as thief, stranger and hireling, refusing their
claim to lead Israel. At end, he spells out the price of shepherding, the commitment which knows no limits:
the good shepherd lays down his life for his sheep. The following chapter will show how he does so for his
friend Lazarus by coming to restore his life in a situation where Jesus will certainly face death.
Jn 10:22-42: In connection with the precedent two chapters, a new clash occurs at the Feast of
Dedication three months after Shelters. Jesus sums up his relationship with the Father in the words: “The
Father and I are one”. Their oneness is such that one’s words and works are the other’s words and works.
However close their unity is, it is never a fusion but a communion.
Jn 11:1-57: Instead of a sign followed by an explanatory speech or debate, Lazarus’ raising is interpreted
earlier. Distance and movement from place to place enhance the narrative as it build up the dramatic
tension, forcing the reader to pause and reflect together with Martha, Mary and their friends and to face the
tomb and listen as Jesus prays. Unlike the shorter accounts of two young persons’ resurrection in the
Synoptics, John involves us in the witnesses' doubts, faith and reactions, and supplies a privileged insight
into Jesus’ prayer. His greatest sign, the gift of life to his dead friend, leads to the decisive act of unbelief,
the formal decision that he must “die for the people”. On the High Priest's lips this meant Jews’ salvation
from Romans' reaction to a political threat, but in John’s comment it is a prophecy about a totally different
salvation for Jews and Greeks alike gathered “into one”. This sign anticipates both Jesus’ passion and
resurrection, but also stresses the difference between the two miraculous events. Lazarus will die again, but
his being raised shows that death is conquered even if it still remains a universal experience; it points to the
eternal life that Jesus offers, showing himself to be truly the resurrection and the life. The titles “Lord” and
“Son of God” stress the high Christology of this story, while his warm affection and tears stress his
humanity.
Jn 12:1-36: To two episodes traditional in passion narratives (Jesus’ anointing by a woman and his entry
into Jerusalem) John adds the plots against Lazarus and Jesus. This final week leading to his glorification
corresponds to the opening week with his peak at Cana, which introduced and prefigured Jesus’ hour and
glory. When Greeks wish to see him, he proclaims his hour has arrived and comments on a death that does
produce fruit and a life which doesn’t. His followers cannot escape death any more than their master: John
speaks of “serving” Jesus, while the Synoptics speak of “coming after” him.
Jn 12:37-50: The public ministry's conclusion is summed up in two parts: first, the reactions to Jesus are
compared to the negative reactions to Moses and Isaiah; then, he himself draws together his ministry's
central themes with a ringing affirmation of being God’s agent: to reject him is to reject the Father who sent
him and to be condemned. This assessment gives neither time nor place: it is a timeless comment for all
generations. Throughout the following chapters we will find the same distinctive use of traditional
passion/resurrection material that we see in this one.
BOOK OF GLORY
Jn 13:1-30: From now on the narrative focuses on Jesus’ last hours. The account of his passion is
dwarfed by discourses stressing themes crucial to John’s community. The initial reference to the approach of
Passover draws our attention to the feast that provides an interpretative setting for the final drama. Jesus
speaks of an imminent exodus from this world, and a return to take his followers with him. This is the new
Passover, effected in the death of the true Lamb of God who takes away the world's sin. His life is summed
up in terms of the love he had for his own people. At his farewell meal among friends, love is the keynote.
He himself is the example to be followed in carrying out the new commandment he entrust to them as
legacy. Like many farewell speeches of the past, accompanied by memorable gestures, Jesus’ one is
strengthened by a foot-washing which portrays his imminent death's saving, welcoming and cleansing
nature. In doing so he gives his disciples an example of service to be followed, but also assumes the
condition of a host who will welcome them into his Father’s house.
Jn 13:31-16:33: There are many parallels between Jesus’ last supper speeches and the literary genre of
a farewell speech by a dying relevant figure. But John differs in portraying the future of the “children” whom
Jesus is leaving behind that includes his renewed presence. Moreover, they don’t receive wide exhortations
to moral virtues or obedience to the Law: only the mutual love appears as the behaviour required. Except
the clear break at 14:31, it is difficult to establish divisions within these
speeches.
Jn 17:1-26: The speeches end with Jesus’ priestly prayer, which is
his report of the mission he has completed as God’s agent. In it, after a
request for glorification, Jesus turns first to his immediate disciples, and
then includes all those who will come to believe in him. The stresses are
on unity, on God sanctifying them, and on the need to keep to what
Jesus has revealed. Fittingly, the prayer end on the note of Jesus
indwelling in the believers.
Jn 18:1-19:42: John’s passion narrative is cast in separate scenes,
whose centre is the trial by Pilate. Jesus, acting as he has throughout
the Gospel, shows that the procurator is really the one on trial, and with
supreme irony, Pilate forces the Jews to show themselves unfaithful to Jesus raises Lazarus: this was the
God by declaring Caesar their only king. The confession that Jesus is greatest sign given by him. It showed
indeed “king of Israel” was made at the beginning and end of his the truth of his claim to be our life.
ministry narrative; in the passion story this issue is central. Unlike the
 Synoptics, John gives us the majestic figure of Jesus standing out alone withowithout
ut crisis or need of support by
Simon of Cyrene or women weeping. This is an hour of glory: far from being abandoned, the crucified is
exalted, lifted up to draw all to himself. The nascent Church's nucleus, including his mother and his beloved
disciple, are
re drawn to the foot of the cross. The dying Jesus hands over the Spirit, and from his wounded
side flow blood and water, founts of the Church's sacramental life. The larger, representative crowd round
about are drawn to look on the one they have pierced. What happens to him is really pointing to what is
being brought about for his followers.
Jn 20:1-31: This chapter embodies three types of tradition about Jesus’ resurrection: the tomb found
empty, its confirmation by Peter, and Christ's appearances to his disciples in Jerusalem. Its primary aim is
not to tell us what happened to Jesus after his death, but to explore what Jesus’ glorification on the cross
effects and means for believers. The characters (Mary Magdalene, Peter, the beloved disciples and Thoma Thomas)
are well rounded, a fact brought out in their dialogues and reactions. The last two verses stood as the
conclusion to the Gospel before the edition which appended chapter 21.
EPILOGUE
Jesus giving Peter the Jn 21:1-25: This appearance in Galilee is in keeping with the gospels' broader picture. Peter is
supreme leadership the central figure in these stories which spell his relationship to Jesus as primary witness to the
on his own followers. resurrection, as missionary, as shepherd, as martyr in prefer
preference
ence to the beloved disciple whose
testimony is the Gospel’s basis.

◊ Study questions:
1. What would you say to a drunkard who justifies himself by using Jesus’ first sign in John’s gospel, when
he turned water into wine at Cana’s wedding feast?
2. What lessons and challenges do you get from the dialogue between Jesus and Nicodemus about being
born again?
3. What is the core of the dialogue between Jesus and the Samaritan woman at Jacob’s well? How could you
use this story to help a person without stable sexual relationships?
4. John 8:1-1111 is the story of a woman caught in adultery. Based on Jesus’ attitude toward the accusation,
why do you think the scribes and Pharisees were wrong? Give at least five reasons.
5. How can you help a leader who doesn’t warn sinners arguing that Jesus said, “Let who is without sin
among you be the first to throw a stone at her” (Jn 8:7)?
6. Using Jesus’ words on the good shepherd and the bad ones, discuss the situation of today Church’s
leaders.
7. Account for four signs of Jesus as recorded by John's gospel and then explain the significance of each of
them.
8. Jesus used Jewish feasts to present himself and his teaching. Explain how he did so and what this fact fa
means to us?
9.. The theme of the Gospel of John is the “Deity of the Saviour”. In what ways did the writer prove this
subject matter to his audience?
10.. Explain five instances where Jesus’ messianic nature is testified by John’s Gospel.
11. Unity among Christians is fundamental for their missionary witness. Report Jesus’ relevant words and
then explain how have we to follow his teaching on this matter.
12. After washing his disciples’ feet, Jesus put his outer garment back on and returned to his place at table.
He explained what his action meant. What is its significance? What lesson should religious leaders learn from
the event?

JOHN’S GOSPEL COMPARED TO THE SYNOPTICS

◊ What are the main differences between John’s Gospel and the Synoptics?
Like the Synoptic
ynoptic gospels, John’s contains an account of some of Jesus’ actions and sayings, but peculiar
features mark it off sharply from the other three.
In the first place, it is far more concerned to bring out the meaning of all that Christ did and
said. His deeds eds were “signs” whose significance, hidden at first, could be fully understood only after his
glorification (2:22; 12:16; 13:17). His words too had a deeper meaning not perceived when they were
spoken (2:20): it was the Spirit’s duty speaking in Jesus’ name na to remind the
disciples of what their teacher said, to deepen their understanding and to lead
them “into the whole truth” (14:26). John looks back on Jesus’ earthly life in the
light of this full understanding.
Differently from the Synoptics having a low low or ascending Christology, that is, a
man whose divinity is discovered gradually, John presents a high or descending
Christology,, that is, a portrayal of Jesus as a person descended from above whose
divinity shines through his life in the world. His human humanity,
ity, however, is also in
evidence, particularly in his relationships.
The portrayal of the Holy Spirit as the personal Paraclete is also unique to
John among the gospels.
Chronologically, John presents Jesus’ ministry over a period of three years
and having his death on the day of preparation before Passover. Geographically, he
Jesus entrusting Peter
presents it alternating between Galilee and Judea, with its major focus on the
with the shepherding
conflicts in Jerusalem. This pattern departs from the Synoptic picture of a relatively
of his own sheep. long ministry
inistry in Galilee followed by a brief phase in this holy city before Jesus’ arrest
at Passover: the entire period could be one year. A few events have a different chronology (for
example, the temple's cleansing comes at the beginning of Jesus’ ministry, rather than towards the close,
where the Synoptics put it).
John has no mention of Jesus’ infancy, baptism, temptations in the desert, transfiguration, and
sending off the Twelve to preach as narrated in two or three of the Synoptics.
Their accounts of a hurried burial are a far cry from the kingly burial in John’s gospel.
John’s feeling of a tragic death at hand, combined with reports of some plots to kill Jesus, parallel the
more focused and stylised passion predictions in the Synoptics.
John’s tale is one of growing conflict over belief/unbelief. Unlike the Synoptics, there is no other
fight: no demons to defeat, no struggle with hostile forces of nature, no divergence with the disciples, for
their misunderstandings are presented as part of a faith that must remain incomplete until the end of his
mission.
It is so though they have admitted from the start that he is the Messiah, whereas the Synoptics
make this perception the peak of his Galilean ministry.
John agrees with the Synoptics that Jesus healed persons, multiplied the loaves, and walked on the
water, but he includes no exorcism among his healings.
In the Synoptics we meet miracles of compassion, while John’s primary interest is not in the physical
miracles as such: many of the seven miracles in his Gospel are more elaborated than the Synoptics’
ones and are reported as occasions for insight into Jesus’ identity.
John differs from them also in the style and content of Jesus’ words, which don’t longer focus on
God’s kingdom, use proverbs and parables, or appear in short declarations. Instead, Jesus speaks about
himself trough allegories, symbolic speeches and long conversations which often refer to his relationship
to the Father. The hearers misunderstand him and so he has the opportunity to develop his point and
explain himself further. Dialogues sometime become monologues as the partner fades out and Jesus keeps
talking.
Major Synoptic speeches are absent in John, including all of the Sermon on the Mount and the end-
time prophecies, though he mentions the Last Day.
John doesn’t use the conclusive saying, “He who has hears, let him hear”. On the contrary, when
speaking, prior to his message, Jesus says “verily” twice (“Amen, amen…”) 25 times rather than just 1 as
in the Synoptics.
Though John doesn’t quote the OT as frequently as the Synoptics do, hints to OT texts often are
woven into the speeches, introducing the reader to rich fields of imagery, as in the case of the Lamb of
God.
John is more doctrinal while the Synoptics are more ethical. He doesn’t explain Moses’ law, but gives
the new commandment of loving one another.
Though in Jesus’ Last Supper John doesn’t report the Eucharist’s institution as the Synoptics do, he is far
more interested than them in worship and sacraments.
Jesus’ many disputes with the Jewish authorities narrates by John could be said to anticipate his
trial before the Sanhedrin, which John, unlike the Synoptics, does not mention specifically.
In the Synoptics Jesus’ glory is associated primarily with his return at the end of the time (Mt 16:27ff),
but in John this end is here and now. So, salvation and eternal life are both present and future. The
coming of the Son of man is primarily his Incarnation, his “being lifted up” and his return to his disciples
through the Holy Spirit. In the same way the “judgment” is already taking place in human hearts, and
eternal life (John’s matching item of the Synoptic “kingdom”) is already in possession of
whoever has faith. That these “last things” should be seen as present is not surprising, since salvation
throughout history centres on Christ’s life and death. God’s victory over evil is already guaranteed by
Christ’s resurrection; his return at the last day will only confirm it.

◊ Revision questions:
1. Show four main differences and then give reasons for them between Jesus’ genealogies as reported by
Matthew and by Luke.
2. Narrate how Jesus underwent John’s baptism of repentance. What do you learn from this?
3. Though Jesus had no sins, he underwent John’s baptism of repentance. Explain the meaning of this act
(give at least seven points) and then the importance of the Christian baptism in today’s Church (give at least
three points).
4. What does Jesus’ baptism give us that John’s baptism didn’t give? Contrast the two baptisms.
5. In the gospels there are instances where God’s voice about Jesus was heard. Report them and give its
importance in your Christian life.
6. Explain the significance of Jesus’ temptations to our lives today by giving at least five points.
7. Jesus’ three temptations in the desert are important to us. Why? What lesson do you learn from his
response to the tempter?
8. Jesus’ temptations in the desert were meant to prove his loyalty to God’s chosen plan. Point out the three
temptations, and then use their meaning to clearly show how a Christian can fail today in his/her loyalty.
What are the modern forms of mentioned idolatry?
9. Demons were very common in Jesus’ time as they are today. Using the gospels, explain who they are and
what power they have over Christians.
10. Miracles are very popular today as in Jesus’ time and in the apostolic age. What were and are
advantages and disadvantages of this popularity?
11. “The Church as an institution is sometimes corrupt”. Discuss this statement with reference to Jesus’
91
purification of the temple.
12. Among Jesus’ instructions to the twelve and to the seventy (-two) disciples there are wonderful advices
for Christians’ mission. Enumerate and relate them to today’s situation.
13. “Who do you say I am?” Discuss this question’s meaning by giving your own witness.
14. Jesus summarised the whole ethics in the commandment of love. What is the advantage of this
approach in talking with your friends about responsible behaviour?
15. “Many Pharisees were a problem for Jesus’ ministry”. Defend this statement and then explain how you
see it in today Christian communities.
16. Using Jesus’ deeds and words on Sabbath, explain its meaning for Christians.
17. Jesus was misunderstood. What does this fact teach us when bearing witness to our faith?
18. Discuss the importance of Jesus’ resurrection to our faith in today’s environment.
19. In human life we may get friends and enemies alike. How does the Gospel teach us to behave with the
later ones?
20. Relate women's position in Jesus’ time and in today Tanzanian society. Which one would you favour?
Why?
21. Using the Gospels, say how Jesus’ followers can be faithful to God in their relationship with civic laws
and governments.
22. Show the differences between the three Synoptics and the fourth gospel.
23. With reference to John’s Gospel, give five points to show how you will help a person who does not
believe in Jesus, yet he claims that he will not be condemned as sinner because God is love.

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 ACTS OF THE APOSTLES:
THE CHURCH’S WITNESS FOR ALL PEOPLES TO THE END OF TIME

“You shall receive power when the Holy Spirit has come upon you; and you shall be my
witnesses in Jerusalem and in all Judea and Samaria and to the end of the earth” (Acts 1:8).

◊ When was Acts written?

Acts’ dating has to be the same as that of Luke’s Gospel (80-90), because originally they were a
two parts book we should call “a history of Christianity’s rise”. This is suggested by their literary
affinity (vocabulary, grammar and style) and by their prologues (for both are addressed to Theofilus, and
Acts 1:1, having called the Gospel an ‘earlier work’, goes on to say why it was written and to summarise its
closing incidents). About 150 AD, when Christians wanted the four Gospels bound in one codex, these two
parts were separated.

◊ Is Acts a historical book?

Early Christians had no interest in recording their own events, because they thought the end of the world
was at hand. Luke didn’t share this waiting: not only he was rather indifferent about time’s end, but he
gave value to time itself. This may be why he was the first to write a sort of account of the early Church.
If, as in the case of the Gospels, earlier writings existed which Luke would have drawn upon, the harmony
achieved in editing them is indeed remarkable, since it is very difficult to identify them today. The only
book of its kind in the NT, Acts accredits itself either as an eyewitness’ report for a major section of it or
as based on adequate sources. Its analysis confirms Lk 1:1-14 (meant as prologue to the complete work) by
suggesting that Luke must have collected a lot of detailed evidence from several sources, such as
traditions about Jerusalem community; biographical notes about Peter, Stephen, Philip; details about
Antioch community; witnesses about Paul’s conversion and missionary journeys; Luke’s own notes on Paul’s
later journeys. He organised all this material chronologically as best he could. Slight adjustments
don’t affect the basic reliability of the work.

◊ What was Luke’s view of events and persons?

Like all historians, Luke aimed to draw a lesson from events. He deliberately interrupts his account with
brief pauses or summaries, in which he sums up either features which he wants the reader to remember or
the progress of the action. This concern influenced the way he treated his sources. Thus there is an
intentional parallelism between Peter’s and Paul’s miracles and between them and some Gospel
passages. In noting a contrast between Paul’s portraits in Acts and in his own letters, we must consider
their different interests. Luke attributed to the apostle a more conciliatory approach than is shown by the
epistles for his concern was to exemplify the deep unity existing among the first Christians and their loyalty
to Rome’s political authorities. He had a positive view of the world and presented his characters with
psychological tact: the apostles appear self-controlled, courageous, just, and law-abiding, far from fanatic;
the outsiders too are generally reasonable and open-minded.

◊ Is the book’s traditional title right?

The title “Acts of the Apostles” may mislead, for Luke’s purpose was another. This book doesn’t record
their life, not even of Peter and Paul, the two prominent in the narrative. It doesn’t even suggest that
Peter had an apostolate outside Palestine, because the attention shifts to Paul in chapter 13 as the faith is
carried by Hellenist Christians to Gentiles. In many vivid scenes it portrays how God’s salvation in Jesus
spread according to the Church’s universal destiny. This assertion is based on the book’s structure as
summarised in 1:8. So, after Jerusalem, other cities become missionary stations: Antioch, Corinth,
Ephesus and finally Rome, the centre of the known world. To the theological wealth of this book, we must
add the factual information which we should otherwise lack: the centrality of faith in the risen Christ
evident in the 24 different speeches: 8 by Peter, 9 by Paul and 7 by various other people; the main OT texts
used by the first Christians as arguments with the Jews; important details about Church life, such as the way
of prayer and sharing of goods, baptism and Eucharist, early attempts at organisation, etc.

◊ In these speeches, whose voice do we hear: it is that of Peter and Paul, or it is Luke’s?
The speeches cover 1/3 of the book. They are not just notes taken by a listener. It’s clear that Luke has
rewritten them. Like other historians of his time, he composed real miniature speeches, with a beginning, a
development and an appeal. However, all scholars recognize that he did not invent them: he took up
earlier material. For example, certain titles given to Jesus in these speeches were no longer in use in
Luke’s time. So through them we can see how the first Christians proclaimed their faith to persuade Jews
and Gentiles to convert. There are always three elements: Jesus’ event (the speaker recalls facts from his
life) interpreted by the Scriptures (many Biblical quotations’ aim is to place Jesus’ life in the context of
God’s plan, in order to make sense of it) challenges us (the preacher is not only a teacher imparting new
knowledge to his pupils, but is aware that what he is saying forces the audience to make a choice).

◊ How does this book explain the Church’s marvellous spread?

Acts’ interest lies in the spiritual energy inside Christianity that causes its expansion and in the spiritual
doctrine Luke can deduce from the facts. In various ways he shows that the story he tells is not a
success of some talented preachers, but the doings of God and of his heavenly agents. First, Acts
93
offers a view of history
ory in which God’s Spirit promised by Jesus guides compellingly the Church every step of
her way to the end of the earth. There are a great many characters in this lively book, but h
human actors are
only instruments of the Spirit. It is he who directs the mission as Samari
Samaritans
tans and Gentiles are converted.
When Jerusalem council takes the great decision about the Gentiles’ freedom from Moses’ law, it is phrased
thus: “It has seemed good to the Holy Spirit a and
nd to us” (15:28). The Spirit prevents Paul from taking a
diversion that would have delayed his planting Christianity in Europe. Paul’s decision to go to Rome is a
resolve in the Spirit, and when he bids farewell to Asia, the Spirit has provided
provide priests to oversee the flock.
We could say that these records have been written so that we may believe that he is at work in the Church
of Jesus Christ. This is why the book
book, ever since the first centuries, has been called “the Holy Spirit’s
Gospel”, and why it is so full of joy and of wonder at God’s work. Moreover, the glorified Christ and the
Angel of the Lord intervene, preachers work miracles in Jesus’ name, and God’s word seems self- self
propagating: this is his work indeed.

◊ What Acts’ issues are more important for African Church?

Acts is one of the key books for faith’s inculturation in
Africa, because it stresses the Gospel’s universality and suggests
that different customs are no obstacle when they don’t oppose
Christ’s basic aim. A main theme is conversion:
onversion: its most
impressive example, Paul’s turning from persecutor to apostle, is
repeated three times. It demands change of behaviour: who
accepts Jesus has to share his possession with the needy
tending to a community of goods. This attitude is extremely
Jerusalem at the Church’s beginning. On meaningful
ngful for today’s Africans, many of whom still lack the very
top left is the Temple. means of survival.

◊ A help to read the text:

INTRODUCTION TO THE CHURCH TIME
Acts 1:1-14: The witnesses’ preparation and mission by the leaving Christ is the first step in integrating
the Church’s time into the greater arc of salvation history.
Acts 1:15-26: Its second step is the institution of a qualified holy community around the reconstituted
circle of twelve men.
THE MISSION IN JERUSALEM
Acts 2:1-13: What happened at Pentecost was as unique as what was accomplished by Jesus’
resurrection. Luke vividly presents s the Spirit’s sending upon the
the first community as baptism of fire.
fire
Acts 2:14-41: This first “missionary speech” to Jews has the typical outline of such speeches: an
introduction relating it to the narrative framework, Jesus’ proclamation full of Bible arguments, a call for
conversion based on this proclamation.
Acts 2:42-47: This first and most complete of Acts’ three major summaries occupies the keynote
position in its
ts history. It is an ideal picture of the first community as steadfast in all of these principal norms
of Church life incumbent upon the baptised.
Acts 3:1-11: The first miracle story of Ac Acts
ts is similar to those in the Synoptics, with exposition, healer’s
word and gesture, demonstration of the cure and effect upon the bystanders.
Acts 3:12-26: This second speech (in the temple) completes the first in showing that the apostles’
proclamation is the end-time time renewal of prophecy, and that in it the risen Christ’s voice is heard as the
awaited one of Moses’ successor. This explanation includes the usual schema contrasting God’s and his
people’s actions toward his servant (Jesus). Once again the go goal
al is the call to repentance.
Acts 4:1-22: The apostles’ arrest at the time of their appeal for Israel’s conversion begins the tide of
opposition that will culminate in the community’s dispersal and, at last, in the proclamation to the Gentiles.
Acts 4:23-31: This unique prayer did remind God of Jesus’ passion and ask him to strengthen the Church
multiplying wonders through her. It got instant answer, for the Holy Spirit filled all and they spoke boldly.
Acts 4:32-37: Single cases of freewill offerings are generalised by Luke into a community-wide
community Gospel
ideal of renunciation to possessions. So, he fostered the impression of the apostolic Church as a “golden
age”. Barnabas’ deed would not have been memorable if everyone did the same!
Acts 5:1-11: The terrifying ing tale of Ananias and Sapphira is the only NT example of miracles of
punishment, ordered to reinforce God’s rules as a matter of life and death.
Acts 5:12-16: The theme of this second major summary is the apostles’ wonders.
Acts 5:17-42: The Sanhedrin’s second indictment parallels the first, but the returning elements are
dramatically intensified. The Gospel’s preaching, under God’s direct control, grew ever stronger and with it,
by corresponding necessity, the tide of its opposition.
THE MISSION’S OUTWARD RD PATH FROM JERUSALEM
Acts 6:1-7: Luke’s idealised picture of the community has not prepared us to this conflict.
Acts 6:8-7:1: Luke configures the first Christian martyrdom to Jesus’ death. It is the peak of the earlier
persecutions, the first having ended ed in mere threats, the second with scourging and a resolve to kill, which
now is fulfilled.
Acts 7:2-53: The narrative about Stephen has in its midst his speech, the longest of Acts and the first of
two which sum up OT history. The survey moves from Abrah Abraham’s
am’s call over Joseph’s and Moses’ careers,
which saw constant Israelite resistance to God’s design, finally to the temple’s building, treated as the peak
of the former generations’ infidelities. The final attack is an address to the present audience, illuillustrating the
nation’s perennial disobedience in its violence against all the prophets and showing its logical conclusion in
the murder of the Christ by the listeners.
Acts 7:54-8:3: The conclusion resumes the narrative recounting Stephen’s killing.
Acts 8:4-40: One of the Hellenist Seven, Philip from Caesarea Maritima, is the
champion of the Word’s advance in Samaria, though he is inferior to the apostles,
in whose communion only the Holy Spirit operates. The eunuch’s conversion,
causing readers to think of African crowds beyond civilisation’s boundaries, proofs
that the Gospel, after Samaria, was truly in its way to the end of the earth.
Acts 9:1-19a: After the Ethiopian’s baptism has restated the mission’s goal,
Luke narrates one of its larger milestones, the conversion of that fearsome enemy
who was to become ome the greatest missionary: Paul, the hero of Acts’ second half.
His change and that of Cornelius’ family stand at the centre of this book: the
extraordinary importance of both events is established through a twofold later
retelling. A feature of both is the cross
cross-referential visions which draw together the
convert and his unwilling trainer,, with the baptism as final result. But Luke’s
interest was to stress Paul’s vocation more than his conversion, like many
progressive variations of detail among the three versions Anania heals Paul in
Ananias
show. Damascus.
9:19b-31: Paul’s preaching in Damascus and
Acts 9:19b
Jerusalem is countered by Jews’ rejection and plots, prompting hasty flightflig from
both cities. The omission of his sojourn in Arabia moves the two stories much
closer together than the “three years” reported in Gal 1:18.
9:32-43: After Philip’s dramatic outreach and Paul’s conversion, all is
Acts 9:32
ready for the book’s final phase:: the mission to the Gentiles. But in Luke’s
scheme,, this must be inaugurated by Peter, not anyone else. So two miracles fix
our attention on the leading apostle as introduction to his epoch epoch-making
conversion of Cornelius. Both evoke similar deeds of Jesus, and so contribute a
sense of continuity which helps integrate the Gentiles’ conversion into the plan of
history centred on the Christ.
Peter’s vision which Acts 10:1-11:18:
10:1 Cornelius’ sequence comprises five
helped him accept the scenes: his vision, Peter’s vision, Peter’s reception of
uncircumcised in the the centurion’s messengers, the proceedings in
Church. Cornelius’ house and Peter’s account at Jerusalem. The
last one contains Luke’s summing
summing-up of the event’s
meaning, which makes it a classic ic precedent for the whole Church and prepares
for his version of Jerusalem’s Council in chapter 15.
Acts 11:19-12:25: Luke interrupted the fleeing Hellenists’ story in order to
insert Paul’s and Cornelius’ conversions as base for the worldwide mission. He can
now continue it, since the opening they are about to make has been safely
inserted into the apostolic tradition by the diversion in 9:1 9:1-11:18. The firm bond
between the first Gentile Church (Antioch) and a the mother Church is the stress of
this section, which recounts the inspection by Jerusalem’s delegate, Barnabas, his
call of Paul to Antioch, and their joint mission to bear the new community’s aid to
The angel rescues Peter
Jerusalem. In the midst there is the account of Apo Apostles’ persecution by Herod
from prison at night.
Agrippa I and Peter’s rescue by God.
Acts 13:1-14:28: This “first missionary journey of Paul” according to Luke is a fragmentary record of the
13-year
year interval mentioned in Gal. It introduces
introduce the method and schedule of Paul’s activity
tivity (Jews first, and
then Greeks) and it thus sharpens the crucial issue of Apostles’ Council.
Acts 15:1-35: This s is a very relevant record of community discernment about a new problem. It has three
key components: a shared process, the search for a sol solution
ution and a decision. Hellenist Church’s
representatives had returned to Jerusalem to seal the legitimacy of the mission to the uncircumcised. In the
meeting Peter spoke fittingly first, giving the orientation: don’t impose useless burdens. Barnabas and Pa Paul
followed calling as witness their own experience. Luke includes the meeting told in Gal 2:1 2:1-10, but he adds a
speech by James, the sage, that settles beforehand the meal meal-sharing
sharing divergence (emerged later at Antioch
according to Gal 2:11-14). 14). He proposed a temporary compromise by laying on four clauses of minimal
adherence by Gentile Christians to avoid scandal and keep Jew believers in mind. The following decree,
destined beyond the inquiring Church to its expanding mission territories, stresses God’s initiative in the
question’s resolution (“the Holy Spirit and us”) against divisive effect effects of decisions made outside
communion.
PAUL’S PATH TO ROME
Acts 15:36-16:10: Paul’s sharp disagreement with Barnabas was followed by his major missions. The
Holy Spirit’s guidance of the journey in haste to Europe expresses Luke’s theology, which leaves no room for
the founding of communities ties in Galatia. The sudden first appearance of the “we” narrator joins the report of
Paul’s dream and confirms it was a revelation.
Acts 16:11-40: Upon the account of the journey to Philippi follow four ministry events there: Lydia’s
conversion, the divining spirit’s expulsion, the missionaries’ miraculous release from prison and their
vindication by the town’s authorities.
Acts 17:1-15: Two brief scenes, at Thessalonica and Beroea, have parallel structure: usual beginning in a
synagogue, discussion of the Scriptures, success especially with high rank women, and outbreak of
persecution under Jews’ instigation.
 Acts 17:16-34: In this story about Paul’s activity in Athens, his speech is central. central. The cityscape is
carefully adjusted to the speech’s content which, in proclaiming the true God hitherto “unknown”, makes
three critics of pagan religiosity from a viewpoint shared with open open-minded
minded Greek philosophers: temples,
sacrifices and idols. Like ke other ones in Acts, this interrupted speech results in a divided audience.
Acts 18:1-17: This account on Paul’s one and an half year in Corinth offers detailed and reliable
information on one of his most important missions, though it is silent about any developments that would
later cause his critical letters to them. Moreover Luke doesn’t tell us that from there he wrote 1Ts, the first
NT book; it will be the same about the following epistles.
Acts 18:18-23: After fast verses on Paul’s travel back to Syria Syria via Ephesus, suddenly he is presented
again in Asia province. The account of each stop is very brief, and the traditional marking out of a third
missionary journey in v. 23 is disputable.
Acts 18:24-19:7: These episodes light up each other. Luke uses them them to show how movements on the
margin of his linear history were integrated into the mission charted by the apostles.
Acts 19:8-40: For a mission such important as the three years of Paul in Ephesus, Luke doesn’t give us a
quality of information comparable le to chapter 18 about Corinth. In verse 21 we read the first announcement
of Paul’s destined itinerary to Jerusalem and Rome. At this time he wrote at least Gal and 1Cor.
Acts 20:1-16: Departure from Ephesus came according to plan, non under pressure. A highly simplified
travel report is interrupted by Eutychus’ resurrection. It is silent about the setbacks and conflicts known
through the letters to the Corinthians. At this time he wrote Rom.
Acts 20:17-38: Among Acts’ speeches, that at Miletus represents s a new genre: the farewell discourse, to
which analogies abound in the Bible. This testament by Paul for all the Churches he leaves behind is the only
speech to Christians in Acts.. It announces both the end of his missions and the start of his trials and
detention, serving thus as a hinge between the two segments, mission and passion, in which his career
parallels the Lord’s. Luke uses it to mark the end of the Church’s first generation and to record the orderly
transition from the Apostles’ ministry to th the later life of the Church.
21:1-14: The travel report is resumed.
Acts 21:1
21:15-36: Luke omits crucial circumstances of Paul’s last visit to
Acts 21:15
Jerusalem, especially the collection’s delivery and why he feared fear it might be
rejected. At the time the local Church Church was leaded by James, the voice of
moderation amid rising fundamentalism. During uring the mid 50s Jews’Jews nationalism
put pressure on the helpless Jewish Christians,, whose relations with fellow
citizens could not be improved by Paul’s arrival with gifts from Gentiles. In this
frame the accusation of v. 21 and the gesture of Paul’s faithfulness to Moses’ law
gain their meaning.
21:37-22:29: This first of three self-defences
Acts 21:37 defences by Paul in tthe trial
chapters, together with its narrative frame, argue his equal footing with his
accusers: he claims full membership in the community of Israel, right here in its
historic centre. The Damascus event would have brought anyone of them to his
Paul saved by Roman same concl
conclusion: Christian conversion and mission.
soldiers while aggressed by Acts 22:30-23:11:
22:30 The process against the earthly Jesus has been continued
Jews in Jerusalem. in Acts through four trials where the accused is he as proclaimed by his Church
(Peter and John, the Apostles, Stephen and now Paul).
Acts 23:12-35: Jews’ plot against Paul and his hasty transport to Caesarea get a broad description.
Acts 24:1-27: This account is dominated by two speeches: a statement of accusation and Paul’s second
self-defence. Felix deferred a verdict of discharge as a strategic concession to the Jews.
Acts 25:1-26:32: After Paul’s initiative of appealing to Caesar and its
acceptance by Festus, it remained only to put him on board for his Roman
journey. But two scenes involving King Agrippa II delay that turn of our story:
both are united by the motif of Paul’s innocence, progressively articulated by
governor and king. Paul’s speech before the latter completes his realization of
the missionary duty charted by Jesus (Lk 21:13), having run the range of
synagogue, governor and now king.
Acts 27:1-28:16: The risky sea voyage confirms that, according to God’s
sure plan, Paul must reach his (and the book’s) destination in the world capital.
There he was under house arrest in rented quarters. The Appia Way, through
Acts 28:17-31: The book’s ending is a two two-part dramatic episode: Jews’ which Paul re reached Rome,
rejection and Paul’s turning to the Gentiles. It condenses his two two-year first as it is still today.
Roman sojourn in a reprise of the stages his mission has followed at all of its
principal stations. The risen Lord’s plan for his witnesses (1:8) is fulfilled when the last of those directly
commissioned by him completes his missionary adventure from Jerusalem, city of the true Israel’s first
assembly, to Rome, centre of the Ge Gentiles’ vast and fertile world. Luke leaves unsatisfied our thirst for an
ending to Paul’s biography,, quite as he did in the case of Peter and the apostles, abruptly removed from his
story. Jesus,, the true prophet of salvation to all the nations, is the one whose path has been plotted in Acts;
his witnesses have come and gone in its pages only as needed. Paul’s personal destiny is outshone by the
open-ended
ended triumph of the Gospel over its powerful opposition.

◊ Study questions:
1. “I have no silver and gold, but I give you what I have” (Acts 3:6). What was the story about this
statement and what does it teach the Church today?
2. Briefly describe who Gamaliel was and two advices he gave the Sanhedrin. Afterward relate his
words to present day life, answering those who would like to forbid religious gatherings.
3. According to Acts 5, Ananias and his wife were greedy; in three paragraphs, describe their story and
then show their greed’s outcome to them and the Church; moreover, explain how today Christians
demonstrate their greed and what the Church should do if one misappropriates community properties (give
seven points).
4. Ananias and his wife tried to lie to the Holy Spirit and died. How did they lie and what do we need
learn from their story?
5. Briefly narrate two incidents where the Apostles came up against magicians and then say how these
stories relate to us.
6. Give an account of Cornelius’ conversion and then explain how God until today prepares pagan
people to accept Jesus as saviour.
7. Faced by criticism from circumcision’s party at Jerusalem, how did Peter justify his conduct on
Cornelius’ event (Act 11:1-18)? Giving at least four points, moreover, explain that event’s significance to the
Church.
8. While Peter was in prison, the whole Church prayed for him and so got his miraculous liberation.
Narrate the episode relating it to today’s Church.
9. “The voice of a god, and not of man” (Acts 12:22). After exposing the context of these words, say if
they could be heard in today’s political situation.
10. “The gods have become like men and have come down to us” (Acts 14:11). Narrate the event which
led to these words and then relate them to Church’s ministers in today’s context.
11. Describe circumstances and resolutions of Jerusalem Council and then explain what we have to learn
in our care for Church’s unity today.
12. James proved to be a model of good leader in the way he resolved the conflict at Jerusalem Council.
Give an outline of how he worked on the matter and how we have to imitate him.
13. When Paul went back to Jerusalem after his third missionary journey, he met suspects against him.
On what ground did Church elders fear for him? What did they counsel him to perform against Jews’
suspects? Give three reasons which made Paul obey them and then narrate the end of Paul’s mission.
14. Whenever there were crises in Apostles’ ministry, they turned to God in prayer. Narrate three
examples from Acts and then say why you think it is important to pray in times of crisis.
15. Explain five characteristics of the early Christian community as presented in the book of Acts of the
Apostles. Then, in connection with these characteristics, show at least three changes needed to be made in
the Church today.
16. “Magicians have caused serious troubles in our societies, opposing even the Church’s mission to the
world”. a) Justify this statement with reference to three encounters with evil powers in the Act of the
Apostles. b) Explain how you would help a person who fears magic powers by giving him two points.
17. The book of “The Acts of the Apostles” can also be called “The Acts of the Holy Spirit”. Evaluate this
assertion by giving five points.
18. The book of “The Acts of the Apostles” records the principles of social and moral life in the early
Church. Identify five such principles and then show their usefulness to the Christians of today.

97
 SOME EPISTLES BY PAUL
“Count the forbearance of our Lord as salvation. So also our beloved brother Paul wrote to you
according to the wisdom given to him, speaking of this as he does in all his letters. There are
some things in them hard to understand, which the ignorant and unstable twist to their own
destruction, as they do the other scriptures” (2Pt 3:15-16).

◊ What epistles are?

Letter writing is attested for millennia. Four modes are used: to write oneself, to dictate word for word, to
state the sense leaving the expression to a secretary, to have someone write in one’s name without
indication of contents. Many do distinguish a letter from an epistle, which resembles an essay on some
theme for a wide audience. It is difficult, however, to classify some writings as letters or as epistles. 21 out
of 27 NT books are called επιστολαι, epistolai, whereas no OT book is so designated.

◊ Who was the main author of NT epistles? THE 21 EPISTLES

There are letters in the OT, especially in the latter period, but the use of AS FOUND IN THE NT
this form of writing for religious purposes became prominent with
Paul, imitated by later Christian writers. Part of his genius was to adopt this 13 (+ 1) BY PAUL
handy form to evangelise. His letters were sent to communities and individuals Romans
to express his apostolic presence and authority in building up Churches, to 1 Corinthians
spread his understanding of Christ’s message and especially to apply it to 2 Corinthians
concrete problems arisen in places that he could not then visit personally. They Galatians
shared features of contemporary letters, which had at least three parts: Ephesians
opening formula (with the name of the sender and of the addressee and a Philippians
short greeting), message itself, final greetings; many times a thanksgiving Colossians
introduced the body of the letter. Into it Paul often introduced other material 1 Thessalonians
which in many cases derived from the Church’s blooming tradition. 13 NT 2 Thessalonians
epistles are attributed by name to Paul and in them we read he wrote also 1 Timothy
other letters now lost. They reflect his ardent spirit with his boundless 2 Timothy
confidence in Christian truth’s compelling power. The communities treasured Titus
these letters highly, read them during worship and passed them on to others. Philemon
By the end of the 1st century they were circulating throughout the Church and Hebrews
were already being gathered and accepted as written Word of God. In our Bible 7 CATHOLIC
they are not ordered following the time of composition: those to seven James
Churches precede those to three individuals; within these groups, the likely 1 Peter
reason for their order is the length, decreasing from Romans to 2Thessalonians 2 Peter
and from 1 Timothy to Philemon. 1 John
2 John
◊ Who did write the other epistles? 3 John
Except for 2 John and 3 John, epistle is a title better suited to Hebrews Judas
and the seven so called “Catholic Epistles”. This collective title, whose
original meaning was “addressed to all”, seems to have spread from 1 John to the whole group, though it is
now hard to justify for three of them; so Western Christians may grasp it as “recognised in all Churches”.
They are distinguished by the name of the one they are ascribed to, rather than by that of the
addresses. But the attribution to John, Peter, James and Judah must in each case be evaluated taking into
account the convention of that time by which literary works could be attributed to great past figures not
directly concerned with their composition.

PAUL

◊ How do we know Paul?

What we know of him comes from two main sources of different
value: his own letters, in which he talks about himself all the time, and
the Acts of the Apostles. Paul’s letter are so engaging! They reveals what
God’s grace can achieve in a man’s heart, and what he truly was, a saint with
countless failings. He was emotional and needed faithful friends by him.
When a Jew he was a fundamentalist; after becoming a Christian he
remained in character: his colleagues and followers learnt this to their cost!
At the same time he was utterly caught up in his mission; all that counted for
him was love for his Lord and the service of his communities, his dear
children for whom he felt as physically as a mother. In his letters there is a
series of movements from his conversion to the arrival in Rome which
parallels the more detailed movements in Acts. In reconstructing his life, we
must prefer what he himself has written, but also admit details of Paul’s look.
Acts if they don’t conflict with Paul’s letters. A few divergences are only to be
expected because Luke wrote many years after the events. Even so, his account is generally reliable and
accords with the information we have from Paul himself.
 ◊ Where did Paul live before his
conversion?
Paul’s life (about sixty years) was
divided by his conversion into two almost
equal parts. He was born in the first
decade AD in Tarsus, capital of Cilicia
province. This Hellenistic town’s
people had Roman citizenship: Paul
willingly used this status’ privileges to
facilitate his ministry. Though he had a
Greek education, he was a Jew who
could also speak Aramaic and read
Important places in Paul’s life and ministry. the Hebrew OT. Many Jews of that
period had two names often chosen for
their similar sounds, one Semitic and the other Greek or Roman. So he was called “Saul, also known as
Paul” (Acts 13:9). He boasted of his Jewish background and traced his lineage to the tribe of Benjamin. He
was an extremely zealous Pharisee, educated as scribe in Jerusalem by Gamaliel, the leading Jewish
teacher of his time. Afterward, as a Christian he looked back on his Jewish career with a quiet conscience:
“As for righteousness under the law, I was blameless”. Moreover he didn’t marry. Paul never saw or
heard Jesus while on earth: during his ministry, he had probably returned to Tarsus. He was again in
Jerusalem shortly after the resurrection and was appalled at the Christians’ preaching. As a theologian, he
saw better than Peter and others that their message ran the risk of overturning Judaism. His zeal for Jews’
traditions made him a hater of the early Church. While persecuting her adherents, after joining
Stephen’s murder, he received God’s revelation near Damascus (ca. 36). All his knowledge was
uniquely transformed by the insight into Christ’s mystery accorded to him there: to fully explore it took him
the following thirty years through the experience of everyday contact with different communities, whose life
and problems forced him to deepen his knowledge of Christ.

◊ How did Paul convert to Christ?

In Luke’s three accounts of Paul’s fundamental experience, the essential is the following dialogue: “Saul,
Saul, why do you persecute me?” – “Who are you, Sir?” – “I am Jesus whom you are
persecuting”. This identification with his own persecuted disciples may well have been the source of Paul’s
teaching on Christians’ unity in and with the one Body of Christ. In any case, this meeting with the risen
Lord was decisive in Paul’s life: God had glorified that accursed man! So, the Law which had condemned
him was itself condemned by God. Paul’s very life was falling apart: we understand how he remained for
three days, blind, prostrate, trying to make sense of things. Then he became “Christ’s servant”, compelled
to witness his resurrection and to preach his Gospel; for it he turned into “apostle to the Gentiles”, ready to
become “all things to all human beings”. The finest expertise he acquired in Jewish thought and practice
from his home life and from his education in the OT scriptures, united with his knowledge of Greek life and
culture, made him the ideal bridge between the early Jewish Christianity and the Gentile world.
Other NT writers could claim a Jewish background and Hellenistic contacts, but no one had Paul’s depth in
understanding Christ’s event, except possibly John. The Church’s tremendous transformation which took
place during the 30 years of his ministry is essentially his work. This is why his conversion is her most
important event after Pentecost. Viewed in the light of the resources and powers of any one man, it is in
every way a gigantic achievement, but it looms still greater in the light of the fact that his mighty work
was carried out and made permanent from a weak body and facing the opposition of false
brothers who everywhere placed the greatest obstacles to it. Against them he was constantly obliged to
defend - often with sharp words - his mission’s validity. With God’s help, his larger vision of Christianity
finally prevailed.

◊ Did Paul depend on early Church’s tradition?

Paul had a supreme consciousness of a divinely imposed task for the good of others, and of God’s power
working in him. His call, however, exceptional though it may have been, brought him, humbly, into the
Church’s tradition through his baptism at Ananias’ hands. His own letters clearly show he inherited early
Church’s message, worship, songs, faith’s formulas, theological terms and moral advices. At times he
explicitly calls attention to the fact that he is “handing on” what he has received, he appeals to
Church’s customs and urges fidelity to her tradition. Another aspect of this dependence is his little
knowledge of what Jesus did and taught: his letters say only that Jesus was born of a woman under the law,
instituted the Eucharist, was betrayed and crucified, died, was buried, was raised from the dead and taken
up to heaven. A main reason is that he wrote before the Gospels’ authors. Not having been an
eyewitness, he stresses the saving effects of Christ’s death and resurrection, rising above the
data of Jesus’ historical ministry. When he alludes to or quotes a saying of Jesus, he refers it to “the
Lord”, a title revealing the imposing aspect under which he regards him.

◊ What did Paul do after his conversion?

According to Paul’s letters, after his conversion he visited Jerusalem twice and planned another visit
before going to Rome and Spain. He went to where Jesus’ name was not known, proclaiming him always a
step further, always going forth, always farther away: he never stopped to have the advantage of a position,
of authority, of being served. The Acts confirm and complete such and other information. After spending
some time in Arabia Paul returned to Damascus until he had to escape (39). Then he went to Jerusalem for
the first time “to get information from Cephas” (how he calls Peter) and met James, “the Lord’s brother”.
After fifteen days he retired to Syria
ria and Cilicia (40
(40-44), where he had a vision. Then he was called by
Barnabas to help him in leading the important community of Antioch. The years 46--58 were the most
active of his life, as he evangelised Asia Minor and South East Europe. During this time he went
again to Jerusalem (49) where Peter, James, and John realised the grace
given to him and extended to him the right hand of fellowship, without
requiring the circumcision of Gentile converts. The decision of this Apostles’
Council was unanimous, butt the right practice was not yet carried out out.
Jewish Christians would not sit at the table with Gentile Christians: in the
same year Paul had to criticise Peter in Antioch for separating himself from
them after the arriving of Jerusalem Christians with a m marked OT inclination.
So the question of Jewish food regulations was now posed. James convened
apostles and elders again, and their decision was sent as a letter to the
Churches of Syria and Cilicia urging Gentile Christians in such mixed
community to abstain from four things most sensitive for Jews.
Paul preaching in Athens.
◊ What were Paul’s following journeys?
Between 50 and 52 Paul was again on his way and reached Europe. He stayed 18 months in Corinth,
from where he wrote his first letters (to the Thessalonians). After a visit to Jerusalem, he stayed again at
Antioch well over a year. During his third missiona
missionary journey (54-58)
58) for three years Ephesus was the centre
of his activity; from there he wrote to the Galatians, to the Philippians, to Philemon and a few times to the
Corinthians. During other three months in Corinth he wrote to the Romans. In the course of a new visit to
Jerusalem (58) Jews tried to kill him; the Roman militia saved him, but this was the beginning of a long
detention. After two years of prison in Caesarea he appealed to the emperor (Caesar Nero, 54-68),54 so he
was sent to Rome escorted by a soldier. After a long and troubled
voyage, for two years (61-63)63) he was kept in house arrest, with the
possibility of evangelising there and of writing to Colossians and
Ephesians. This is the peak of Acts’ account of the spread of God’s
word from Jerusalem
lem to the capital of the civilised world of the time,
but it was not the end of Paul’s life. His letters to Titus and
Timothy suggest that he visited the East again, was arrested there
and brought to Rome. Pope Clement I wrote (ca. 95) that he visited
Spain before another trial and killing, which according to 2nd
century traditions happened in Rome by beheading at the height
Paul beheaded in Rome. of Nero’s persecution of the Church (64-68).

◊ What was Paul’s genius?

Paul’s genius can be better appreciated recalling that he wrote his
letters before any other NT booksbooks. He was able to take the earliest oral
tradition about Jesus and to develop a deep knowledge of salvation that
embraced just about every aspect of Christian life in the light of OT
scriptures and of his own experience
ience of Christ and missionary work. His
inspired writings helped other disciples to reinterpret their memories of Jesus.
The Church has been living by them for 2,000 years and they have not lost
their richness and brightness. Though filled with difficulties
difficulti which might
mislead the unwary, as Peter’s second letter cautions, they are an endless
mine of wonderful thought.

◊ Can we summarise Paul’s theology?

Paul writing a letter.
It is impossible to summarise Paul’s theology in a brief space. The varied
richness of his thought must be experienced meditating the letters
themselves. Two major themes are salvation and Christ’s body. Paul considers of top importance
Jesus’ death and resurrection, whose motive was the love God has for us despite our sins. sins Jesus made
his own death a sacrificial offering of love and obedience to the Father. ThroughThrough his resurrection Jesus
became the Spirit-sender
sender who makes all believers one with himself. By means of baptism they are
united with Jesus’ death and resurrection as his body and receive his unifying and life life-giving
Spirit who inspires them to live with love as Christ lived lived. The Holy Spirit gives them the power to
share in all that Jesus is, has and does, thus overcoming the “flesh”, i.e. the innate selfishness which
constantly tries to draw them away from God. The more believers are guided by the Spirit, the less they
need to o be given rules of conduct. Living Christ’s new life, they are God’s children with full right to inherit all
that the Father has given to his Son, including the present life of grace and the future glorification of both
soul and body. But if they are to be e co-glorified
co with Christ, they must co-suffer
suffer with him in different forms.
They need everyday struggle againstagain the flesh: each overcoming of it by the Spirit’s power is a sharing
in Jesus’ death and resurrection. Christian life is thus a constant worship of the Father in union with his
Son’s sacrifice. All of this is the free gift of God in Christ, unearned and undeserved.
 FIRST LETTER TO THE THESSALONIANS:
WAITING FOR THE LORD

◊ When and why did Paul write to Thessalonica's Christians?

Paul’s policy was to establish the Christian faith in a town so
that it could spread into the whole region. Such it was Thessalonica,
a city important for economic and political reasons. At his time it was the
capital of Macedonia province (north of Greece) and attracted an
international population (perhaps 300,000 inhabitants). Besides the
temples to Greek, Roman and Egyptians gods, the many Jews had at
least one synagogue. Paul arrived there around 50 after been expelled
from Philippi. After three weeks of successful preaching, Jews’ opposition
caused him to go south: to Beroea, Athens and Corinth. Timothy, sent
back to Thessalonica, brought to Paul in Corinth good news about the
Thessalonians’ faith and passionate love under persecution, but a Thessalonica’s today port.
somewhat disordered hope with some misunderstanding of his teaching
about Jesus’ second coming troubled them, who were converts from paganism. Resurrection and afterlife did
not readily enter into Greek perspectives. They were worried about what happens to the dead. How and
when will the Lord return? Some answered: “He is coming now, and since he is coming now, let us not
work!” This report caused Paul’s first letter, being the earliest written book in the NT, most probably in
that very year.

◊ What are the main themes of this letter

Since this letter uses earlier material from tradition, it is an important witness to what Christians believed
in the 20 years between Jesus’ resurrection and the writing of the NT. At this early stage, God the Father
was more prominent in their ideas, as they were closer to Jewish Christians’ than later. Like other
Christians, Paul had only one desire: that the Lord’s day should come quickly and put an end to history. He
began his ministry living, and making his followers live, in imminent expectation of the Lord who was to
come. He took time to accept that the delay before Jesus’ return would be a long one. He had to reflect
about how Christ’s resurrection could save his followers whether alive or dead. As popular in the 1st century,
he used a strong imagery to stress God’s majesty and power, but it is not the accurate description of what
will actually happen. Paul’s message is like this: “No grieve as others who have no hope, because the Lord
will come and our dead are with him. We too shall always be with him”. Particularly important about end-
time teaching, the letter also introduced many points elaborated in the following ones, for example about
the ministry of the apostle, consisting essentially in preaching the Word and asking authenticity and
disinterestedness. From its beginnings, the Church is invited to live in constant prayer and to give priority to
the care of her weakest members.

◊ What is the relevance of this letter in Africa?

Today some Africans, confused by new evangelists, do expect Christ’s second coming to be soon: they
imagine he will descend dramatically to take his faithful up to paradise. Such expectation is nothing new: in
front of it, Paul demanded calm and taught the value of hard work as a participation in the creating
act of God. Among many African tribes through work everyone strengthens the life-force of the whole
community. But it should not become a preoccupation geared only to get money. It has first to humanise. In
this sense we must also consider ecology: in order to reach wealth, we are destroying our environment and
harming human life itself. Politicians have to create jobs so that everybody can dedicate oneself to serve
others.

◊ A help to read the text:

THANKSGIVINGS
1Thes 1:1-2:12: After a typical start, the first thanksgiving is for the Thessalonians’ reception of the
Gospel. Their faith was expressed in their having become imitators of the Apostles and of the Lord; by doing
so they in turn became examples for other believers. In such way the Gospel’s spread itself is now part of
the good news. Then a confession follows, similar to Jeremiah’s ones, which underlines missionaries’
blameless behaviour as decisive factor in their witness to Jesus. We have to learn very much from Paul.
1Thes 2:13-3:13: A second thanksgiving includes a series of complaints against Jews and an expression
of Paul’s desire to be present to the letter’s addressee. He lessens this desire by suggesting that he wants to
be present in his apostolic function and by saying it is surpassed by Christ’s presence.
EXORTATIONS AND END-TIME REVELATIONS
1Thes 4:1-12: The letter’s second part starts with exhortations to chastity and charity. Both are badly
needed today also, in the Church too. Facing what many see as demands of nature (occasional sex), are
other demands due to the fact that God has called us to become holy. If we have given ourselves to Christ,
that should surely make our life different from what we lived before.
1Thes 4:13-5:11: In the first revelation about end-time, Paul explains the lot of the dead: they are
asleep, waiting for the time of rising as new persons transformed by the Risen One. In the second one he
reflects on the implications of the end-time for those who are alive: among them, the duty of work.
1Thes 5:12-28: The first two verses relate to the building up of the community, calling for order. Then a
series of brief instructions is given. At the end, we read closing wishes and greetings.
◊ Study questions:
1. Discuss the relevance of 1Thes to today’s Church in reference to end-time’s hopes.
2. In 1 Thes 4-5 we read that the believers were anxiously waiting for the Lord’s second coming. Briefly
explain the six precautions given to them and then expose their relevance to contemporary Christians.
3. Evaluate five themes that Paul emphasises in 1 Thes 5.

LETTER TO THE GALATIANS:

FROM SLAVERY TO FREEDOM

◊ When and why did Paul write to the Galatian Christians?

Paul wrote to the Churches of Galatia province (whose capital was Ancyra, the present-day Ankara in
Turkey) during his major struggle with Judaist Christians. A reasonable date is about 54, not long after
his arrive in Ephesus at the start of his third mission. There he learned that in Galatia some strict Jewish
Christians were scorning his authority as an apostle. They further claimed that, for the sake of Gentile
converts, he was diluting the Gospel’s requirements because he didn’t insist on OT rules (circumcision, food
laws and special days). They maintained that such acts were needed for salvation: moreover, by adopting
Moses’ laws, the Galatians would link themselves with values that had inspired and united God’s people for
more than a thousand years. But not every pleasing cause is correct. Those who were requiring religious
practices of old did so after failing to understand that being Christian was primarily living one’s faith
rather than following any customs. They did not accepted to follow Paul when he declared that Christ was
able to fill their lives and that the Holy Spirit is a much better guide than any moral obligations.
The Galatians found it difficult to maintain themselves along such a new line and felt a need for rules and
practices through which they could expect a reward for their good deeds. On the contrary, faith means
surrendering to God and his mystery which is as awesome as its symbol, the cross. Having heard the
confusion that his opponents were creating, Paul was enraged and wrote this strong letter to defend his
position as an apostle and to warn his simple followers against this “different gospel”. In his view it
was equal to saying that Jesus was not enough. Any compromise would mean that Christ died and was
resurrected for nothing. Paul’s passion gave this letter an extraordinary feel. We have to read it without
worrying too much about hard phrases.

◊ What are the main themes of this letter?

Paul wanted to bring Galatians back to Jesus as only means of salvation, God’s free and freeing
gift available through a faith working by love. This letter was his first presentation of salvation by grace
through faith apart from deeds set by Moses’ law, above all circumcision, the commandments concerning
food, the prescriptions relating to purity, and how to keep the Sabbath. Paul sees in these observances a
return to the situation before Jesus’ revolution, through which Israel’s God has truly become the God of all
nations in accordance to OT promises. This letter allows us to understand an essential feature of Paul’s
method: using theology to solve practical problems. It also introduces us to a deep spirituality: though OT
truly flowed in Paul’s blood and he often appealed to it, what he preached was no religion of a book, but a
relationship with Jesus who, named in the first and last verses of the letter, truly dominates it. A popular
slogan today is, “Are you saved?” This letter reminds us that salvation is not assured once for all. The
initial grace which saves in principle must be ratified by expressing faith in love. To test how far this is
happening we have to use the lists of the “works of the flesh” and the “fruit of the Spirit” in 5:19-22: which
of them describes our personal and social behaviour? It is only by letting ourselves be led by God’s Spirit
that we become free from Moses’ law, for Christian freedom is not the freedom of people with no obligations,
but that of people totally united with the Father’s will: it is freedom in the service of good.

◊ What is the relevance of this letter in Africa?

As stated by Paul, Christ accepts all humans with their distinctive traditions. Nobody should be
forced to adopt Jewish customs to become a Christian. Likewise western Christianity should not be imposed
on Africans who have to read the Gospel in line with their own culture. On the other hand, Paul challenges
us not to cling to traditions which violate human dignity and don’t match with the Gospel. Abraham’s role in
relation to Jesus can help understand the ancestors’ one in African culture. Just as God’s promises to him
were fulfilled in Christ, so every religion is faulty without Jesus. In our time when so many people reduce
religion to practices, Christians who move between traditional and Church procedures are deeply challenged
by Paul’s insights on Christ as the centre of a new life. Moreover, it is a fact that to the extent that the
mother Church has to sustain many Christians who have a very limited experience of life in the freedom of
the Spirit, she tends to bring herself to their level and to become a system of doctrines and precepts similar
to the Jews’ one. This is way she has to continually rediscover the meaning of living by faith. Paul’s
manifesto about Christian freedom won by Jesus for mankind can also help Africa understand what its hard-
won freedom from such burdens as slavery and colonialism should mean, and what that freedom is for.

◊ A help to read the text:

INTRODUCTION
Gal 1:1-11: Paul expands the typical start, by adding motifs of the letter itself: the defence of his
apostolate (its independence and divine origin) and the explanation of God’s plan for humans’ justification
through Christ. Instead of the usual thanksgiving Paul voices his shock at Galatians’ inconsistency and
affirms that his own Gospel alone is the real one. Today too many different teachings in Jesus’ name are
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coming into the Church: we absolutely need to know how discern them in order to cling to the truth.
PAUL’S CALL AND GOSPEL
Gal 1:12-2:14: Against Judaistt Christian
Christians’
s’ accusation, Paul narrates a few historic events to reaffirm his
apostolic commission and explain his relation with Jerusalem
Jerusalem’s mother Church.. Not only did her pillars
approve his position, but aat Antioch it proved to
WORKS OF THE FLESH be the only answer in a community of both FRUIT OF THE SPIRIT
• Fornication Gentile and Jewish background. The Church has • Love
• Impurity to be open to different people, so that everyone • Joy
• Licentiousness feels at home. • Peace
• Idolatry Gal 2:15-21:
2:15 Paul now proposes a brief • Patience
• Sorcery summary of his teaching on faith and Jewish • Kindness
• Enmity customs; it may be a new formulation of his • Goodness
address to Peter at Antioch. It will be developed
• Strife • Faithfulness
in Rom 2-8.
2
• Jealousy GOD’S PLAN FOR HUMANS' • Gentleness
• Anger SALVATION THROUGH FAITH • Self-control
• Selfishness 3:1-4:31: Paul gives six proofs of the
Gal 3:1
• Dissension previous thesis, appealing to Galatians’ experience and using arguments from
• Party spirit Scripture
Scripture,, especially Abraham’s faith which made him righteous long before
• Envy Moses’ law.
law
EXORTATIONS
• Drunkenness
5:1-6:10: Paul draws three practical conclusions about preserving the
Gal 5:1
• Carousing freedom got in Christ, walking as per the Spirit against the flesh and using
and the like Christian freedom in the right way. We have to struggle for true maturity
(fruit of the Spirit) and not being resigned to do the works of the flesh as
worldly persons. Among these works, Paul places side by side idolatry and the ambitions or divisions so
common in religious groups. It is clear that for him flesh and spirit are not the same as body and soul: the
pettiness and attachment to our privileges are also sins of the flesh, that is of people alien to the Spirit.
Gal 6:11-18: Thus far the letter has been dictated to a scribe; now Paul himself adds the conclusion as
his signature. It contains a summary and farewell blessings,
blessings, but also presents his way of life so op
opposed to
that of the world: persecuted by some, despised by others, feared by those who cannot stand his example of
complete self-denial,
denial, he truly follows Christ to the cross.

◊ Study questions:
1. Why did Paul rebuke the Galatians for turning too quickly to another presentation of the gospel? What
have we to learn in today’s situation of contrasts between Christian denominations?
2. Account for the questions in Galatians’ church and explain who did raise up the crisis. Then in at least five
points present how Paul did defend his apostleship.
3. Analyse Paul's arguments in defending his apostolic authority in Gal 1:6-24.
1:6 24. Use at least six points.
4. Point out at least five reasons for Paul rebuking Peter at Antioch. Then give at least five examples of how
Church
urch leaders today manifest contradictory behaviours.
5. "I have been crucified with Christ; it is no longer I who live but Christ who lives in me..." (Gal 2:20). Why
did Paul speak this way? How does this inspire and challenge you as a Christian?
6. “In Christ
hrist Jesus neither circumcision nor uncircumcision is of any avail but faith working through love”
(Gal 5:6). Explain what prompted Paul to write these words and give concrete examples of today’s related
problems which you have experienced.
7. Write a short rt article on a Christian magazine explaining the iimportance
mportance of the Spirit’s fruit exposed by
Paul in Gal 5:22 against the works of the flesh.
8. The Galatians turned to false teaching which obliged them to keep Moses’ law in order to be saved.
Present fivee false teaching that are affecting Christian in today’s globalised world.
9. “Paul’s letter to the Galatians is a summary of the Christian way of living”. Justify this statement by giving
five points.

FIRST LETTER TO THE CORINTHIANS:

CHRISTIAN LIFE IN A MULTINATIONAL CITY

◊ When and why did Paul write to the Corinthian Christians?

The great and rich Greek town of Corinth, capital of Achaia province
(southern Greece), had social, ethnic and religious complexity and very
loose ethics. We notice in Paul’s letters very clear allusions to different
aspects of local life: slavery, prostitution, sports. After arriving there in
about 51, Paul made it one of the main centres of early Church,
dynamic though not well ordered, with a solid nucleus of Jews but many
more Gentiles, mostly poor. After believing, they gave him more
problems than any other community. In particular they didn’t cease
to question, did welcome other version
rsions of Christianity and compete with
one another for spiritual reputation. Many of them were in danger of Corinth’s isthmus as seen from a
returning to the vices of their former lives, once the enthusiasm of their satellite.
first years as Christians had worn off. Paul himself says that he wrote
1Cor from Ephesus in the spring, but the suggested years range from 52 to 57. It is a complex reaction to
two sets of data about Corinthians. In an official letter they had asked Paul’s advice on a series of problems.
It was supplemented by Chloe’s people on return from Corinth, who had been surprised by some aspects of
Church life there which revealed Corinthians’ basic errors about Christian community and the danger of
divisions. Paul integrated his replies into an effort to bring them to appreciate the authentic life in Christ.
Putting Jesus at the centre, they could find unity, solid teaching and moral standards. After this
letter he needed to write to them time and again: many see 2Cor as a compilation of these other letters. In
all we notice the authority with which he, from afar, leads the Church in Jesus’ name.

◊ What are this letter’s main themes?

1Cor contains a lot of information about urgent problems facing the Church and the decisions made to
meet them. There were internal questions of moral behaviour, of marriage and celibacy, of worship and
Eucharist, of charismas. There were also external matters of appeals to civil courts, and eating foods
sacrificed to gods. Paul’s genius turned his practical answers into means to teach deeply about
Christian freedom, body’s holiness, love’s primacy and union with Christ in his body, i.e. the
Church. The end-time basis of his thought is present in his explanations of the resurrection, a teaching
so hard for Greeks. This confront of the gospel with the new world it was entering is seen above all in the
contrast between cross’ folly and Greek wisdom. To his converts, split into factions, each proud of its own
leader, Paul reminded there are only one master, Christ, and only one true wisdom, the cross. Its
power is manifested through the Holy Spirit’s many gifts working together with mutual concern.

◊ What is the relevance of this letter in Africa?

In today’s Africa the theme of divisions is more important than in other continents. Those who do
struggle for Church leadership, seek support to struggle against the existent authorities, start new Christian
denominations, or put their tribe at the centre have to learn from this letter that it is the crucified Jesus
alone who saves and that he unites all. Sometimes Church problems are reported to State’s tribunal or
in magazines, against the family spirit required by Paul. If we would follow his admonitions to the
Corinthians, our communities would have no disunity, quarrelling, jealousy, greed, selfishness or disorder;
our harmony would be the needed foundation of our witness to the new life in the Spirit. Some persons
praise the first Christians as if they had been models of all virtues. However, the vivid picture of Corinth’s
early Church cancels the idea that an apostolic community has to be exceptionally holy or that its members’
teachings are always sound. We have to learn time and again about practical love, starting with the poor.
Also Paul’s answers about ethics are relevant to today’s African Church, because ministers’ and common
Christians’ sexual immorality kills her.

◊ A help to read the text:

GREETING AND THANKSGIVING
1Cor 1:1-9: The opening formula and thanksgiving follow a standard pattern. In it, Paul shows his
certitude of spiritual riches present in a community where all is far from perfect. This is how we have to do:
instead of being discouraged by the problems we face and accusing each other when something fails, let us
first to appreciate the positive aspects and remember what unite us all.
DIVISIONS IN THE COMMUNITY
1Cor 1:10-17: Since Christian life’s basis and only true expression is communion, Paul is particularly
sensitive to any lack of unity. So he deals first with this aspect of Corinth Church's situation. After him, other
leaders went there, especially Apollos and Cephas (the Aramaic name of rock, i.e. Peter). Certain faithful
profited by this to affirm their own identity by allegiance to one of them rather than the others on the base
of how well they preached. Really, this was only a way of satisfying vanity and the need of self-assertion as
cultured persons who could enjoy fine speeches. Paul exhorts all to be a united family.
1Cor 1:18-2:5: Believers must detach themselves from the fallen mankind's standards – the cause of any
divisions – if they are to understand the way God relates to them. Paul is faithful to the above principle by
accepting the mystery of the cross and finding in it the strength of the Spirit.
1Cor 2:6-3:4: Paul turns against his opponents their own ideas and words, influenced by Philo’s
Hellenistic-Jewish wisdom, may be introduced into Corinth by Apollos. Following them, some Christians
believed they were mature or perfect spirit-people having the right to look down on others as children. Paul
is not jealous, for he never intended to be seen by his audience as a wise or eminent speaker, but he saw
that some of them were seeking their own prestige, forgetting that the Church belongs only to God.
1Cor 3:5-4:5: The main theme of this section is the right attitude toward Church’s pastors: they are only
Christ’s servants and stewards of his mysteries. In the Church there is no place for the cult of personalities,
for we are face to face with God himself.
1Cor 4:6-21: Paul applies the earlier images to himself and Apollos in order to clarify their role. In
contrast with both, who knew only suffering and struggle, the Corinthians imagined themselves to be in
possession of the end-time God’s kingdom. Some of them saw Paul as a fool, and in a way he was so for
Christ. However, even if taken for a fool because of his efforts, he brought them to Jesus.
IMPORTANCE OF THE BODY
1Cor 5:1-6:20: The three problems of these two chapters show Corinthians’ belief that physical actions
have no moral importance. On the contrary, for Paul the body is where commitment to Jesus becomes real:
there is no purely spiritual Christianity. How far is our daily life from what we pretend it is: God’s children
born again in the Spirit? What do our neighbours think of us?
MARRIAGE AND CELIBACY
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 1Cor 7:1-40: Chapters 7-14 face a wide variety of questions by Corinthians: this one begins and ends
with sexually related problems, though the central part regards the irrelevance of legal situations (e.g.
circumcised/uncircumcised or slave/freeman), for God calls individuals in any of them. To reach practical
discernment, Paul distinguishes four types of rules whose force can be placed in descending rank: first of all,
an order of the Lord himself, hence unchangeable, against divorce; then a decision grounded upon his own
apostolic authority about mixed marriages; then again a counsel by him as a person having God’s Spirit in
favour of celibacy; finally a concession on conditions about sexual abstinence for spiritual reasons by
married couples. He takes this occasion to affirm the perfect reciprocity and equality of husband and wife,
whose bodies are at the disposal of each other: such vision was revolutionary!
PROBLEMS ARISING FROM PAGAN ENVIRONMENT
1Cor 8:1-11:1: Usually, in the ancient world meat was available only after great festivals, when the
priests sold their share in sacrificed animals. Corinthian Christians were divided on eating such meat first
offered to gods. Paul gives here another example of discernment on such problem which, in his time, was
difficult, as many others are which we face in our pluralist society. He confronts two series of arguments. In
favour of a positive answer he appeals to theology: an idol is nothing, hence, eating the meat in question
has in itself no moral quality. Moreover he affirms an inalienable right: the believer’s freedom. These
arguments, however, are opposed by a decisive principle that stems from practical prudence: the delicacy of
love. He highlights other areas in which he has accepted limitations on his freedom for others’ good,
mirroring Jesus’ life.
PROBLEMS IN WORSHIP ASSEMBLIES
1Cor 11:2-34: Before answering Corinthians about spiritual gifts, Paul deals with two issues related to
Christian worship: clothes and love. According to other Churches’ practice, he requires men to look like men
and women like women: if God had intended them to be identical, he would have created them in the same
way. More importantly, there can be no Eucharist in a community whose members don’t love one another.
Faced by Corinthians’ misbehaviour even at that celebration, Paul reflects on Eucharist’s nature and
meaning; in so doing he writes down the earliest account of the Lord’s Supper. It is not an eyewitness’
report but a quotation from liturgy. He himself is a link which passes it on as a tradition, whose chain
reaches back to Jesus. Paul recalls two aspects of the Lord’s Supper: it is the communion of his body and
blood; it affirms a union of love among all us who form one body. Paul denounces the Corinthians for their
sin with regard to both points: not discerning Eucharist from ordinary food and ignoring brothers and sisters
while celebrating it. Fulfilling the requirements for a worthy celebration would renew the Church overcoming
her members’ weakness.
1Cor 12:1-14:40: Paul’s reply about the order of the Holy Spirit’s gifts shows that he discerned selfish
competitions harmful to Church unity. In particular, the Corinthians gave undue importance to meaningless
sounds seeing them as the clearest sign of being possessed by the Spirit. Three arguments prove that such
sounds help nothing: his own ministry, musical instruments and foreign languages. Paul rejects the view
that a gift’s possession enables one to impose oneself on a meeting. In contrast, he stresses the primacy of
the three ministries of the Word by which the Church is founded and built up, not of what appears more
miraculous. Prophecy itself is a spiritual gift different from wild ecstasy: in Christian worship the Spirit
makes everyone more responsible. So, a message from God would be offered in an orderly way, at a time
provided for it. Moreover, hinting to what is central in following Christ, Paul inserts a marvellous hymn to the
love as the greatest gift: the ability to love is the truly important thing, and only by loving in daily life we do
exist authentically.
RESURRECTION
1Cor 15:1-58: This long chapter answers those who deny resurrection, for they give no importance to
the body. Basing his reply on Church’s belief in Jesus’ resurrection, Paul shows the consequences of their
denial and the benefits of his affirmation. He presents the close connection between the resurrection of
Jesus, the resurrection of Christians and the assessment and consequent evaluation of our present life.
Human logic gives way to Paul’s prophetic passion in proclaiming a conviction that surpasses reason and
experience.
CONCLUSION
1Cor 16:1-24: This conclusion relates to every Sunday’s collection for Jerusalem Christians, Paul’s travel
plans, some recommendations and final greetings. In it he asserts that Jesus must be loved.

◊ Study questions:
1. Corinthians gave the most spectacular charismas a place of pride. Discuss how this put in danger Church's
unity and what we have to do following Paul’s message to them on love and charismas.
2. “For the word of the cross is folly to those who are perishing, but to us who are being saved it is the
power of God” (1Cor 1:18). By giving five points, discuss this quotation in the light of the cross as the
means of salvation to all believers.
3. Corinthians’ love for freedom was a danger. Describe Paul’s reaction and what it teaches us in front of the
multiplication of Christian denominations.
4. Discuss the relationships between Paul, Apollo and Cephas in Gospel's ministry at Corinth as a lesson
about Church leaders’ roles. Explain what today’s leaders and we as believers have to do.
5. Account for the divisions in the Corinthians’ church. Give at least five points.
6. How did Paul react or respond to the splintering groups in the Church of Corinth? Give at least five points
on this and then propose five reasons of the divisions among today Christians.
7. Briefly narrate how Paul challenged many of his followers as not spiritual people. Do you think that today
Christians may face the same reproaches? How do we quench the Spirit?
105
8. In 1Cor, Paul refers to the Lord's Supper as criterion for Christian behaviour. What does he say and how
is it important for our community life?
9. Paul warned Corinthians not to take their fellow Christians to courts. Why did he do so? How can you
apply this today?
10. How did Paul condemn the rampant sexual immorality among the Corinthians? If he lived today, what do
you think would be his reaction to the present day state of moral corruption about sex?
11. Using 1Cor, write down what do you think about the special attention given to sexual sins throughout
Church's history?
12. Basing you on Paul’s methods in solving problems about sex and marriage, suggest how to face AIDS
disease which threats our society.
13. Appealing to the Lord's authority, Paul in 1Cor 7 refuses the divorce. Report his statement and then
explain its importance in the context of today widespread immorality.
14. Suppose you have been appointed a lecturer on Christian celibacy. What will you produce on the basis of
Paul’s attitude?
15. Paul was gifted with speaking in tongues, but he saw the need to regulate the use of this charisma.
What were his rules and what is your experience about their application in today’s communities?
16. “All things are lawful, but not all things are helpful” (1Cor 10:23). Explain Paul’s teaching in connection
to this statement and then show how relevant it is today (give at least three points).
17. 1 Cor 12 presents various charisms. Use eight of them to explain Paul’s teaching concerning spiritual
gifts.
18. Why is Christ's resurrection very important in our faith? Relate Paul’s teaching about it in 1Cor 15 to
your own life.
19. Discuss five major doctrinal issues in the first letter of Paul to the Corinthians.

LETTER TO THE ROMANS:

SALVATION THROUGH FAITH IN CHRIST

Two most known monuments of the Ancient Rome which evoke its past glory.

◊ When and why did Paul write to Rome’s Christians?

Paul wrote Rom shortly before his last trip to Jerusalem, in the first months of 58, probably in Corinth or
in its port of Cenchrae. Conscious that his apostolate in the north-eastern Mediterranean area was over,
having he preached “all the way from Jerusalem to Illyricum”, he looked westward to Spain. He planned to
visit Rome on the journey, to fulfil the desire of years. But first he wanted to carry personally to Jerusalem
the collection taken up in his Gentile Churches so as to show solidarity with the poor Jewish Christians of the
mother Church. Before departing, he wrote to the Romans to announce his visit to a famous Church
that didn’t know him personally but could not ignore the problems caused by his attitude. So, he
doesn’t go to any great lengths to introduce himself as “the apostle of the Gentiles”, but his teaching.

◊ What was the situation in Rome?

Rome’s Church was founded in the 30 AD by Jews converted to Christianity while in Jerusalem as
pilgrims. These believers already had their own ways and customs. Paul’s call for mutual understanding
among them, both the “weak” and the “strong”, echoes the local situation: reasonably, these two Roman
groups were the Jewish Christians and the majority composed by Gentile Christians. The latter
developed on its own after all Jews had to leave Rome following riots among them about the Christ (49).
When they returned (shortly after 54) they found a novelty: Gentile Christians by now felt no worries about
Jewish rules on diet and calendar. So there was a danger of these two parties looking down on one another.
We ourselves sometimes fail to accept each other with our differences. More than ever it was not easy to
gather Jews and converted Pagans in the same community. In view of this, Paul explained the
relationship between Judaism and Christianity. This letter may also (indirectly) be a formulation of his
Gospel such as he would present to Jewish Christians in Jerusalem still suspicious of him. It discusses some
of the same topics as Gal but in a conciliatory mood, both calmer and fuller. While Gal is like a cry
from the heart, Rom is a carefully planned whole.

◊ What are the main themes of this letter?

Rom, the longest and nicest of Paul’s letters, has affected theology more than any other NT book
and has contributed a lot to Western thinking, but it must be integrated with Bible’s other books. It is a
treatise more than a letter, but not a full summary of Paul’s doctrine, because it misses some of his
significant teachings (e.g. on Church, Eucharist, resurrection and end-time). Rather, it presents his
missionary reflections on the historical chance of salvation: that it doesn’t depend on deeds
prescribed by Moses’ law, but on God’s uprightness. This is now offered to all humans through
faith and baptism in the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ, the Son whom the Father’s love
didn’t spare. This faith must result in good works, but these will not be at all equal to those commanded by
the Law, on which Jews were so proud to rely. They will be works prompted by the Spirit already present as
first-fruits in God’s children so that they can live in Christ. The Mosaic stage of religion is over, and those
who claim they are continuing to fulfil the Law are in fact putting themselves outside the light of salvation.
God allows their blindness only to save more easily the Gentiles. Before all Jews have become believers,
Christians of any backgrounds must love and help one another as a single family.

◊ What is the relevance of this letter in Africa?

Rom states that God revealed himself not only to the Israelites through Moses, but also to the
other peoples through creation and natural law. Many Africans knew God even before joining world
religion. They focused on the ancestors, but knowing that they too could do nothing without God’s support.
Those who served him following their conscience have been saved. Moreover, Paul’s concept of the
body with different members characterising the Christian community furthers the idea of Church as God’s
family in Africa. The family that Africans speak of is extended, involving the living, the dead and the not-yet-
born. In this concept there is room for all the members united by a blood pact, and some kind of alliance. In
Jesus we are all relatives and family in an Africans sense, for we all are united through Christ’s blood.
This covenant and family bond is a reality renewed especially in the Eucharist.

◊ A help to read the text:

INTRODUCTION
Rom 1:1-15: Differently from many other letters, Paul alone writes this one. Its opening formula is the
most solemn in all of them. The first sentence is expanded to include: a triple self-description, echoes of the
original Christian message, and motifs to be treated in the letter. In thanksgiving, Paul’s prayer for the
Romans is addressed to God through Christ. His coming visit to them is seen as a source of mutual benefit,
but also as a chance to preach the Gospel in the capital of the civilised world.
THROUGH THE GOSPEL GOD'S UPRIGHTNESS IS REVEALED
Rom 1:16-17: The theme of the next ten chapters is announced: the Gospel is the powerful source of
salvation for all, which discloses God’s uprightness. Faith in it is the only chance for Jews and Gentiles alike.
Both could think that people become righteous by their own efforts. Paul retorts that the righteousness God
wants is something much greater and beyond what human effort can achieve. This is because all need the
Gospel to be saved. Faith is neither an option nor a luxury, as if we could well do without it.
Rom 1:18-3:20: The above statement is explained first by a contrary consideration on what happens to
humans without the Gospel. Certainly a majority on our planet do without faith comfortably. Yet, if we were
to withdraw all that comes from faith in our life, the world would die for want of hope, as is already the case
with nations and ideologies that ignores God. Paul accuses both Paganism and Judaism for failing to enable
people to achieve uprightness. The Greeks didn’t come to acknowledge God and so did fall into immorality.
The Jews too didn’t succeed to be upright, in spite of possessing Moses’ law. For both, the result is
separation from God. This is why, in announcing the Gospel we free people in need, even though they may
feel satisfied with themselves.
Rom 3:21-31: The whole world lives in sin, but a new period began with Jesus’ coming, which displayed
God’s uprightness. It is seized by faith in his Gospel. These key verses express the essence of Paul’s
teaching about salvation through faith.
Rom 4:1-25: Paul uses the first book of the OT to prove that all are made upright by God’s grace through
faith. For example, long before the law was given to Moses, there was Abraham’s faith. He was considered
upright not because of his circumcision, nor in dependence on the law, but in virtue of a promise. Thus, he is
our father; his faith is the model of Christian faith which saves us. It is both more fundamental and more
universal than Moses’ law. We become God’s friend by believing in his promises.
GOD'S LOVE ASSURES SALVATION TO THOSE JUSTIFIED BY FAITH
Rom 5:1-11: Sharing his own experience, Paul begins here to discuss the Christian way and to explain
how salvation is assured through a threefold liberation: from death and sin, from self through union with
Christ and from Moses’ law. These opening verses announce the theme: the Christian is reconciled to God
and experiences a peace which no trouble can upset, a hope without disappointment, and a confidence of
salvation. We are accustomed to hear about Christ’s dying for our sins, so that often we are not touched, for
his sacrifice seems to be far away and quite unreal. When by grace we understand it, love suddenly pours
from our hearts. Return love for love: this is the beginning of true conversion, beyond observance of Moses’
law and any other religious precepts.
Rom 5:12-21: To express the Christians’ new condition, Paul contrasts it with humans’ status before
Jesus. He does compare Adam, the first parent, with Christ, the head of the new mankind, clarifying their
difference and the superabundance of Christ’s grace which now overcomes sin and death. The new Adam
was very more helpful toward all humans than Adam was troublemaker. Human nature was created good,
but we are born alienated. Sin refers to the totality of forces that have imprisoned humankind and which
bring it to evil. At times we feel crushed and powerless by the evil forces present everywhere. Humanity is
not at peace with God and cannot reach his goal without being saved by Christ. Starting with Adam all
humans are sinners, but in Christ all are reconciled with God and among themselves. The affirmation of
original sin is simply the consequence of a much more important fact: we all are saved in Jesus Christ. We
are all saved because we all need to be. We are not gracious by ourselves, but given grace by God!
Rom 6:1-23: The description of Christians’ experience goes a step further. The new life they received
through baptism reshapes their self so that they could no longer ever think of sinning. Identified with
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Christ’s death and resurrection, they are dead to sin and alive to God. Dead is the right word since it has
been a definitive ive step, one that is intimately linked to Jesus’ death. It is most important for us to believe
that sin has not more power over us. We belong to him and he transforms us: us: by grace we achieve true
freedom day by day by trying to be better better.
Rom 7:1-25: Jesus’ death marks the death of ancient history history,, of which Moses’ law was part
part. Following the
Christians’ freedom from sin, what role has this law still in human life? After asserting their freedom from
the law, Paul plays the role of the one who still does not know Christ in order to explain that the law is good,
but has been used by sin to dominate the weak man. The problem is not the law itself, many of whose
commandments are not to be neglected because they deal with justice and mercy, but humans’ inborn
inability to cope with its demands. The law with his commandments has no power to renew a person. If he
know the law only, he is divided among two opposing forces within him: he is not really free of doing what
he knows is his duty.
Rom 8:1-39: This chapter explains how Christian’s life is dominated by the Holy Spirit, not the flesh, and
is destined for glory. Paul stated that the believers have been empowered to a new life as result of God’s
love manifested in Christ’s liberating acts. Now that liberation from sin, death and the law has started, they
can live for God, whose love is granted through the dynamic principle of such life, God’s Spirit himself.
Because of this gift the Christian is a child of God, destined for his intimate presence. This Thi experience of the
Spirit working in us,, especially while praying, is the most characteristic in Christian life. Contemplating this
plan of salvation, Paul praises God’s love.
GOD'S PROMISE TO ISRAEL OF OLD ARE NOT CONTRADICTED
Rom 9:1-11:36: Paul now turns to a problem raised by his Gospel of the new uprightness through faith in
Jesus: it is Judaism’s relationship to this mode of salvation. His discussion is heavily biblical, as he tries to
relate OT teaching to his Gospel. He begins expressing
expressin his anguish at the
plight of his many fellow Jews who have refused their Messiah. Then he
shows that this plight is not contrary to God’s direction of history. The
cause of Jews’ failure is to be found in them, not with God, but it is only
partial and tetemporary.
mporary. In God’s plan mercy is to be shown to all, the Jews
included. So Paul bursts in a hymn to God’s merciful wisdom that knows
how to lead and save humans
humans.
THE DEMANDS OF UPRIGHT LIFE IN CHRIST
12:1-13:14: As in his other letters, from now on Paul try to be
Rom 12:1
Tiber river in the centre of Rome. more practical. Thishis unit reflects the early Church’s tendency to join
On the background, the dome of morals to faith exposition. It is not systematic, but concerns in general
St. Peter’s church, built on the Christians’ relation to the larger society. Moses’ precepts may no longer be
place of his death and tomb. the norm for their conduct, but there are demands o on believers, and the
principle at work in all of them is love. Church’s unity demands individuals
to overcome evil with good. The common pursuit of the good is expected of the members of Christ’s body:
their whole lives must be a sacrifice to God God, not only the weekly worship. A Christian will always challenge
the world which wants to enclose him in its logic and its would would-bebe needs through fashions, propaganda,
songs and slogans. It is so easy to become accustomed to what everyone does, but we should be free for
our heart to be only for God! Christian renewal springs from new criteria, from a new vision of existence.
Rather than commandments concerning external acts, Paul stresses internal attitudes and dispositions.
Rom 14:1-15:13: This second part of the exhortatory section is immediately concerned with minor
questions as eating meat and observing holy days. More basically it deals with the age-old age problem of
rigorous versus liberal conscience, or conservative versus progressive. Paul deals with it only iin generic
terms, probably because he is not well aware of Rome’s situation, but formulates prudent principles based
on conviction, love, Christ’s example and loyalty to him, ending with a plea for unity. No food or drink was
forbidden by Jesus, but Paul rejects jects the disputes about these thing. No letter of him misses warnings against
divisions.
CONCLUSION
Rom 15:14-16:23: Paul sends news about himself, his apostolate and his plans. This give us an idea of
how zealous he was in creating new communities in all parts of the world, without waiting for the newly
founded ones to attain perfection. Moreover he compliments the Romans on the good things he has heard
about them. After the usual al ending of the letter, praise is paid once again to God the Father, through his
Son, Jesus Christ.

◊ Study questions:
1. Illustrate Paul's teachings on how a person attains righteousness according to his letter to the Romans.
Give at least eight points.
2. Using the epistle to the Romans, argue with people who say they have no sin (give eight points).
3. “Paul’s letter to the Romans is a guide on how the Church should treat and welcome all people, regardless
of their differences”. Justify this statement by providing five points to show how Christians should relate to
each other.

◊ Revision questions:
1. Early Christian communities experienced that people's cultural background could hinder the Gospel's
progress. Discuss one example from the NT and one from your own experience in the Church.
2. The Gospel “is the power of God for salvation” (Rm 1:16). Discuss this statement giving relevant
examples from Acts and from your own experience.
3. Examining NT criteria regarding leadership, what do you expect from your Church leaders and what is
your responsibility towards them?
4. Briefly describe Paul’s life before and after his conversion, and then say what can today Christians learn
from his experience.
5. How would you explain to your fellow students the function of Moses' law to us believers according to
Paul?
6. Clarify to your friends the importance of righteousness and the way to reach it according to Paul.
7. “Idols' worship is a danger”. What was Paul’s interpretation of this warning and what is its relevance to
you?
8. Paul needed to defend his apostolic authority. Explain how and why he did so and then comment on its
relevance to Church leaders today.
9. Paul speaks of the Law of Christ. Explain what is it and how can it help today Christians live together.
10. What can today Church learn from the strengths and weaknesses of one community of your choice
among those to whom Paul addressed a letter?
11. After reading Paul’s letters, how do you understand the relationship between faith and good deeds?

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 AT THE END OF OUR COURSE

We have just entered Bible’s world, coming to know something of Israel’s history. We have read or
glanced through pages on which we would have to spend more time. We have met many ancient persons.
We may have forgotten some facts and dates, but that doesn’t matter too much, because we have learned
to use our Bible, to go back and find texts, and to refer to these notes and other books for more information.
We have now enough background to no longer be confused, because we can see where a book or a person
fits into a whole, and finally understand they in the context of the life of God’s people.
He wants us to use our minds when reading the Bible. We are men and women of the twenty-first
century, moulded by arts and applied sciences, and it is as such people that we should believe, without
giving up either our faith or intelligence. We can belong completely to our age and still believe because
there is no clash between science or history and faith.
The Bible is Christians’ holy book for it is God’s own word. We, however, have studied it with analytical
methods used also for secular texts, with the risk that it may seem above all to be men’s words. Our
amazement at how the Bible is so strangely human, however is like that of Jesus’ contemporaries
who had to perceive God in his human form. Only after his resurrection, his disciples became aware
that they had lived in close association with God’s Son, though they had only seen and heard a man. This
leads us to recognise the Holy Spirit’s importance in guiding us into all the truth. God’s word humbly made
itself similar to our words, and we have to discern it by faith. We have to decode God’s word through
human words, attitudes and events. If the Bible is the humble interpretation of human events by
generations of believers, reading it invites us less to repeat what they discovered than to do what they did:
to read God’s word in our own lives and in the events of today world.
We have seen that the Bible is not eye-witnesses’ account, but believers’ interpretation. Now, when
reading it, don’t first ask, “What happened?”, but rather, “What did these believers wrote about what
happened? What word of God have they perceived and told us?” Getting this new way of approaching
the Bible, probably we have now lost the aptitude to deal with it naively, but we have gained in truth. We
could list other discoveries: texts become familiar, figures turned into friends, a new gaze on God, a way to
relating ourselves to his written Word, the need to live according to it, following Jesus in his Church for the
life of this world, so that all may believe and to be saved.
Spending time to get used to Bible’s vocabulary, imagery and historical situation, we have seen our own
life’s elements evoked here or there. For example, the prophets’ cries demanding justice and respect for the
poor match our social concerns. The Bible is a mirror of our existence offered to us so that we can
reflect on how to live today. Anybody can feel that it is one of the great works of humanity, which
express the essential qualities of being human; this is still more true for a believer. Because biblical events
have a value in themselves; for we believers, however, they anticipate also our own life. God was thinking
of us when he was guiding Israel through great experiences and hopes.
One conviction stands out from the whole Bible: God wants all men and women to be free and
responsible. This is indeed his godly way: not to overwhelm with external power, but to give freedom, to
offer and yield love. It is part of his mystery that he only gradually builds up salvation history within the
history of mankind, becoming man, being overcome on the cross by evil forces, and also after his
resurrection coming and acting through his disciples’ weak faith. He is the transcendent Lord, universe’s
Creator, but above that he likes to be the God who is near, who by infinite respect goes with his
people step by step. He wants us to stand on our own feet, leaving everything depend on us. We do have
to shape ourselves, the world and history; at the same time we ourselves are the finest gift by God.
Here is our ultimate security, which frees us: whether we are saints or sinners, we do know that
we are unfailingly loved by God. Humanly speaking, it is so important to be loved if we are to act: we
need someone to count on us, to trust in us. Believers’ huge confidence is that God loves us, trusts in us,
despite everything. History, both of the world and of the Church, can have its setbacks and failings, but that
should not lead us to despair because invisibly, God goes with us and trust in us. Once for all, he has
cast the weight of his faithfulness into the balance of history.
Christianity is all about love. And love opposes self-seeking, it is an exodus out of oneself: yet this is
precisely the way in which man fulfils himself. Only on love’s way, the richness of life and the
greatness of our call are opened up. According to the Bible, God is love, so he descends, to the point of
death on the Cross. Precisely by doing so, he reveals himself in his true greatness. Surprisingly, we are
called to climb to God by following him on this descending path, by loving and serving our least
fellow humans!

Praise the Lord, all nations!

Extol him, all peoples!

For great is his steadfast love toward us;

and the faithfulness of the Lord endures for ever.

(Psalm 117)

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