Published online: February 12, 2021

ISSN : 0974-9411 (Print), 2231-5209 (Online)

journals.ansfoundation.org

Research Article

Wild edible plants in the Ehotilé, a fishing people around Aby lagoon
(eastern littoral of Côte d'Ivoire): Knowledge and availability
Malan Djah Francois*
Article Info
UFR Sciences Sciences de la Nature, Université Nangui Abrogoua , 08 Bp 109 Abidjan 08,
République de Côte d'Ivoire https://doi.org/10.31018/
jans.v13i1.2467
Neuba Danho Fursy Rodelec
Received: December 23, 2020
UFR Sciences Sciences de la Nature, Université Nangui Abrogoua , 08 Bp 109 Abidjan 08, Revised: January 30, 2021
République de Côte d'Ivoire Accepted: February 6, 2021

*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]

How to Cite
Malan, D.F. and Neuba, D.F.R (2021). Wild edible plants in the Ehotilé, a fishing people around Aby lagoon (eastern
littoral of Côte d'Ivoire): Knowledge and availability. Journal of Applied and Natural Science, 13(1): 59 - 70. https://
doi.org/10.31018/jans.v13i1.2467

Abstract
This study is set within the important framework of the imperative need to safeguard traditional knowledge at historical,
nutritional levels, and as an element of sustainable management of natural resources. Thus, it aimed to identify, through four
ethnobotanical surveys (2007, 2009, 2015 and 2019), the wild edible plants used by the Ehotilé around the Aby Lagoon, on the
Ivorian eastern littoral, to evaluate the use, preference and availability related to these plants and to discuss the evolution of
food practices since the observations of missionaries three centuries earlier. The level of knowledge was analysed using
Smith's Index and the availability of edible fruits was assessed with a new cognitive index. Compared to the era of the first set-
tlement, the diet of the Ehotilé has undergone many modifications. Current observations showed that wild plants were rarely
used in the diet which was essentially cassava-based. Thirty-nine edible ethnospecies corresponding to 40 scientific plants
species were recorded for 46 uses, of which, wild fruits with 54.17 % were the most important. Edible fruits were available all
year round, but irregularly and the availability index suggested that 10 species of the fruits sought were rare in the region. The
study has shown that gathering plants are well known by the Ehotilé. However, they are not very present in their diet. In addi-
tion, they have a good knowledge of the availability of their edible plants and could therefore be key resource persons in any
assessment of the dynamics of plants in their environment.

Keywords: Aby Lagoon, Wild edible plants, Ehotilé, Resources availability

INTRODUCTION accelerated by the gradual degradation of the natural

environment, causing the scarcity and remoteness of
The quantity and quality of food available for resources from potential users. The scarcity of these
consumption in West Africa are still well below the resources is a reason to fear the virtual disappearance
levels that could cover the nutrient recommendations of the knowledge and practices related to them since
by FAO / WHO (FAO/IFAD/UNICEF/WHP/WHO, 2019); the usual value of a plant is strongly correlated with its
however, populations in rural forest areas (those who availability (Lucena et al., 2007; Ribeiro et al., 2014).
still have harvesting activities) show only a few striking Moreover, as recalled by Lugo-Morin (2020), each
signs of malnutrition. The large amount of vitamins, social group and its territory have configured their
proteins, fibres and other nutrients provided by own food systems, which have been refined since
gathered plants may explain this paradox (Gautier- ancient times. Therefore, this study is set within the
Beguin, 1992). The balance of diets considered important framework of the imperative need to
vulnerable to protein-related disorders is increasingly safeguard traditional knowledge at historical, and
undermined, as dietary practices are in full mutations nutritional levels, and, above all, as an element of
like other cultural aspects of the continent (Deslile, valorisation and sustainable management of natural
2010; Aké Assi, 2014). Moreover, this situation is resources.

This work is licensed under Attribution-Non Commercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). © : Author (s). Publishing rights @ ANSF.
 Malan, D.F. and Neuba, D.F.R / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13(1): 59 - 70 (2021)

At the historical level, this study is necessary because centuries earlier.

the collective memory of the Ivorian Akan people, in
general, does not go beyond the periods of exodus and MATERIALS AND METHODS
present settlement, that is to say, towards the 17th and
18th centuries. However, the main food crops grown in Study area
the forest area, with the exception of African yams, are The Ehotilé community is composed of nine main
paradoxically native to other continents. What did these villages around the Aby Lagoon. The survey was con-
peoples eat before the introduction of these species? ducted in six villages, bordering the Ehotilé Islands Na-
We believe, with Gautier-Beguin (1992) that the study tional Park: Etuessika, Melekoukro, Ngalwa, Assomlan
of the “old and persistent” tradition of gathering, allows (western bank) and, Etuoboué and Akounougbé for the
knowing what people ate before the development of the eastern bank (Fig. 1).
current food crops. The climate of this zone is an equatorial transition type,
At the nutritional level, the destruction of the forest due characterized by four successive seasons: the long
mainly to the development of cash crops has led, often rainy season from March to July; the short dry season
irreversibly, to strong erosion of traditional diet in August; the small rainy season from September to
practices. These practices were one of the foundations November and the large less rainy season, from De-
of the social well-being of the communities. Current cember to February. The annual average rainfalls
diets based on starchy foods (yams, cassava, rice, etc.) range from 1,800 to 2,000 mm and the annual average
are far from meeting nutrient requirements (Bricas et temperature is 26.4 °C with a variation of 3°C.
al., 2016). The relief of the region is monotonous in the whole with
Moreover, the increasing interest in wild edible plants some small plateaus of low altitudes (40 to 60 m) with
comes from growing demand for new resources for a irregular contours, separated by usually quite steep
healthy diet and new markers of cultural identity valleys. The soils in this area are generally hydromor-
(Nedelcheva, 2013; Shin et al., 2018). Unfortunately, phic on Quaternary or young marine sands, within
most of them are not well documented (Boateng et some places, large accumulations of plant debris.
al., 2007). So, it is essential, as pointed out by The vegetation of the study area belonged to the Guin-
Wondimu et al. (2006) and Aké Assi (2014) to ean Littoral Area characterized by a mosaic of edaphic
rehabilitate and revalorise these practices for those groups (mangroves, coastal thickets, forests). The orig-
who use them and to other peoples, as the main way inal vegetation (Licania eleosperma (Mildbr.) Prance &
for safeguarding this knowledge and the plants White and Drypetes aframensis Hutch. Sub-littoral for-
concerned. It is known that each plant that est) has been replaced by cultivated areas.
disappears also brings with it the disappearance of Fishing is the main activity of the Ehotilé people and
the knowledge that is related to it. until very recently (second quarter of the 20th century),
In southern Côte d'Ivoire, the riparian region of the they were exclusively fishermen (Perrot 2008). Fishing
Aby lagoon is one of the most degraded natural activity (individual or collective) is practised by men and
habitats. The few vegetations that have survived – women. Fishing activities are particularly intense during
coconut palm, oil palm and rubber tree crops – are the long rainy season and fall significantly in the dry
the marshy areas and islands of the Ehotilé Islands season.
National Park (Malan et al., 2007). In the complex Agriculture is the second activity in the study area.
ethnic mix that characterizes the bank of the Aby From the stage of home consumption with food crops
Lagoon (eastern littoral of Côte d'Ivoire), the Ehotilé (cassava, yam, banana, etc.), it has increased to the
people differ from other Akan people. The originality stage of cash crop with coconut, oil palm, pineapple
of these people is conferred by its territorial and rubber.
anteriority, its history and lifestyle closely linked to
the Aby lagoon (Perrot, 2008). This people is one of Survey methods
the first whose life and manners were described by The ethnobotanical survey was carried out during four
the European missionaries of the end of the 17th expeditions in 2007, 2009, 2015 and 2019 following
century, in particular in the writings of the Loyer three steps. The first one consisted of a house-to-
(1714). The writings of Loyer offer a tremendous house interview, in households chosen without criteria,
opportunity to observe the evolution of ancient practices in the surveyed villages, as these were not very
of gathering or consumption of plants. extensive. This approach allowed us to make
Thus, this study was aimed to identify the edible wild observations on the current diet, and to discuss the
plants used by the Ehotilé, to evaluate the traditional question of uncultivated plants whose consumption was
knowledge (use, preference and availability) related to known by the respondents. Edible plant referred to any
these plants and to discuss the evolution of food vegetable, consumed whole or partly, raw, after
practices since the observations of Loyer three cooking or other transformation, as human's food or
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saturation (point in data collection when no new infor-

mation is added) and Informant competence
(respondent-by-respondent proximity matrix) were
checked with FLAME 1.1 (Pennec et al. 2012).

Data analysis
Knowledge assessment
The level of knowledge was assessed using Smith's
index (Smith and Borgati, 1997; Sutrop, 2001), a
cognitive salience index based on the rank of the item
in the free list of each informant, its frequency in all
collected free lists, and the individual length of the
informant´s list (Sutrop 2001). Smith index is given by
the following equation:

N
Li − Ra + 1
 Li ………………Eq. 1
Sa = i =1
N
where Sa is the importance of item a, Li the length of a
list of citations and Ra the rank of a citation in the list
and N, the total number of respondents (number of
lists). This index, normed to vary between 1 (maximum
importance) and 0, was also performed by FLAME 1.1
and the average rank was used to assess the prefer-
ence of edible wild fruits of Ehotilé people.

Fig. 1. Location of the study area, Ehotilé villages around Evaluation of the availability of wild edible fruits
the Aby lagoon. It is known that local people followed the dynamics of
the surrounding vegetation and they knew the common
drink. This definition included plants whose sap is plant species in their region, those that were abundant
directly drunk as water, irrespective of their medicinal or those that were in scarcity (Sheil et al., 2004). Based
nature. The notion of “wild” is restricted to species on this principle, the availability of wild edible fruits was
growing without intentional cultivation and included estimated quantitatively according to the perception of
predominantly native and naturalised species. The informants. So, an availability index was proposed,
most known plants and the order of preference were adapted from the Cultural Importance index of Pardo-
obtained through free listing interviews, as cited in de-Santanya (2008). This new index consisted of
Philips and Gentry (1993). allocating scores to plants according to their availability
The second step consisted of a "walk-in-the-woods" status given by the informant. Subjective allocation
approach in the neighbouring vegetation formations methods are widely used in quantitative ethnobotany
with key informants renowned for their good knowledge (Hoffman and Gallaher, 2007; Medeiros et al., 2011).
of plants and their uses. This method was allowed to They typically consisted in assigning scores to
establish a rigorous equivalence between ethnospecies distinguish, for example, acuity of use, conservation
and their scientific designation and to collect vouchers efforts, and other notions related to the perception of
for a herbarium. The vouchers were identified at the the plant by the considered community. Thus, in our
Herbarium of Ivorian National Floristic Centre (ABJ) case, a high score was attributed to the least available
and the specimens were deposited at the Laboratory of plants, since they require special attention in terms of
Botany of Nangui Abrogoua University (Abidjan) and at conservation. Four categories of availability were
the Institut de Botanique Aké Assi d’Andokoi (Abidjan). identified (see Malan et al. 2015) with the following
The last step was to come back to the most cited food scores:
category ("wild edible fruits" here) and to assess, with C1 = 0.25: The plant abounds and the fruits are easy to
the informants, the availability of each plant cited collect or available in any season,
according to a previously defined availability category C2 = 0.5: The plant abounds, but the fruits are difficult
(Malan et al., 2015). to harvest or available seasonally
At the end, 56 persons were interviewed (46 adults, C3 = 0.75: The plant is becoming scarce in the region,
including 26 women and 20 men aged 37-78 years only a few scattered feet are seen and the fruits are
and, 10 children aged 10-16 years). The level of data rare.
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 Malan, D.F. and Neuba, D.F.R / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13(1): 59 - 70 (2021)

C4 = 1: The plant is in the process of disappearing, in Wild edible plants used by Ehotilé people
the region, in the natural state, the fruits have only A total of 56 lists were obtained, with data saturation
been seen for a long time. from the 5th respondent (Fig. 2). Thirty-nine wild edible
The following equation was proposed: ethnospecies corresponding to 40 scientific plants
species were recorded (the esthnospecies "elewa"
4 corresponded to the two species of Uapaca recorded).
n C
j =1
j j Those species were distributed among 34 genera
Disi = 1 − …………………….Eq.2 belonging to 24 families of Angiosperms (Table 1).
Ni Annonaceae (five species), Phyllanthaceae (four
species), Arecaceae (four species) and Malvaceae
Where Disi is the availability of the species i, N the i (three species) were, numerically, the most important
total number of informants who cited the families. The length of free lists ranged from five to 15
species i, n j the number of respondents considering with an average of 10.78 plants per list. These values
species i in availability category j, C j the score as- indicated that wild edible species were well known by
signed to availability category j. Disi ranges from 0 to 1. Ehotilé, which was confirmed by the high proximity of
A value close to 0 indicated that the resource was items cited given by the Respondent Competence
disappearing on the local scale and that its use was Graph (Fig. 3). For these species, 46 uses were
becoming obsolete. reported and classified in nine food-categories (Table
2). The most important category was by far, the "wild
Ethical considerations fruits" with 54.17 % of uses-reports.
Prior to the fieldwork, the residents of each surveyed
village were informed of the research project and Knowledge and preferences for wild edible fruits
prior consent was required in accordance with the Out of 40 edible plants recorded, 23 were sought for the
recommendations of the Ethnobiology International fruits. The level of consideration and preference of
Ethics Code for this research as well as the images those wild fruits among Ehotilé people was estimated
used. These preliminary meetings took place in the through the Smith's index (Fig. 4). Four fruits recorded
court of the chief of the village and the conclusions a high salience (Smith’S>0.5). These included
were sealed, each time by a libation according to the Sacoglottis gabonensis (S= 0.85), Parinari excelsa Sab-
Ehotilé customary protocol. ine (S=0.84), Dacryodes klaineana (Pierre) H.J.Lam
(S=0.81) (Fig. 5) and Cola lateritia var. maclaudi
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION (A.Chev.) Brenan & Keay (Figure 6) with S=0.69. These
four species were also, in the same order, the most
Observations on the diet of Ehotilé people preferred following the average rank of the free lists.
The Ehotilé diet was essentially based on cassava Indeed, none of them crossed the threshold of the
(Manihot esculenta Crantz), consumed in several fourth rank in the order of citations.
forms. Apart from the akondin (plantains and
cassava mixed and pounded), prepared dishes Availability of wild edible fruits according to
made from cassava, especially akpesi (cassava informants
tubers cooked with water), were usually made for According to our informants and our own
breakfast or lunch. Akondin, accompanied by soup, observations, edible wild fruits are available all year
was the daily dinner for most households. The main round, but irregularly (Table 3). Some fruits, like from
accompanying soup was the nkwane prepared with Albertisia cordifolia (Mangenot & Miège) Forman,
eggplant (Solanum spp.) as main vegetables. The Landolphia hirsuta (Hua) Pichon, Parinari excelsa,
ayue-toro soup, prepared with oil palm (Elaeis are only available for a short period of the year (less
guineensis Jacq.) fruit pulp, came in second place. than 3 months for example), while some may be
Housewives preferred the wild palm nuts to those of found at all times (Carpolobia lutea G.Don, Heisteria
the selected cultivated varieties, which would give a parvifolia Sm., Passiflora foetida L., Uapaca
bland taste to the soup. Wild plant species were esculenta A.Chev. ex Aubrév. & Léandri and U.
rarely used in the daily diet of Ehotilé, even, wild paludosa Aubrév. & Léandri, for example).
edible fruits, for example, have been known since Paradoxically, the most available fruits are the least
the ancient time, as claimed by 80% of the considered. Mature fruits of Heisteria parvifolia for
respondents. Some informants, among the oldest, example, available throughout the year, collected
even cited the example of Sacoglottis gabonensis only an index of Smith of 0.16 (average rank of 8.96).
(Baill.) Urb. fruits which would constitute, in addition Moreover, in the local language, this species is
to the fish, the main menu of the Ehotilé. called "komu alie" which means "food of the apes".

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Fig. 2. Level of data saturation of wild edible plants cited by Ehotilé people.

Fig. 3. Ehotilé Informant competence in wild edible plants.

Fig. 4. Salience and preference of wild edible fruits by Ehotilé community.

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 Malan, D.F. and Neuba, D.F.R / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13(1): 59 - 70 (2021)

Table 1. List of wild edible plants of Ehotilé people.

Organ and
Species Family Local name
consumption mode
Adenia lobata (Jacq.) Engl. Passifloraceae Ahèlè nyaman Sap drunk like water
Albertisia cordifolia (Mangenot & Miège)
Menispermaceae Kinninglin gni Pulp as a snack
Forman
Pulp as a snack,
leaves as spinach,
Borassus aethiopum Mart. Arecacae Kube Fresh or cooked pulp,
fresh almond, sap
fermented for drink
Carpolobia lutea G.Don Polygalaceae Sekenua Pulp as a snack
Chrysobalanus ellipticus Soland. ex Sabine Chrysobalanaceae Acho Pulp as a snack
Cola lateritia var. maclaudi (A.Chev.) Brenan &
Sterculiaceae Dabu dabu Pulp as a snack
Keay
Seed eaten as a
Cola nitida (Vent.) Schott & Endl. Sterculiaceae Ewosè
stimulant
Corchorus olitorius L. Malvaceae Kpalala Pulp as a snack
Dacryodes klaineana (Pierre) H.J.Lam Burseraceae Klènja Pulp as a snack
Deinbollia grandifolia Baker.f. Sapindaceae Nzema klènja Pulp as a snack
Deinbollia pinnata (Poir.) Schumach. & Thonn. Sapindaceae Ekpokolobo Pulp as a snack
pulp cooked as sauce,
Elaeis guineensis Jacq. Arecaceae Ayue fresh almond, sap
fermented for drink
Eugenia whytei Sprague Myrtaceae Ehube Pulp as a snack
Heisteria parvifolia Sm. Olacaceae komu aliè Pulp as a snack
Landolphia hirsuta (Hua) Pichon Apocynaceae Amanlè Pulp as a snack
Maesobotrya barteri (Baill.) Hutch. var.
Euphorbiaceae Anuven Pulp as a snack
sparsiflora (Scott-Elliot) Keay
Monanthotaxis whytei (Stapf) Verdc. Annonaceae Matman ngangan sa Pulp as a snack
Monodora myristica (Gaertn.) Dunal Annonaceae Efuan seed as condiment
Musanga cecropioides R.Br. Cecropiaceae Ejugn Sap drunk like water
Pulp as a snack,
Myrianthus arboreus P.Beauv. Cecropiaceae Nyangoman
leaves as spinach
Leaves eaten as
Ocimum gratissimum L. Lamiaceae Amanyine
spinach
Parinari excelsa Sabine Chrysobalanaceae Efalan Pulp as a snack
Passiflora foetida L. Passifloraceae Ewo aliè Pulp as a snack
Phoenix reclinata Jacq. Arecaceae Ngletia Pulp as a snack
Phyllanthus muellerianus (Kuntze) Exell Euphorbiaceae Ngoninjin Sap drunk like water
Sap fermented for
Raphia hookeri Mann ex Wendl. Arecaceae Doka
drink
Ricinodendron heudelotii (Baill.) Pierre ex Pax Euphorbiaceae Akpi Seed cooked in sauce
Sacoglottis gabonensis (Baill.) Urb. Humiriaceae Afandè Pulp as a snack
Salacia nitida (Benth.) N.E.Br. Celastraceae Boa ndoman Pulp as a snack
Solanum nigrum L. Solanaceae Fue nya Pulp as a snack
Spondias mombin L. Anacardiaceae Troman Pulp as a snack
Talinum triangulare (Jacq.) Willd. Portulacaceae Dahome nya Pulp as a snack
Tetracera alnifolia Willd. Dilleniaceae Ngataku Sap drunk like water
Thaumatococcus daniellii (Benn.) Benth. Marantaceae Ewosè nya Pulp as a snack
Trichoscypha arborea (A.Chev.) A.Chev. Anacardiaceae Amon Pulp as a snack
Uapaca esculenta A.Chev. ex Aubrév. Euphorbiaceae Elèwa Pulp as a snack
Uapaca paludosa Aubrév. & Léandri Euphorbiaceae Elèwa Pulp as a snack
Uvaria afzelii Scott-Elliot Annonaceae Lokofama, kusini Pulp as a snack
Uvaria chamae P.Beauv. Annonaceae Matman sa Pulp as a snack
Vernonia amygdalina Delile Asteraceae Aboyui Pulp as a snack
Dried fruits as a
Xylopia aethiopica (Dunal) A.Rich. Annonaceae Esin
condiment

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Table 2. Food-categories and their uses reports of wild basic ingredients (Juhé-Beaulaton, 2014a). The
edible plants of Ehotilé people. missionary accounts, the most important of which, in our
opinion, were those of the apostolic prefect, Godfroy de
Food-category Number of uses- Proportion Loyer, who observed in depth the life of the people of
the Kingdom of Issyny between 1701 and 1703,
Wild fruits 24 52,2
Vegetable 5 10,9
described an agrarian landscape and dishes, very
different from what this region offers today. The current
Drinking water 4 8,7 Ehotilé diet, as we have observed, is based on cassava.
Palm wine 4 8,7 However, the writings of Loyer and contemporaries
Condiment mentioned neither the culture nor the consumption of
3 6,5
spices cassava in the Kingdom of Issyny. On the contrary,
Soup 2 4,3
these accounts showed that in three centuries, the diet
fresh seeds 2 4,3
Stimulant 1 2,2 of the Ehotilé has greatly changed. The “starchy and
Oil 1 2,2 soup” frame were preserved, but the nature of the basic
Total 46 100 starchy food has undergone a revolution. Indeed,
according to Loyer, the basic starchy foods were
Table 3 shows the availability of fruit plants according banana, yam, rice, maize and millet. With the cereals,
to the informants. Ten of the 23 fruit species have an "bread" was made, which with soup, was the main dish.
availability index less than or equal to 0.5, indicating The cultivation and consumption in large quantities of
that these species or the fruits sought were rare in the cassava, a witness of cultural enrichment, is relatively
region. Of these species, three were cited in category recent. As we know, cassava was introduced at a
C4, i.e. disappearing plants, in the region and for which number of points along the West African coast during
fruits had only been seen for a long time. These scarce the 17th century, from the Gambia River to present-day
species included Trichoscypha arborea (A.Chev.) Nigeria. The Portuguese had established their forts,
A.Chev (Dis=0.009), Phoenix reclinata Jacq (Dis= trading posts and colonies on the mainland, and by the
0.124) and Dacryodes klaineana (Dis=0.263). The end of the 17th century, cassava was present in most of
Pearson’s Correlation Index (-0.06) showed that there these places (Carter et al., 1994).
was no correlation between knowledge (brought by Unlike central Africa, the spread of cassava in West
Smith's index) and availability (brought by availability Africa was generally slow, and the expansion of the
index). crop took place largely in the late 19th and 20th
centuries. In Côte d'Ivoire, cassava cultivation did not
DISCUSSION really take off until 1960 (Diarrassouba, 2019). Its
adoption set back the cultivation of other essential
The history of the food of a region or a population plants in the area, which, moreover, did not develop well
necessarily starts from the resources, which compose on a soil that was gradually degraded due to the
the dishes, of which the cultivated plants represent the expansion of cash crops (coconut and oil palm, in

Fig 5. Bunches of Dacryodes klaineana (Pierre) H.J.Lam Fig. 6. Fruits of Cola lateritia var. maclaudii, one the most
fruits, one the most considered and preferred edible fruits considered and preferred edible fruits of Ehotilé people
of Ehotilé people sold on a local market (Photo by Malan (Photo Malan D.F. 12-03-2015).
D.F. 03-01-2019).

65
 Table 3. Conservation status (Availability) of wild plants producing edible fruits following Ehotilé informants.

Availability period (Month) Conservation status

Habitat
Species J F M A M J J A S O N D N C1 C2 C3 C4 Dis
Albertisia cordifolia Fallows 9 3 6 0.584
Borassus aethiopum Mart. Savanas 15 9 6 0.650
Carpolobia lutea Forests 10 1 6 3 0.451
Chrysobalanus icaco L. subsp. icaco Littoral bushes 40 30 10 0.687
Cola lateritia var. maclaudi Forests 50 9 12 29 0.400
Dacryodes klaineana Forests 56 8 10 15 23 0,263
Deinbollia grandifolia
Jachère fallow 18 9 9 0.624
Baker.f.
Deinbollia pinnata Forests 8 3 5 0.594
Eugenia whytei Sprague Littoral bushes 33 22 11 0.667
Heisteria parvifolia Forests 27 21 6 0.694
Landolphia hirsuta Forests 9 1 5 3 0.445
Maesobotrya barteri (Baill.) Hutch.

66
Forests 14 2 8 4 0.464
var.sparsiflora (Scott-Elliot) Keay
Monanthotaxis whytei (Stapf) Verdc. Forests 24 4 6 14 0.396
Parinari excelsa Forests, farms 56 19 35 2 0.576
Passiflora foetida Forests 13 5 8 0.596
Phoenix reclinata Jacq. Swamps 6 0 0 3 3 0.124
Sacoglottis gabonensis Forests 56 18 12 26 0.464
Salacia nitida (Benth.) N.E.Br. Fallows 37 15 20 2 0.588
Spondias mombin L. Homegardens 41 33 8 0.701
Thaumatococcus daniellii (Benn.)
Forests 1 1 0.504
Malan, D.F. and Neuba, D.F.R / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13(1): 59 - 70 (2021)

Benth.
Trichoscypha arborea (A.Chev.)
Forests 26 0 1 25 0.009
A.Chev.
Riparian forests,
Uapaca spp. 15 3 9 3 0.500
swamps
Uvaria chamae P.Beauv. Forests, fallows 37 7 30 0.547
 Malan, D.F. and Neuba, D.F.R / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13(1): 59 - 70 (2021)

particular). palm wine. It is an important cultural element in

Like the starchy food, the second component of the Western and Central Africa and contributes to the
menus, the soup, has also experienced a revolution. balance of the diet, by its richness in nutrients, as
According to Loyer, the main soup was palm nut soup. shown by several authors (Ezeagu et al., 2003; Santia-
Admittedly, this soup is still used today, but the main go-Urbina and Ruiz-Teran, 2014; Kouchade et al.,
soup for Ehotilé households is mainly made from 2017; Djeni et al., 2020). Currently, palm wine is
eggplants (nkwane soup). In our opinion, two reasons obtained mainly from oil palm and Raphia palm.
might explain this change. Firstly, the scarcity of natural However, according to the old accounts of Loyer and
palm trees (paradoxically due to the development of the other explorers such as Labat (1728), only the Raphia
cultivation of so-called improved varieties of palm). This palm was exploited for its wine. The oil palm was
scarcity implies an increase in the time and effort reserved for its fruit. However, currently, the rarefaction
required to find natural fruits. Secondly, the preparation of Raphia, the development of industrial palm have
of nkwane requires relatively less time and effort in imposed oil palm wine among the Ehotilé.
cooking, contrary to the first soup. As we know, the Fruits constitute the major part of the plant organs
effort of exploitation is one of the main factors of sought by the Ehotilé (61%). They were sought after for
abandonment of plant use, especially when, at the their tasty pulp, sweet and rich aromas. Children, often
same time, a resource appears, easier to exploit and at the foot of the tree, mostly eat them as treats. The
quickly accessible. importance of wild edible fruits in the food security of
Regarding wild edible plants, we observed a low use of rural populations is no longer to be demonstrated, as
leaves and seeds in favour of fruits and a total absence there is so much work in this area ( Chakravarty et al.,
of tubers. The low use of the leaves was due to the diet 2016; Sardeshpande and Shackleton, 2019). These
strongly focused on two almost exclusive soups fruits were well known to the population as evidenced
(nkwane and ayue-toro). These soups are preferred to by the average length of the free lists and the data
those based on leaves, borrowed from other cultures. saturation graph. However, they were rarely present in
For example, the consumption of the leaves of Talinum local markets, contrary to what is observed elsewhere
triangulare and Vernonia amygdalina was borrowed (Djihounouck et al. 2018; Sardeshpande and
from Togolese and Beninese (Dahomean) immigrants. Shackleton, 2019).
T. triangulare was called, in the local language, This finding may be related to the availability of produc-
dahome nya (leaves of the Dahomeans). This low tive plants. The evaluation of the availability of wild edi-
proportion of leaves in Ehotilé food practices was in ble plants was one of the major points of this study.
contrast to the general case of West African peoples, Several researchers have used ecological field meth-
where leaves constitute a highly sought-after organ for ods for this evaluation, such as the rarity index of Géhu
human consumption (Acho et al., 2014; Yao et al., and Géhu (1980) based on sampling in the immediate
2015). On this point, the current Ehotilé are in no way environment of ethnobotanical surveys. Certainly, di-
different from their ancestors who lived in the wake of versity indices are useful tools that help us to ask ques-
Issyny. Loyer was surprised, in fact, by the low diversity tions and analyze ethnobotanical data, besides allow-
of meals, which contrasted with the high diversity of ing comparisons among different communities in differ-
potentially edible plant resources. According to him, ent or similar environments (Begossi, 1996). However,
this situation was due to the "laziness and lack of these kinds of surveys take time and the results are
ingenuity" of the people he observed. only a reflection of often random or arbitrary sampling.
As regards seeds, their proportion in the consumption With de la Torre et al. (2012), Roué et al. (2015), we
of picking products is lower than that of leaves. Even believe that local people are at the heart of the environ-
the seeds of African nut tree (Ricinodendron heudelotii ment interactions, problems and solutions to be found.
(Baill.) Pierre ex Pax), known as an important source of Thus, a cognitive approach, centred on the sought or-
lipids and widely consumed in West and Central Africa gan than on the plant that produces the resource, tar-
(Tchoundjeu and Atangana, 2007) were rarely gets more scarce resources at the local level. Indeed,
consumed by the Ehotilé. as several researchers have noted, plant resources are
Our survey reported the use of the sap of certain plants sustained through cultural practices where plant users
drunk as water or as a fermented beverage. In the first collect and harvest materials selectively using locally
case, the plants collected (Adenia lobata (Jacq.) Engl., adapted management strategies (Rasethe et al., 2013;
Phyllanthus muellerianus (Kuntze) Exell and Musanga Constant and Tshisikhawe, 2018; Thorn et al., 2020).
cecropioides R.Br.) are widely known in forest Africa for The survey on the availability of resources based on
the same use (Tra bi et al., 2005; Jongkind and the respondent's knowledge suggested that 43.5% of
Hawthorne, 2005). In the second case, Borassus wild edible fruits were in scarcity in the study area.
aethiopum Mart., Elaeis guineensis and Raphia hookeri However, as noted by Koppert et al. (1996), to have a
Mann ex Wendl. produce a fermented drink known as significant influence on food, wild products should be
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 Malan, D.F. and Neuba, D.F.R / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13(1): 59 - 70 (2021)

collected very regularly, which implies their abundance 17th century of new plant species including rice,
in very specific territories and not far from places of potatoes, tomatoes, pepper, maize (Nedelcheva,
activity or residence. More worryingly, the species 2013).
Trichoscypha arborea (96% of those who cited it), In contrast to these two examples, there is at least one
Phoenix reclinata (50% of those who cited it) and fruit consumed today and that was in the days of
Dacryodes klaineana (41%) were considered to be Issyny. This is cocoplum (Chrysobalanus icaco L.
endangered, in the region, in their natural habitat, the subsp. icaco). As Loyer described it, "it is a kind of
organs sought after having only been seen for a long plum in the shape and colour of which a European
time. The disappearance of these species was mainly would doubtless be deceived, but which have only the
linked to the scarcity of their natural habitats in the skin extended on a large mediocre hard nucleus which
region because of extensive agriculture. The local contains a fairly good almond when it is cooked but a
name of T. arborea is even unknown to young people little harsh on the palate, when it is raw. The
and children. countryside is covered with it and there are all the
It is, therefore, to be feared, in the current state, a colours. The tree which carries them commonly crawls
progressive reduction in the proportion of wild plants in on the ground, although there are some in the full wind
the diet of the Ehotilé. It is a process which which becomes reasonably large".
unfortunately seems irreversible in the light of the Nowadays, this fruit is relatively abundant (Dis = 0.69)
accounts of Loyer and contemporaries. Two examples according to the informants, and it is indeed clearly
can illustrate the decline of wild edible plants in the diet visible in the coastal bushes. However, it is only
of the Ehotilé. The first is given by Guinea pepper moderately known (S = 0.37) and comes in the sixth
(Xylopia aethiopica (Dunal) A.Rich.). In the days of the position in the order of preference for fruits, with an
Kingdom of Issyny, according to Loyer's observations, average rank of 6.82. Furthermore, the consumption of
this pepper was the main spice in the soups of the roasted kernels noted by Loyer was not mentioned
inhabitants who, he wrote, loved it "with passion". during our study, which indicates gradual obsolescence
Today, with the exception of certain meals for in the consumption of this plant.
therapeutic purposes, such as those prepared for Regarding our new cognitive method of evaluating the
newly delivered women, Guinea pepper is no longer availability of resources based on the knowledge of
used as a condiment. It has given way to chili those who use them, it is based on a solid principle:
(Capsicum frutescens L.), introduced from America, those who have always lived in the environment where
widely cultivated and adopted by households. the resources they use to grow to know better the dy-
The second example is that of Synsepalum dulcificum namics of these resources. Thus, for example, plants
(Schumach. & Thonn.) Daniell known for its red considered to be rare were not actually seen during our
berries, which contain miraculin, a glycoprotein. various visits. However, to further consolidate this
Miraculin has the remarkable property of modifying method, a comparison with a field survey method using
sour tastes into sweet, as Loyer testified: "There grows indices of occurrence (frequency of occurrence, density
in this kingdom a certain little fruit which they call or frequency of rarefaction, etc.) is necessary. Such an
Assahuaye, as big as a mediocre plum, red in colour, approach is in prospect.
which is no bigger only the finger: they have almost
only the skin. So that sucking them there is only a Conclusion
sweetish and tasteless taste. But these fruits have
such a quality, that after having sucked only one, you The findings of this study showed that in three hundred
can fearlessly eat the greenest and sourest lemons years, the diet of Ehotilé had changed significantly only
and oranges, and drink the harshest vinegar, which in the composition of the basic meal. Unlike the pre-
appears to taste very delicate jams and very excellent colonial era, cassava, which recently appeared in this
syrup, which I have experienced several times with region, has become the starchy staple in a few years.
admiration, so great is the strength of this alkali fruit, However, with regard to gathered edible plants, just like
which undoubtedly would have wonderful properties in in the pre-colonial era, they constitute only a small part
medicine". As noted by Juhé-Beaulaton (2014b), this of the Ehotilé diet, despite their knowledge. Leafy vege-
species is now cultivated outside Africa, in Asia and tables and seeds were less used in favour of fruits.
America. Paradoxically, on the coast of the Gulf of While the fruits are well known, however, their low
Guinea, where it was present particularly near homes, presence in local markets is a good indicator of their
it seems rarer and less used in food while the gradual abandonment. This low consumption, correlat-
consumption of sugar has greatly increased. Certainly, ed with the progressive scarcity of several plants re-
the decline in consumption of wild plants is a vealed by our availability index based on respondents'
consequence of the introduction in the middle of the knowledge, could raise fears of several wild edible

68
 Malan, D.F. and Neuba, D.F.R / J. Appl. & Nat. Sci. 13(1): 59 - 70 (2021)

plants disuse, as is the case today for guinea pepper doi.org/10.1186/s13002-018-0255-2Diarrassouba, D.

(Xylopia aethiopica). Thus, we agreed that the history (2019). History and techniques of food crops in the Côte
of the use of wild plants as food is in fact part of the d’Ivoire, from processing to marketing : the cas of cassava
(1960-2000) », e-Phaïstos [On line], consulted on 28 April
history of the people in this area, an inevitable result of
2020. URL : http://journals.openedition.org/ephaistos/4174
the dynamic processes of the structure of the society,
9. Djeni, T.N., Kouamé, K.H., Aké, F.D.M., Amoikon, L.T.,
the cultural relationships and the religious characteris- Djè, K.M. & Jeyaram, K. (2020). Microbial diversity and
tics and changes in the environment. Moreover, this metabolite profiles of palm wine produced from three dif-
study also confirmed that local people have a good ferent palm tree species in Côte d’Ivoire. Sci Rep.,
knowledge of the fluctuation in the availability of edible 10,1715. https://doi.org/10.1038/S41598-020-58587-2
wild plants and could therefore be key resource per- 10. Djihounouck, Y., Diop, D., Dieng, S.D., Sane, S., Bas-
sons in any assessment of the dynamics of plants in sène, C., Mbaye, M.S. & Noba, K. (2018). Diversity and
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
11. Delisle, H. (2010). Findings on dietary patterns in different
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Ehotilé villages of the Aby lagoon, for their great hospi- doi.org/10.1139/H10-008
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Conflict of interest
FAO. Licence CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO.
The authors declare that they have no conflict of 14. Medeiros, M.F.T., da Silva, P.S. & de Albuquerque, U.P.
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