Competency Training and Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Certificate in

Power System Modeling and Analysis

Training Course in

Power System Modeling

U. P. NATIONAL ENGINEERING CENTER NATIONAL ELECTRIFICATION ADMINISTRATION

Training Course in Power System Modeling

Course Outline
1. Utility Thevenin Equivalent Circuit 2. Load Models 3. Generator Models 4. Transformer Models 5. Transmission and Distribution Line Models

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

Utility Thevenin Equivalent Circuit

Thevenins Theorem Utility Fault MVA Equivalent Circuit of Utility

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

Thevenins Theorem
Any linear active network with output terminals AB can be replaced by a single voltage source Vth in series with a single impedance Zth A Linear Active Network B Vth B + A Zth

The Thevenin equivalent voltage Vth is the open circuit voltage measured at the terminals AB. The equivalent impedance Zth is the driving point impedance of the network at the terminals AB when all sources are set equal to zero.
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

Utility Fault MVA

Electric Utility Grid IF Fault Electric Utilities conduct short circuit analysis at the Connection Point of their customers Customers obtain the Fault Data at the Connection Point to represent the Utility Grid for their power system analysis

Customer Facilities

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

Utility Fault MVA

Electric Utility provides the Fault MVA and X/R ratio at nominal system Voltage for the following types of fault: Three Phase Fault

Fault MVA3
Single Line-to-Ground Fault

X/R3 X/RLG

Fault MVALG

System Nominal Voltage in kV

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

Equivalent Circuit of Utility

Positive & Negative Sequence Impedance
From Three-Phase Fault Analysis

I TPF =

Z1

S TPF

= V f I TPF =

[V ]
f

Z1

Z1 =

Where, Z1 and Z2 are the equivalent positive2 sequence and kV = Z 2 negative-sequence Fault MVA 3 impedances of the utility

[ ]

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

Equivalent Circuit of Utility

Zero Sequence Impedance
From Single Line-to-Ground Fault Analysis

I SLGF =

3V f Z1 + Z2 + Z0

S SLGF = V f I SLGF =

3Vf

[ ]

2Z 1 + Z 0

2Z1 + Z0 =

3 Vf

[ ]

Z1 = Z2
Resolve to real and imaginary components then solve for Zo
Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

SSLGF

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Training Course in Power System Modeling

Equivalent Circuit of Utility

Example: Determine the equivalent circuit of the Utility in per unit quantities at a connection point for the following Fault Data:
System Nominal Voltage = 69 kV Fault MVA3 = 3500 MVA, Fault MVALG = 3000 MVA, X/R3 = 22 X/RLG = 20

The Base Power is 100 MVA

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

10

Equivalent Circuit of Utility

Base Power: 100 MVA Base Voltage: 69 kV Base Impedance: [69]2/100 = 47.61 ohms

Z1 = Z2 =
In Per Unit,

[kV ]

Fault MVA 3

[69 ]

3500

= 1.3603

or

Z actual 1.3603 = = 0.0286 p.u. Z1 = Z2 = Z base 47 . 61

100MVA BASE Z1 = Z2 = = 0.0286 p.u. 3500 MVA FAULT
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

11

Equivalent Circuit of Utility

Solving for the Resistance and Reactance, Z [(1 + (X/R)2] X

= tan 1 [ X / R ] X/R R = Z cos X = Z sin

+
0.0013+j0.028571 +

R 1 = 0.0286 cos [tan -1 (22 )] X 1 = 0.0286 sin [tan = 0 . 028571 = 0 . 00 13 p.u. = R 2

-1

(22 )]

V f 10
-

p.u. = X 2

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

12

Equivalent Circuit of Utility

For the Zero Sequence Impedance,

SLGF P .U . = Voltage

3000 MVA SLGF ( actual ) 100 MVA BASE 69 kV = = 1 . 0 p .u . 69 kV

2

= 30 p .u .

P .U .

2Z 1 + Z 0 =

3Vf

[ ]

S SLGF

3[1.0 ] = = 0 .1 30
2

Re al {2 Z 1 + Z 0 } = 0.1cos tan -1 (20 ) = 0.004994 Im ag {2 Z 1 + Z 0

-1
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

[ } = 0.1sin [tan

] (20 )] = 0.099875

p.u. p.u.

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

13

Equivalent Circuit of Utility

2 Z 1 + Z 0 = 0.004994 + j0.099875 Z 0 = (0.004994 + j0.099875) 2(0.0013 + j0.028571) = 0.003694 + j0.042733 p.u.
+
0.0013+j0.028571 +

+
0.0013+j0.028571

+
0.003694 + j0.042733

V f 10
-

Positive Sequence

Negative Sequence

Zero Sequence
Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Training Course in Power System Modeling

14

Equivalent Circuit of Utility

Example: Determine the equivalent circuit of the Utility in per unit quantities at a connection point for the following Fault Data:
Pos. Seq. Impedance = 0.03 p.u., Zero Seq. Impedance = 0.07 p.u., System Nominal Voltage = 69 kV Base Power = 100 MVA X/R1 = 22 X/R0 = 22

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

15

Equivalent Circuit of Utility

The equivalent sequence networks of the Electric Utility Grid are:
+ + +

r + Eg
-

R1 +jX1 R2 +jX2
-

R0 +jX0
-

Positive Sequence

Negative Sequence

Zero Sequence

Utility Thevenin Equivalent Circuits

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

16

Load Models
Types of Load Customer Load Curve Calculating Hourly Demand Developing Load Models

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

17

Types of Load
An illustration:
Sending End Line Receiving End

1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase

ISR = ?

VS = ?

VR = 13.2 kVLL Load 2 MVA, 3Ph 85%PF 13.2 kVLL

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

18

Types of Load
An illustration:
Sending End Line Receiving End

1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase

ISR = ?

VS = ?

VR = 13.2 kVLL Load 2 MVA, 3Ph 85% pf lag 13.2 kVLL

Constant Power (P & Q)

2 MVA = 1.7 MW + j1.0536 MVAR

Constant Current (I)

I = 87.4773 -31.79o A

Constant Impedance (R & X)

Z = 87.12 = 74.0520 + j 45.8948
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

19

Types of Load
Sending End Line

1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase

ISR = ?

Receiving End

VS = ?

VR = 13.2 kVLL Load 2 MVA, 3Ph 0.85 pf, lag 13.2 kVLL

r r r r VS = VR + I SR ( Z line )

r VSLL = 13.510 KVLL

13,200 o = 0 + (87.4773 31.79o )(1.1034 + j 2.0856) 3 = 7,8000.760o V

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

20

Types of Load
Sending End Line

1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase

ISR = 87.48-31.79o

Receiving End

VS = 13.51 kVLL

VR = 13.2 kVLL Load 2 MVA, 3Ph 0.85 pf, lag 13.2 kVLL

r r* 3VS I S = 3(7,8000.76o )(87.477331.79o ) = 1.7256 MW + j1.1010 MVAR

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

21

Types of Load
Sending End Line

1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase

ISR = 87.48-31.79o

Receiving End

VS = 13.51 kVLL

VR = 13.2 kVLL Load 2 MVA, 3Ph 0.85 pf, lag 13.2 kVLL

Plosses = 1.7256 1.7 MW = 25.6 KW

13.510 13.2 VR = 100% 13.2 = 2.35%
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

22

Types of Load
Sending End Line

1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase

ISR = ?

Receiving End

VS = ?

VR = 11.88 kVLL Load

What happens if the Voltage at the Receiving End drops to 90% of its nominal value?

VR =11.88 KVLL
We will again analyze the power loss (Ploss) and Voltage Regulation (VR) for different types of loads

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

23

Types of Load
Case 1: Constant Power Load 2 MVA = 1.7 MW + j1.0536 MVAR r 1.7 j1.0536 MVA I SR = 311.88KV = 97.1979 31.79o

r r r r VS = VR + I SR ( Z line )

11.88 0 = 0 + (97.1979 31.78)(1.1034 + j 2.0856) 3 = 7,057.80.940 V = 12.224 KV

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

24

Types of Load
Case 1: Constant Power Load 2 MVA = 1.7 MW + j1.0536 MVAR

Plosses = 3(97.19792 )(1.0134) W = 28.722 KW 12.224 11.88 VR = 100% 11.88 = 2.9%

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

25

Types of Load
Case 2: Constant Current Load I = 87.4773 -31.79o A

r r r r VS = VR + I SR ( Z line )

11.88 o = 0 + (87.4773 31.79o )(1.1034 + j 2.0856) 3 = 7,037.80.84o V = 12.190 KV

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

26

Types of Load
Case 2: Constant Current Load I = 87.4773 -31.78o A

Plosses = 3(87.482 )(1.1034) W = 25.33 KW 12.19 11.88 VR = 100% 11.88 = 2.6%

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

27

Types of Load
Case 3: Constant Impedance Load Z = 87.12 31.79o = 74.0520 + j 45.8948

r VR r VS

r r Z Load r = VS r Z Load + Z Line r r r Z Load + Z Line r = VR Z Load

11.88 o 87.1231.79o + (1.1034 + j 2.0856 = 0 87.1231.79o 3 r VSLL = 12.159 KV = 7.0199 0.77o KV

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Training Course in Power System Modeling

28

Types of Load
Case 3: Constant Impedance Load Z = 87.12 31.79o = 74.0520 + j 45.8948

r r VS r I SR = r Z Load + Z Line 7.0199 0.77 = 87.1231.79o + 1.1034 + j 2.0856 = 78.730 A

o
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

29

Types of Load
Case 3: Constant Impedance Load Z = 87.12 31.79o = 74.0520 + j 45.8948

Plosses = 3(78.732 )(1.0134) W = 18.84 KW 12.159 11.88 VR = 100% 11.88 = 2.34%

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

30

Types of Load
Load
Constant

VS* 12.224

VR 2.9 %

Ploss 28.72 kW

Power
Constant

2 MVA, 0.85 pf lag 87.48 -31.78 87.12 -31.78

Current
Constant Impedance

12.190

2.6 %

25.33 kW

12.159

2.34 % 18.84 kW

* Sending end voltage with a Receiving end voltage equal to 0.9*13.2 KV

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

31

Types of Load
DemandReA= (PA+ IReA Va + Z DemandImA=(QA+ IImA Va + Z
-1 -1 ReA

Va2 ) Va2 )

ImA

DemandReB= (PB+ IReB Vb + Z -1ReB Vb2 ) DemandImB = (QB+ IImB Vb + Z -1ImB Vb2 ) DemandReC= (Pc+ IReC Vc + Z DemandImC= (Qc+ IImC Vc + Z
Where: -1

Vc2 ) ReC Vc2) ImC

-1

P,Q are the constant Power components of the Demand IRe,IIm are the constant Current components of the Demand Z-1Re,Z-1Im are the constant Impedance components of the Demand
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

32

Customer Load Curve

24-Hour Customer Load Profile
Time Demand (A) 1:00 17.76 2:00 16.68 3:00 17.52 4:00 17.40 5:00 21.00 6:00 29.88 7:00 29.64 8:00 32.28 9:00 25.92 10:00 21.72 11:00 25.20 12:00 22.08
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Time Demand (A) 13:00 20.88 14:00 19.80 15:00 19.08 16:00 19.20 17:00 23.04 18:00 30.72 19:00 38.00 20:00 35.00 21:00 34.00 22:00 27.60 23:00 24.84 24:00 22.32
Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

33

Customer Load Curve

Establishing Normalized Hourly Demand
Time Demand (A) Per Unit 1:00 17.76 0.467 2:00 16.68 0.439 3:00 17.52 0.461 4:00 17.40 0.458 5:00 21.00 0.553 6:00 29.88 0.786 7:00 29.64 0.780 8:00 32.28 0.849 9:00 25.92 0.682 10:00 21.72 0.572 11:00 25.20 0.663 12:00 22.08 0.581 Time Demand (A) Per Unit 13:00 20.88 0.549 14:00 19.80 0.521 15:00 19.08 0.502 16:00 19.20 0.505 17:00 23.04 0.606 18:00 30.72 0.808 19:00 1.000 38.00 20:00 35.00 0.921 21:00 34.00 0.895 22:00 27.60 0.726 23:00 24.84 0.654 24:00 22.32 0.587

PU = 15.567
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

34

Customer Load Curve

1.2 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0

Demand (Per Unit)

10

12

14

16

18

20

22

24

Time

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

35

Calculating Hourly Demand

350 300

250

D and (W) em

200 150 100

Customer Energy Bill

1.2 Nr a z d e a d pru i ) om i e D n ( e n l m t 1

0.8

50 0

Area under the curve = Customer Energy Bill

0.6

0.4

0.2

Normalized Customer Load Curve

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Time (24 hours)

Customer Energy Bill Converted to Hourly Power Demand

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

36

Calculating Hourly Demand

Total Total Monthly Energy Monthly Energy Daily Energy Daily Energy Hourly Demand pt Pt = Energy daily 24 pt 1

Customer Customer Load Load Curve Curve

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

37

Calculating Hourly Demand

Example:
kWHr Reading (Monthly Bill) = 150 kWHr Billing Days = 30 days Daily Energy = 150 / 30 = 5 kWh [24 hours] Hourly Demand1 = Daily Energy x [P.U.1 / P.U] = 5 kWh x 0.467 / 15.567 = 0.15011 kW = 150.11 W
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

38

Calculating Hourly Demand

350 300 250

Demand (W)

200 150 100 50 0 1:00 3:00 5:00 7:00 9:00 11:00 13:00 15:00 17:00 19:00 21:00 23:00

Hourly Real Demand

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

39

Calculating Hourly Demand

Qt = Pt tan cos pf t
Qt = hourly Reactive Demand (VAR) Pt = hourly Real Demand (W) Pft = hourly power factor

Example:
Real Demand (W) = 150.11 W, PF = 0.96 lag Reactive Demand = P tan (cos-1 pf) = 150.11 tan (cos-1 0.96) = 43.78 VAR
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

40

Calculating Hourly Demand

350

Demand (W and VAR)

300 250 200 150 100 50

1:00 3:00 5:00 7:00 9:00 11:00 13:00 15:00 17:00 19:00 21:00 23:00

Hourly Real & Reactive Demand

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

41

Developing Load Models

Load Curves for each Customer Type
Residential load curves Commercial load curves Industrial load curves Public building load curves Street Lighting load curves Administrative load curves (metered) Other Load Curves (i.e., other types of customers)

Variations in Load Curves

Customer types and sub-types Weekday-Weekend/Holiday variations Seasonal variations
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

42

Developing Load Models

Converting Energy Bill to Power Demand

Data Requirements
Customer Data; Billing Cycle Data; Customer Energy Consumption Data; and Load Curve Data. Distribution Utility Data Tables and Instructions
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

43

Generator Models
Generalized Machine Model Steady-State Equations Generator Sequence Impedances Generator Sequence Networks

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

44

Generalized Machine Model

Constructional Details of Synchronous Machine
Axis of b q-axis Phase c winding d-axis Phase b winding

Stator: distributed threephase winding (a, b, c) Rotor:

Field winding F Damper winding Q Phase a winding

Axis of a Damper winding D

DC field winding (F) and shortcircuited damper windings (D, Q)

Axis of c

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

45

Generalized Machine Model

Primitive Coil Representation
phase b q-axis b ib
b +V -

d-axis

vQ

iQ + F iF

D
-+
v
D

e
iD
-

a ia
+ Va -

m
+V c

phase a

ic c

phase c
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

d v = Ri + dt
Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

46

Generalized Machine Model

Voltage Equations for the Primitive Coils
For the stator windings For the rotor windings
dF dt dD dt dQ

da v F = R F iF + v a = R a ia + dt db v D = R D iD + v b = R b ib + dt dc v Q = R Q iQ + v c = R c ic + dt Note: The D and Q windings are shorted (i.e. v D

dt

= v Q = 0 ).

v abc Rabc v = FDQ

i abc i + R FDQ FDQ

abc p FDQ

= Li

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

47

Generalized Machine Model

The flux linkage equations are:

or

a Laa L b ba c Lca = F LFa D LDa Q LQa

Lab Lbb Lcb LFb LDb

Lac Lbc Lcc LFc LDc

LaF LbF LcF LFF LDF

LQb LQc LQF

LaD LaQ ia LbD LbQ ib LcD LcQ ic LFD LFQ iF LDD LDQ iD LQD LQQ iQ

abc [L SS ] = FDQ [L RS ]
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

[LSR ] i abc [L RR ] i FDQ

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

48

Generalized Machine Model

COIL INDUCTANCES
Stator Self Inductances L aa = L s + L m cos 2 e

L bb = L s + L m cos( 2 e + 120 o )

Lcc = Ls + Lm cos( 2 e 120 o )

Stator-to-Stator Mutual Inductances

Lab = Lba = M s + Lm cos(2 e 120o ) Lbc = Lcb = M s + Lm cos2e Lca = Lac = M s + Lm cos(2e + 120o )
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

49

Generalized Machine Model

COIL INDUCTANCES
Rotor Self Inductances

LFF = LFF LDD = LDD LQQ = LQQ

Rotor-to-Rotor Mutual Inductances

L FD = L DF = LFD L FQ = L QF = 0 L DQ = L QD = 0
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

50

Generalized Machine Model

COIL INDUCTANCES
Stator-to-Rotor Mutual Inductances

LaF = LFa = LaF cos e LbF = LFb = LaF cos( e 120o ) LcF = LFc = LaF cos( e + 120 )
o

LaD = LDa = LaD cose LbD = LDb = LaD cos(e 120o ) LcD = LDc = LaD cos(e + 120o )

LaQ = LQa = LaQ sin e LbQ = LQb = LaQ sin( e 120 o ) LcQ = LQc = LaQ sin( e + 120 o )
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

51

Generalized Machine Model

Equivalent Coil Representation
q-axis b-axis Q iQ vQ + ib
+V b-

Rotor coils FDQ stationary

b

Stator coils abc rotating

F ic c m a
+ V c-

iF iD + vF - + vD + Va a-axis
ia

d-axis

c-axis
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

52

Generalized Machine Model

Equivalent Generalized Machine
Replace the abc coils with equivalent commutated d and q coils which are connected to fixed brushes.
q-axis vQ + vq + d
m

- i
Q

- i
q

F = LFd i d + LFF i F + LFD i D D = LDd id + LDF i F + LDD i D Q = LQq iq + LQQ iQ

F i + vF F D i + vD D d-axis

i
d

+ vd -

d = L dd i d + L dF i F + L dD i D q = L qq i q + L qQ iQ
Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Training Course in Power System Modeling

53

Generalized Machine Model

Transformation from abc to Odq
q-axis b-axis q-axis

ib c-axis
m

q i q d-axis id

ic ia

d d-axis

Note: The d and q windings are pseudo-stationary. The O axis is perpendicular to the d and q axes.
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

a-axis

Training Course in Power System Modeling

54

Generalized Machine Model

Equivalence: 1. The resultant mmf of coils a, b and c along the d-axis must equal the mmf of coil d for any value of angle e. 2. The resultant mmf of coils a, b and c along the q-axis must equal the mmf of coil q for any value of angle e. We get Ndid = Kd [Naia cos e + Nbib cos (e - 120o) + Ncic cos (e + 120o)] Nqiq = Kq [-Naia sin e - Nbib sin (e - 120o) -Ncic sin (e + 120o)] where Kd and Kq are constants to be determined.
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

55

Generalized Machine Model

Assume equal number of turns. Na = Nb = Nc = Nd = Nq Substitution gives id = Kd [ia cos e + ib cos (e - 120o) + ic cos (e + 120o)] iq = Kq [-ia sin e - ib sin (e - 120o) -ic sin (e + 120o)] The O-coil contributes no flux along the d or q axis. Let its current io be defined as io = Ko ( ia + ib + ic )
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

56

Generalized Machine Model

Combining, we get
io id = iq Ko K d cos e K q sin e K d cos ( e 120 ) Ko ia K d cos ( e + 120 ) ib K q sin ( e + 120 ) ic Ko

K q sin ( e 120 )

The constants Ko, Kd and Kq are chosen so that the transformation matrix is orthogonal; that is

[P ] 1
K =

[P ]T
1 3

Assuming Kd = Kq, one possible solution is

o

2 Kd = Kq = 3
Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Training Course in Power System Modeling

57

Generalized Machine Model

Parks Transformation Matrix
2 3 2 3 1 2 cos e sin e 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 cos ( e 120 ) sin ( e 120 ) cos cos ( e 120 ) cos ( e + 120 ) 2 cos ( e + 120 ) sin ( e + 120 ) 1 sin ( e 120 ) sin ( e + 120 ) sin e

[P ] =

[P ]1

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

58

Generalized Machine Model

Voltage Transformation
The relationship between the currents is

i odq = [P ]i abc
or

i abc = [P ] iodq
1

Assume a power-invariant transformation; that is

vaia + vbib + vcic = voio + vd id + vqiq

or

v i

T abc abc

=v

T odq odq

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

59

Generalized Machine Model

Substitution gives

T abc

[P]

i odq = v
T odq

T odq odq

=v

T abc

[P]

Transpose both sides to get

v odq = [P ]v abc
1

v abc = [P ] v odq
Note: Since voltage is the derivative of flux linkage, then the relationship between the flux linkages must be the same as that of the voltages. That is,

odq

= [P ]

abc
Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Training Course in Power System Modeling

60

Generalized Machine Model

In summary, using Parks Transformation matrix,

i odq = [P ]i abc v odq = [P ]v abc

i abc = [P ] iodq
1

v abc = [P ] v odq
1

odq = [P ] abc

abc = [P ] odq
1

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

61

Generalized Machine Model

Recall the flux linkage equation

or

a Laa L b ba c Lca = F LFa D LDa Q LQa

Lab Lbb Lcb LFb LDb

Lac Lbc Lcc LFc LDc

LQb LQc

LaF LaD LaQ ia LbF LbD LbQ ib LcF LcD LcQ ic LFF LFD LFQ iF LDF LDD LDQ iD LQF LQD LQQ iQ

abc [L SS ] = FDQ [L RS ]
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

[LSR ] i abc [L RR ] i FDQ

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

62

Generalized Machine Model

Recall

where

Laa [LSS ] = Lba Lca

Lab Lbb Lcb

Lac Lbc Lcc

L aa = L S + L m cos 2 e Lbb = L S + L m cos 2 e + 120 o

L cc = L S + L m 120 o e L ab = Lba = M S + L m cos 2 e 120 o

( (cos 2

) )

) )

Lbc = Lcb = M S + L m cos 2 e Lca = L ac = M S + L m cos 2 e + 120 o

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

63

Generalized Machine Model

Substitution gives
LS [LSS ] = M S M S MS LS MS MS MS LS

cos(2 e 120 ) cos(2 e + 120 ) cos 2 e cos 2 e + Lm cos(2 e 120 ) cos(2 e + 120 ) cos(2 e + 120 ) cos 2 e cos(2 e 120 )

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

64

Generalized Machine Model

Similarly,
L aQ sin e L aF cos e L aD cos e [L SR ] = LaF cos ( e 120 ) LaD cos ( e 120 ) LaQ sin ( e 120 ) LaF cos ( e + 120 ) L aD cos ( e + 120 ) LaQ sin ( e + 120 )

Apply Park's transformation to Flux Linkage equation

[P ] abc
or

= [P ][L SS ]i abc + [P ][L SR ]i FDQ

1

odq = [P ][L SS ][P ] i odq + [P ][L SR ]i FDQ

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

65

Generalized Machine Model The term [P ][LSS ][P ]1 can be shown

Ls 2M =
s

3 Ls + M s + Lm 2

3 Ls + M s + Lm 2

Let
L oo = L S 2 M L dd = L S + M L qq = L S + M
S S

3 Lm 2 3 Lm 2 +

[P ][Lss ][P ]

Loo =

Ldd

Lqq

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

66

Generalized Machine Model

Similarly, it can be shown that
0 3 [P][LSR ] = LaF 2 0 0 3 LaD 2 0 0 0 = LdF 3 LaQ 2 LqQ

LdD

where

LdF =

3 LaF 2

LdD =

3 LaD 2

L qQ =

3 L aQ 2

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

67

Generalized Machine Model

Substituting, [P ][LSS ][P ]
1

and [P ][LSR ]
1

odq = [P ][L SS ][P ] i odq + [P ][L SR ]i FDQ

Finally, we get

o = Loo io d = Ldd i d + LdF i F + LdD i D q = Lqq i q + LqQ iQ

Note: All inductances are constant.
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

68

Generalized Machine Model

The Flux Linkage Equations for the FDQ coils in matrix form is

FDQ = [L RS ]i abc + [L RR ]i FDQ

Since we get

[LRS] =[LSR]

FDQ = [LSR ] [P] i odq + [LRR ]i FDQ

T 1
Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Training Course in Power System Modeling

69

Generalized Machine Model

It can be shown that
[P ]1 = 0 0 0 3 LaF 2 3 LaD 2 0 0 0 = 3 LaQ 2

[LSR ]T

LFd LDd

LQq

L Fd =

3 L aF 2

L Dd =

3 L aD 2

L Qq =

3 L aQ 2

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

70

Generalized Machine Model

Recall that the rotor self- and mutual inductances are constant Upon substitution, we get

LFF LFD 0 [LRR] = LDF LDD 0 0 0 LQQ

F = LFd id + LFF iF + LFDiD D = LDd id + LDF iF + LDDiD Q = LQqiq + LQQiQ

Note: All inductances are also constant.

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

71

Generalized Machine Model

The Flux Linkage Equation

q-axis vQ +

Q i
Q

q iq vq + d F iF

o d q F o o Loo d Ldd LdF d q q Lqq = LFd LFF F F D D LDd LDF LQq Q Q

D d-axis i + vF - + vD D

D
LdD LFD LDD

Q io i d LqQ iq iF iD LQQ iQ

id

+ vd -

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

72

Generalized Machine Model

Transformation of Stator Voltages
Assume Ra = Rb = Rc in the stator. Then,

v abc = Ra [u3 ]i abc

Recall the transformation equations

d + abc dt

i odq = [P ] i abc

v odq = [P ] v abc
odq

= [P ]

abc

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

73

Generalized Machine Model

Apply Parks transformation

[P ]v abc

= [P ]R a [u 3 ][P ] i odq
1

d + [P ] dt

{[P ]

odq

Simplify to get

v odq = R a [u 3 ]i odq + [P ][P ]

d d 1 odq + [P ] [P ] odq dt dt
Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Training Course in Power System Modeling

74

Generalized Machine Model

It can be shown that

2 d 1 [P] = 3 dt
where

0 0 0

de sin(e 120) cos(e 120) dt sin(e +120) cos(e +120)

sine

cose

d e = e = m dt
P = m 2
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

for a twopole machine

for a Ppole machine

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

75

Generalized Machine Model

It can also be shown that

0 d 1 [P] [P] = 0 dt 0
Finally, we get

0 0 m

0 m 0

for a two-pole machine

d v o = R aio + o dt d v d = R a i d + d m q dt
d v q = R aiq + q + m d dt

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

76

Generalized Machine Model

Voltage Equation for the Rotor

vF vD vQ

d = R F iF + F dt d = R D iD + D = 0 dt d = R Q iQ + Q = 0 dt

Note: No transformation is required.

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

77

Generalized Machine Model

Matrix Form of Voltage Equations
vo Ra io o v i Ra d d d vq iq d q Ra = + + m RF vF iF dt F vD iD D RD RQ iQ Q vQ -1 1 o d q F D Q

The equation is now in the form

[v ] = [R ][i ] + [L ] p [i ] + m [G ][i ]
Resistance Voltage Drop Transformer Voltage Speed Voltage
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

78

Generalized Machine Model

d d Ldd q [L] = F LFd D LDd Q q F LdF D LdD Q

Lqq LFF LQq LFD LDF LDD

Note: All entries of [L] and [G] are constant.

LqQ d q F D Q LQQ d Lqq LqQ q Ldd LdF LdD [G] = F D Q

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Training Course in Power System Modeling

79

Generalized Machine Model

Summary of Equations
Voltage Equations Flux Linkages

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

vo = Ra io + p o vd = Ra id + p d m q vq = Ra iq + p q + m d vF = RF iF + p F vD = Rd iD + p D = 0 vQ = RQiQ + p Q = 0

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

o = Looio d = Ldd id + LdF iF + LdDiD q = Lqqiq + LqQiQ F = LFd id + LFF iF + LFDiD D = LDd id + LDF iF + LDDiD Q = LQqiq + LQQiQ

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

80

Generalized Machine Model

Electromagnetic Torque Equation

Te = [i] [G][i]
T

= io id iq iF iD
We get

Te = ( q id + d iq )

0 q d iQ 0 0 0

= (Ldd Lqq ) id iq + LdF iF iq + LdDiDiq LqQiQid

for a 2-pole machine

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

81

SteadyState Equations
At steadystate condition, 1. All transformer voltages are zero. 2. No voltages are induced in the damper windings. Thus, iD = iQ = 0

Voltage Equations

vo = Ra io

vd = Ra id m Lqq iq vq = Ra iq + m (Ldd id + LdF iF ) v F = R F iF

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

82

SteadyState Equations
Cylindrical-Rotor Machine
If the rotor is cylindrical, then the air gap is uniform, and Ldd = Lqq. Define synchronous inductance Ls LS = Ldd = Lqq when the rotor is cylindrical Voltage and Electromagnetic Torque Equations at Steady-state v = R i L i
d a d m s q

vq = Raiq m Ls id + m LdF iF Te = LdF iF iq

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

83

SteadyState Equations
For Balanced Three-Phase Operation

( ) i = 2 I cos (t + + 120 ) Apply Parks transformation i odq = [P ]i abc , We get

ib = 2 I cos t + 120 o
o c

ia = 2 I cos (t + )

io = 0

id = 3 I cos iq = 3 I sin

Note: 1. ia, ib and ic are balanced three-phase currents. 2. id and iq are DC currents.
Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Training Course in Power System Modeling

84

SteadyState Equations
A similar transformation applies to balance threephase voltages. Given

va = 2 V cos(t + ) vc =

vb = 2 V cos t + 120
We get

( ) 2 V cos(t + + 120 )
o o

vo = 0 vd = vq = 3 V cos 3 V sin
Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Training Course in Power System Modeling

85

SteadyState Equations
Inverse Transformation Given id and iq, and assuming io = 0,

i abc = [P ] i odq
1

We get

2 ia = id cos t iq sin t 3

2 = id cos t + iq cos t + 90o 3

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

)]

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

86

SteadyState Equations
Recall the phasor transformation

2 I cos ( t + ) I
Using the transform, we get

1 Ia = id 0o + iq 90o 3

assuming the d and q axes as reference. Simplify

iq id Ia = + j 3 3 I a = I d + jI q

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

87

SteadyState Equations
Similarly, given vd and vq with vo = 0

2 va = vd cos t vq sin t 3 2 o = v d cos t + vq cos (t + 90 ) 3

In phasor form,

vq vd Va = + j 3 3

=Vd + jV q
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

88

SteadyState Equations
Steady-State Operation-Cylindrical Recall at steady-state

vd = Ra id m Ls iq vq = Ra iq + m Ls id + m LdF iF
Divide by 3

Vd = Ra I d m Ls I q 1 Vq = Ra I q + m Ls I d + m LdF iF 3

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

89

SteadyState Equations
Xs = mLs = synchronous reactance 1 E f = m LdFiF = Excitation voltage 3 Phasor Voltage V a
Define

V a = Vd + jVq

= Ra I d X s I q + j (Ra I q + X s I d + E f ) = Ra (I d + jI q ) + jX s (I d + jI q ) + jE f
(motor equation)

V a = Ra I a + jX s I a + E m
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

90

SteadyState Equations
For a generator, current flows out of the machine

V a = Ra I a + jXs I a + E g E g = Ra I a + jXs I a + V a
R a + jX
+
AC

( )

( )
+

Eg
-

Ia

Va
-

Equivalent Circuit of Cylindrical Rotor Synchronous Generator

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

91

SteadyState Equations
Salient-Pole Machine
If the rotor is not cylindrical, no equivalent circuit can be drawn. The analysis is based solely on the phasor diagram describing the machine. Recall the steady-state equations

vd = Raid m Lqqiq vq = Raiq + m Ldd id + m LdF iF

Divide through by

Vd = Ra I d X q I q Vq = R a I q + X d I d +
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

m LdF iF
3

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

92

SteadyState Equations
where

Xd =mLdd =

direct axis synchronous reactance quadrature axis synchronous reactance

Xq =mLqq =
Define:

Ef =

m LdF
3

iF

= excitation voltage

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

93

SteadyState Equations
We get

Vd = Ra I d X q I q Vq = Ra I q + X d I d + E f
Va =Vd + jV , we get q V a = Ra Id Xq Iq + j(Ra Iq + Xd Id + Ef )
= Ra (Id + jIq ) Xq Iq + jXd Id + jEf

From

or

V a = Ra I a X q Iq + jXd Id + jEf
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

94

SteadyState Equations
Steady-State Electromagnetic Torque
At steady-state

Te = (Ldd Lqq ) id iq + LdF iF iq

saliency cylindrical torque torque The dominant torque is the cylindrical torque which determines the mode of operation. For a motor, Te is assumed to be negative. For a generator, Te is assumed to be positive.
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

95

SteadyState Equations
Since the field current iF is always positive,

LdFiF iq < 0 > 0

Recall that

when iq > 0 (motor) when iq < 0 (generator )

I a = Id + jIq

Note: The imaginary component of Ia determines Whether the machine is operating as a motor or a Generator.
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

96

SteadyState Equations
What about Id? Assume From we get

Iq = 0

Vd = Ra I d X q I q Vq = Ra I q + X d I d + E f

Vd = Ra I d Vq = X d I d + E f

In general, Ra << Xd. We get

V a = V d + jV q

= R a I d + j (X d I d + E f j (X d I d + E f )
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

97

SteadyState Equations
If the magnitude of Va is constant,

Vq = X d I d + E f = constant
Recall that

Ef =

m L dF
3

iF

Thus, the excitation voltage depends only on the field current since m is constant. For some value of field current iFo, Ef = Va and Id = 0.
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

99

SteadyState Equations
Operating Modes
q-axis Over-excited Motor Id < 0, Iq > 0 Id < 0, Iq < 0 Over-excited Generator Under-excited Motor Id > 0, Iq > 0 d-axis Id > 0, Iq < 0 Under-excited Generator

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

98

SteadyState Equations
Over-excitation and Under-excitation
1. If the field current is increased above iFo, then Ef > Va and the machine is over-excited. Under this condition, Id < 0 (demagnetizing). 2. If the field current is decreased below iFo, then Ef < Va and the machine is under-excited. Under this condition, Id > 0 (magnetizing).
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

100

SteadyState Equations
Drawing Phasor Diagrams
A phasor diagram showing Va and Ia can be drawn if the currents Id and Iq are known. Recall

I a = I d + jI q V a = Vd + jVq V a = Ra I a X q I q + jX d I d + jE f V a = jE f X q I q + jX d I d + Ra I a
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

101

SteadyState Equations
Over-excited Motor
Id < 0 Iq > 0
Ra I a
X q Iq

q-axis

jEf

Va

jXd Id
jIq

Ia
Id
Leading Power Factor
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

d-axis

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

102

SteadyState Equations
Under-excited Motor
Id > 0 Iq > 0

Ra I a
jX d I d

Va

q-axis

XqIq jIq
Lagging Power Factor
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

jEf

Ia
Id
d-axis

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

103

SteadyState Equations
Over-excited Generator q-axis XqIq

jEf
Id < 0 Iq < 0

jXd Id

Ra I a

Id

Va
Actual Current

jIq
Lagging Power Factor
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

d-axis

Ia
Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

104

SteadyState Equations
Under-excited Generator
Id > 0 Iq < 0

jXd Id
jEf Xq Iq

Ra I a
Va

Actual Current

Id

Leading Power Factor

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

jIq

d-axis

Ia
Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

105

SteadyState Equations
Observations
1. The excitation voltage jEf lies along the quadrature axis. 2. V a leads jEf for a motor V a lags jEf for a generator The angle between the terminal voltage Va and jEf is called the power angle or torque angle . 3. The equation

V a = Ra I a + jXd Id X q Iq + jEf
applies specifically for a motor.
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

106

SteadyState Equations
4. For a generator, the actual current flows out of the machine. Thus Id, Iq and I a are negative.

V a = Ra I a jXd Id + Xq Iq + jEf
or

jEf = V a + Ra I a + jXd Id Xq Iq
5. Let

jE f = E m jE f = E g

for a motor for a generator

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Training Course in Power System Modeling

107

SteadyState Equations
The generator equation becomes

E g = V a + Ra I a + jXd Id X q Iq
For a motor, the equation is

V a = Em + Ra I a + jXd Id Xq Iq
6. No equivalent circuit can be drawn for a salient-pole motor or generator.
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

108

SteadyState Equations
Example 1: A 25 MVA, 13.8 kV, 3600 RPM, Y-connected cylindrical-rotor synchronous generator has a synchronous reactance of 4.5 ohms per phase. The armature resistance is negligible. Find the excitation voltage Eg when the machine is supplying rated MVA at rated voltage and 0.8 jXs power factor. Single-phase + + equivalent circuit Ia

Eg

AC

Va = 13.8 kV = 7.97 kV

line-to-line line-to-neutral

Va
-

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

109

SteadyState Equations
Pa = 25(0.8) = 20 MW, three-phase = 6.67 MW/phase Qa = Pa tan = 15 =5
Let MVar, three-phase MVar/phase

V a = 7.970o kV, the reference.

Using the complex power formula

Pa + jQa = V I
Ia = Pa jQa V
* a

* a a

6,667 j5,000 = 7.970o

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Training Course in Power System Modeling

110

SteadyState Equations
We get Ia = 837

j628 A

= 1,046 36.87o A
Apply KVL,

Eg = jXS I a + V a
= 10,791 + j3,766 = 11,42919.24o V

= j 4.5 1,046 36.87o + 7,9700o

Eg = 11,429 volts, line-to-neutral = 19,732 volts, line-to-line

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

111

SteadyState Equations
Example 2: A 100 MVA, 20 kV, 3-phase synchronous generator has a synchronous reactance of 2.4 ohms. The armature resistance is negligible. The machine supplies power to a wye-connected resistive load, 4 per phase, at a terminal voltage of 20 kV line-to-line. (a) Find the excitation voltage

X S = 2.4
+ +

Eg
-

AC

Ia

Va
-

R = 4 Va(L-L) = 20,000 volts Va(L-N) = 11,547 volts

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Training Course in Power System Modeling

112

SteadyState Equations
V a = 11,5470o V, the reference V a 11547 , o Ia = = = 2,8870 Amps R 4 Applying KVL, E g = jXS I a + V a
Let

= j 2.4(2,887) + 11,547 = 11,547 + j 6,928

= 13,46630.96o V line to neutral

E g = 3 (13,466 ) = 23,324 V = 23 .32 kV, line to line

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

113

SteadyState Equations
(b) Assume that the field current is held constant. A second identical resistive load is connected across the machine terminal. Find the terminal voltage, Va. Since iF is constant, Eg is unchanged. Thus, Eg = 13,466 V, line-to-neutral.

Req = 4 // 4 = 2

Let Va = Va 0 o , the reference

Va 1 o Ia = = Va0 Req 2
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

114

SteadyState Equations
Apply KVL,

E g = jX s I a + V a 1 = j 2.4 Va + Va 2 = Va + j1.2Va
2 2 2

We get Eg = Va + (1.2Va )
13 , 466 = 2 . 44 V a
2 2

Va = 8,621 V , line to neutral Va = 14,932 V , line to line

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

115

SteadyState Equations
(c) Assume that the field current iF is increased so that the terminal voltage remains at 20 kV line-to-line after the addition of the new resistive load. Find Eg.

V a = 11 , 547 0 o V , line to neutral

V a 11,547 Ia = = = 5,774 0 o Amps Req 2 E g = j 2.4(5774 ) + 11,547

= 11,547 + j13,856 = 18,037 50 .19 o V line to neutral

E g = 3 (18 , 037 ) = 31, 241 V = 31 .24 kV line to line

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

116

Generator Sequence Impedances

The equivalent Circuit of Generator for Balanced Three-Phase System Analysis
a Za Ea Eb Zb Ec Zc Ib Ic c b Ia

R a + jX
+
Ia

Eg
-

Va
-

Three-Phase Equivalent
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Single-Phase Equivalent
Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

117

Sequence Impedance of Power System Components

From Symmetrical Components, the Sequence Networks for Unbalanced Three-Phase Analysis
+ + +

Ia1 Va1
-

Ia2 Va2 Z2 Va0

-

Ia0 Z0

Z1
+

E
-

V a1 = E I a1 Z 1

V a2 = - I a2 Z 2

V ao = - I ao Z o
Zero Sequence

Positive Sequence Negative Sequence

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

118

Generator Sequence Impedances

Positive-Sequence Impedance: Xd=Direct-Axis Subtransient Reactance Xd=Direct-Axis Transient Reactance Xd=Direct-Axis Synchronous Reactance Negative-Sequence Impedance:

X2 = 1 (X d "+ X q " ) for a salient-pole machine 2 for a cylindrical-rotor machine X2 = X d "

Zero-Sequence Impedance:

0.15X d " X 0 0.6X d "

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

119

Generator Sequence Impedances

Positive Sequence Impedance
The AC RMS component of the current following a three-phase short circuit at no-load condition with constant exciter voltage and neglecting the armature resistance is given by

t E E E + I( t ) = X ' X exp ' X ds d ds d E t E + X " X ' exp " d d d

where E = AC RMS voltage before the short circuit.
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

120

Generator Sequence Impedances

The AC RMS component of the short-circuit current is composed of a constant term and two decaying exponential terms where the third term decays very much faster than the second term. If the first term is subtracted and the remainder is plotted on a semi-logarithmic paper versus time, the curve would appear as a straight line after the rapidly decaying term decreases to zero. The rapidly decaying portion of the curve is the subtransient portion, while the straight line is the transient portion.
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

121

Generator Sequence Impedances

IEEE Std 115-1995: Determination of the Xd and Xd (Method 1) The direct-axis transient reactance is determined from the current waves of a three-phase short circuit suddenly applied to the machine operating open-circuited at rated speed. For each test run, oscillograms should be taken showing the short circuit current in each phase. The direct-axis transient reactance is equal to the ratio of the open-circuit voltage to the value of the armature current obtained by the extrapolation of the envelope of the AC component of the armature current wave, neglecting the rapid variation during the first few cycles.
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

122

Generator Sequence Impedances

The direct-axis subtransient reactance is determined from the same three-phase suddenly applied short circuit. For each phase, the values of the difference between the ordinates of Curve B and the transient component (Line C) are plotted as Curve A to give the subtransient component of the short-circuit current. The sum of the initial subtransient component, the initial transient component and the sustained component for each phase gives the corresponding value of I.
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

123

Generator Sequence Impedances

Current in phase 1 (per unit)
14 12 + 10 + + Curve B + + ++ 8 ++ + ++ + ++ 6 Line ++ +++ 5 ++ + 4 3+
+ +

C
++ ++ + ++

2.0 1.5 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0

Line A
+ + + +

+ +

Curve A
20 30 40 50 60

10

Time in half-cycles
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

124

Generator Sequence Impedances

Example: Calculation of transient and subtransient reactances for a synchronous machine
Phase 1 (1) Initial voltage (2) Steady-state Current (3) Initial Transient Current (4) I = (2)+(3) (5) Xd = (1)(4) (6) Init. Subtransient Current 3.8 (7) I = (4)+(6) (8) Xd = (1)(7)
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Phase 2 Phase 3 Ave 1.0 1.4 9.1 10.5 5.6 16.1 1.4 8.6 10.0 4.4 14.4 14.67 0.0682 10.07 0.0993

1.4 8.3 9.7

13.5

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

125

Generator Sequence Impedances

Negative Sequence Impedance
IEEE Std 115-1995: Determination of the negativesequence reactance, X2 (Method 1) The machine is operated at rated speed with its field winding short-circuited. Symmetrical sinusoidal three-phase currents of negative phase sequence are applied to the stator. Two or more tests should be made with current values above and below rated current, to permit interpolation. The line-to-line voltages, line currents and electric power input are measured and expressed in perunit.
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

126

Generator Sequence Impedances

Let E = average of applied line-to-line voltages, p.u. I = average of line currents, p.u. P = three phase electric power input, p.u.

E Z2 = =Negative Sequence Impedance, p.u. I P R 2 = 2 =Negative Sequence Resistance, p.u. I

X2 = Z2 R 2
2 2

=Negative Sequence Reactance, p.u. Note: The test produces abnormal heating in the rotor and should be concluded promptly.
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

127

Generator Sequence Impedances

Zero Sequence Impedance
IEEE Std 115-1995: Determination of the zero-sequence reactance, X0 (Method 1) The machine is operated at rated speed with its field winding short-circuited. A single-phase voltage is applied between the line terminals and the neutral point. Measure the applied V voltage, current and electric power. Field
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

128

Generator Sequence Impedances

Let E = applied voltage, in p.u. of base line-toneutral voltage I = test current, p.u. P = wattmeter reading, in p.u. single-phase base volt-ampere

3E Z0 = =Zero Sequence Impedance, p.u. I

X0 = Z0 P 1 EI
2

=Zero Sequence Reactance, p.u.

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

129

Generator Sequence Impedances

Average Machine Reactances
Turbo Water-Wheel Synchronous Reactance Generators Generators Motors Xd 1.10 1.15 1.20 Xq X d X q X d X q X2 1.08 0.23 0.23 0.12 0.15 0.12 0.75 0.37 0.75 0.24 0.34 0.24 0.90 0.35 0.90 0.30 0.40 0.35

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

130

Generator Sequence Networks

Grounded-Wye Generator
The sequence networks for the grounded-wye generator are shown below.
F1 F2 F0

r + Eg
-

jZ1 jZ2
N1 N2

jZ0
N0

Positive Sequence

Negative Sequence

Zero Sequence

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

131

Generator Sequence Networks

Grounded-Wye through an Impedance
If the generator neutral is grounded through an impedance Zg, the zero-sequence impedance is modified as shown below.
F1 F2 F0

r + Eg
-

jZ1 jZ2
N1 N2

jZ0 3Zg
N0

Positive Sequence

Negative Sequence

Zero Sequence

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

132

Generator Sequence Networks

Ungrounded-Wye Generator
If the generator is connected ungrounded-wye or delta, no zero-sequence current can flow. The sequence networks for the generator are shown below.
F1 F2 F0

r + Eg
-

jZ1 jZ2
N1 N2

jZ0
N0

Positive Sequence

Negative Sequence

Zero Sequence

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

133

Transformer Models
Two Winding Transformer Short-Circuit and Open-Circuit Tests Three Winding Transformer Autotransformer Transformer Connection Three Phase Transformer Three Phase Model

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

134

Two-Winding Transformer
Ideal Transformer
The voltage drop from the polaritymarked terminal to the non-polaritymarked terminal of the H winding is in phase with the voltage drop from the polarity-marked terminal to the non-polarity-marked terminal of the X winding. N N Voltage Equation:

r VH NH r = NX VX

r VH
_

r IH

r + IX r VX
_

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

135

Two-Winding Transformer
r VH
_

r IH

NH N X

r IX

r VX
_

Current Equation:

r r NH IH = N X IX

The current that enters the H winding through the polarity-marked terminal is in phase with the current that leaves the X winding through the polarity-marked terminal. Note: Balancing ampere-turns satisfied at all times.
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

must

be

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

136

Two-Winding Transformer
Referred Values
From therTransformation Ratio,

VH a= r VX
r IX a= r IH

r r V H = aV X
r IH r IX = a

Dividing VH by IH,

r r VH 2 VX r =a r IH IX

ZH = a2 Z X
Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Training Course in Power System Modeling

137

Two-Winding Transformer
Practical Transformer
1. 2. 3. 4. The H and X coils have a small resistance. There are leakage fluxes in the H and X coils. There is resistance loss in the iron core. The permeability of the iron is not infinite.
iH
+

m
+

iX eX
-

vH

eH
-

NH

NX

vX

iron core
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

138

Two-Winding Transformer
Equivalent Circuit v RH + jX H I ex
N H N X R X + jX X

r VH
-

r IH R c
H winding

jX m

v EH
-

+ -

v EX

r IX

r VX
-

Ideal

X winding

RH, XH =resistance and leakage reactance of H coil RX, XX =resistance and leakage reactance of X coil Rc, Xm =core resistance and magnetizing reactance
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

139

Two-Winding Transformer
Referring secondary quantities at the primary side, RH + jX H a 2 R X + ja 2 X X NH N X v

r VH
-

I ex r IH R jX m c

r IX a

r v aV X EH
-

+ -

v EX

RH + jX H

r VH
-

r IH R c

v I ex

a 2 R X + ja 2 X X jX m
r IX a

r aV X
-

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

140

Two-Winding Transformer
The transformer equivalent circuit can be approximated by

Req + jX eq

r VH
-

r IH R c

v Iex

jX m

r + 1 a IX r
-

R eq = R H + a 2 R X X eq = X H + a 2 X X
v Iex

aV X
+

r r IH V H Rc
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Req + jX eq
1 a

r IX

jX m

r aV X
-

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

141

Two-Winding Transformer
For large power transformers, shunt impedance and resistance can be neglected

R eq + jX eq

jX eq

r VH
-

r r 1 IH = a IX

r aV X
-

r VH
-

r r 1 IH = a IX

r aV X
-

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

142

Two-Winding Transformer
Tap-Changing Transformer
a:1 q s p r

1 y pq a

The equivalent circuit of transformer with the per 1 a y pq 2 unit transformation ratio: a
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

a 1 y pq a

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

143

Short-Circuit and Open-Circuit Tests

Short-Circuit Test
Conducted to determine series impedance With the secondary (Low-voltage side) shortcircuited, apply a primary voltage (usually 2 to 12% of rated value) so that full load current H1 x1 flows.
W A V

H2
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

x2

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

144

Short-Circuit and Open-Circuit Tests

Short-Circuit Test
Req + jX eq
+
Ie

I SC
Rc

I1
jX m

VSC
-

Ie 0 I sc = I 1

PSC Req = 2 I SC

Z eq

VSC = I SC

X eq = Z R
2 eq

2 eq

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

145

Short-Circuit and Open-Circuit Tests

Open-Circuit Test
Conducted to determine shunt impedance With the secondary (High-voltage side) opencircuited, apply rated voltage to the primary.
x1
W A V

H1

x2
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

H2

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

146

Short-Circuit and Open-Circuit Tests

Open-Circuit Test
Req + jX eq
+
Ie

I OC
Rc

VOC
-

jX m

I OC = I e

V Rc = POC

2 OC

I OC 1 1 = 2 Xm Rc VOC
Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Training Course in Power System Modeling

147

Short-Circuit and Open-Circuit Tests

Example: 50 kVA, 2400/240V, single-phase transformer Short-Circuit Test: HV side energized

VSC = 48 volts VOC = 240 volts

I SC = 20.8 amps I OC = 5.41 amps

PSC = 617 watts POC = 186 watts

Open-Circuit Test: LV side energized

Determine the Series and Shunt Impedance of the transformer. What is %Z and X/R of the transformer?
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

148

Short-Circuit and Open-Circuit Tests

Solution: From the short-circuit test

R eq ,H =

Z eq ,H

48 = = 2.31 ohm 20.8

617 = 1 .42 o hm 2 (20 .8 )

2 2

X eq ,H = 2.31 1.42 = 1.82 ohm

From the open-circuit test

Rcq ,L

186 2 2 1 5.41 1 = Xm 240 310

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

(240 )2 =

= 310 ohm

X m ,L = 45 ohm
Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

149

Short-Circuit and Open-Circuit Tests

Referred to the HV side

Rc ,H = a 2 Rc ,L = 30 ,968 ohm

X m ,H = a 2 X m ,L = 4 ,482 ohm
%Z and X/R

Z BASE =

[2.4 ]2
50 / 1000

= 115.2 ohm
1.82 X /R= = 1.28 1.42
Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

2.31 %Z = x100 = 2% 115.2

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Training Course in Power System Modeling

150

X/R Ratios of Transformers

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

151

Three-Winding Transformer
r VH
_

r IH

NH

NX

r IX r IY

r VX
_

NY

r VY
_

r VH NH r = NX VX

r VH NH r = NY VY r r r NH IH = N X IX + N Y IY

r VX NX r = NY VY

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

152

Three-Winding Transformer
From 3 short-circuit tests with third winding open, get ZHX=impedance measured at the H side when the X winding is short-circuited and the Y winding is open-circuited ZHY=impedance measured at the H side when the Y winding is short-circuited and the X winding is open-circuited ZXY=impedance measured at the X side when the Y winding is short-circuited and the H winding is open-circuited Note: When expressed in ohms, the impedances must be referred to the same side.
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

153

Three-Winding Transformer
ZH ZX
+ r +

r VH
-

ZY

r VX
-

VY Z HY = Z H + Z Y

Z HX = Z H + Z X

Z XY = Z X + Z Y

or

Z H = 1 ( Z HX + Z HY Z XY ) 2 1 Z X = 2 ( Z HX Z HY + Z XY ) Z Y = 1 ( Z HX + Z HY + Z XY ) 2
Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Training Course in Power System Modeling

154

Three-Winding Transformer
Example: A three-winding three-phase transformer has the following nameplate rating: H: 30 MVA 140 kV X: 30 MVA 48 kV Y: 10.5 MVA 4.8 kV Short circuit tests yield the following impedances: ZHX = 63.37 @ the H side ZHY = 106.21 @ the H side ZXY = 4.41 @ the X side Find the equivalent circuit in ohms, referred to the H side. 140 2

Z XY = (

48

) ( 4.41 ) = 37 .52

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

155

Three-Winding Transformer
With all impedances referred to the H side, we get
1 Z H = 2 ( 63.37 + 106.21 37.52 ) = 66.03

Z X = 1 ( 63.37 106.21 + 37.52 ) = 2.66. 2

1 ZY = 2 ( 63.37 + 106.21 + 37.52 ) = 40.18

66.03

2.66

+ + r -

r VH
-

40.18

r VX
-

VY

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

156

Transformer Connection
Transformer Polarity
V1 H1 H2 H1 V1 H2

V
Less than V1 x1 x2 Greater than V1

x2

x1

Subtractive Polarity
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Additive Polarity
Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

157

Transformer Connection
H1 Subtractive X1 X2 X2 H2 H1 H2 Additive X1

Single-phase transformers in sizes 200 kVA and below having high-voltage ratings 8660 volts and below (winding voltage) shall have additive polarity. All other single-phase transformers shall have subtractive polarity. (ANSI/IEEEC57.12.001993)
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

158

Transformer Connection
Parallel Connection
H1 H2 H1 H2

x1

x2

x1

x2

LOAD
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

159

Transformer Connection
Parallel Connection
same turns ratio Connected to the same primary phase Identical frequency ratings Identical voltage ratings Identical tap settings Per unit impedances within 0.925 to 1.075 of each other

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

160

Transformer Connection
H1 H2 H1 H2 H1 H2

x1

x2

x1

x2

x1

x2

WYE-WYE (Y-Y)

Three Phase Transformer Bank

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

161

Transformer Connection
H1 H2 H1 H2 H1 H2

x1

x2

x1

x2

x1

x2

DELTA-DELTA (-)

Three Phase Transformer Bank

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

162

Transformer Connection
H1 H2 H1 H2 H1 H2

x1

x2

x1

x2

x1

x2

WYE-DELTA (Y-)

Three Phase Transformer Bank

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

163

Transformer Connection
H1 H2 H1 H2 H1 H2

x1

x2

x1

x2

x1

x2

DELTA-WYE (-Y)

Three Phase Transformer Bank

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

164

Transformer Connection
H1 H2 H1 H2

x1

x2

x1

x2

OPEN DELTA OPEN DELTA

Three Phase Transformer Bank

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

165

Transformer Connection
H1 H2 H1 H2

x1

x2

x1

x2

OPEN WYE - OPEN DELTA

Three Phase Transformer Bank

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

166

Three-Phase Transformer

Windings are connected Wye or Delta internally

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

167

Three-Phase Transformer
Angular Displacement
ANSI/IEEEC57.12.00-1993: The angular displacement of a three-phase transformer is the time angle (expressed in degrees) between the line-to-neutral voltage of the high-voltage terminal marked H1 and the the line-to-neutral voltage of the low-voltage terminal marked X1. The angular displacement for a three-phase transformer with a - or Y-Y connection shall be 0o. The angular displacement for a three-phase transformer with a Y- or -Y connection shall be 30o, with the low voltage lagging the high voltage.
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

168

Three-Phase Transformer
Vector Diagrams
H2 X2 H2 X1 H1 X2 H2 H3 X3 X2 X2

X1 H1 H2 H3

X3

- Connection

Y- Connection
X1

X1 H1 H3

X3 H1 H3

X3

Y-Y Connection
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

-Y Connection
Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

169

Three-Phase Transformer
IEC Designation
0

IEC Designation for - Dd0 Dd2 Dd4 Dd6 Dd8 Dd10

10

IEC Designation for Y-Y Yy0 Yy6

8 6

Note: The first letter defines the connection of the H winding; the second letter defines the connection of the X winding; the number designates the angle.
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

170

Three-Phase Transformer
IEC Designation
IEC Designation for Y- Yd1 Yd5 Yd7 Yd11 IEC Designation for -Y Dy1 Dy5 Dy7 Dy11
7 5 9 11 1 3

Note: The first letter defines the connection of the H winding; the second letter defines the connection of the X winding; the number designates the angle.
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

171

Three-Phase Transformer
PositiveSequence Voltages
B H2 N X1 X2 b

A C

r VBN1

H1

H3

X3

(A-B-C) r

r Vab1 r Vca1

Van1

r r r Vbc1 Van1 lags VAN1 o r Vcn1

by 30

r Vbn1

r VAN1

r VCN1

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

172

Three-Phase Transformer
PositiveSequence r Currents
B r

IB1 r IA1 A r IC1 H1

H2

Iba1

X1

H3

r Iac1

r IB1

(A-B-C)

r Icb1

r b X2 r Ib1 Icb1 r Ic1 r c X3 Ia 1

r Ib1

r IA1

r IC1

r Ia1 r Iba1

r r Ia1 lags IA1

by 30o

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

r Iac1 r I Training & Certification Program in Competencyc1

Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

173

Three-Phase Transformer
Positive Sequence Impedance
Whether a bank of single-phase units or a threephase transformer unit (core type or shell type), the equivalent impedance is the same. Using per-unit values, the positive-sequence equivalent circuit is

Z1 = R1 + jX1

r VH
-

r r IH = IX

r VX
-

Note: The negativesequence impedance is equal to the positivesequence impedance.

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Training Course in Power System Modeling

174

Three-Phase Transformer
NegativeSequence Voltages
B H2 N H1 X1 X2 b

H3

r C

VCN2
(A-C-B)

r Vcn2

X3

r Vac2 r Van2

r VAN2

r VBN2

r Vcb2 r Vbn2 r Vba2

r r Van2 leads VAN2

by 30o

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

175

Three-Phase Transformer
NegativeSequence Currents r
B r

IB 2 r IA2 A r H IC2 1

H2

Iba2

X1

H3

r IC 2 r IB 2

r Ic 2

r Iac2

r Iac2

b r X2 r Ib2 Icb2 r Ic2 r c X3 Ia 2 a

(A-C-B)

r IA 2

r Iba2

r Ia2

r Icb2

r Ib 2

r r Ia2 leads IA2

by 30o

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

176

Three-Phase Transformer
Positive & Negative Sequence Networks
Z1
+
Primary Side

Z2
+
Secondary Side

r I1

+
Primary Side

r I2

+
Secondary Side

Positive Sequence Network

Z1 = Z2

Negative Sequence Network

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

177

Three-Phase Transformer
Transformer Core

3-Legged Core Type

Shell Type 4-Legged Core Type

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Note: Only the X windings are shown.

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

178

Three-Phase Transformer
Three-Legged Transformer Core
The 3-legged core type three-phase transformer uses the minimum amount of core material. For balanced three-phase condition, the sum of the fluxes is zero. Note: For positive- or negative-sequence flux,

a + b + c = 0
Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Training Course in Power System Modeling

179

Three-Phase Transformer
Zero Sequence Flux
The 3-legged core type three-phase transformer does not provide a path for zero-sequence flux. On the other hand, a bank of single-phase units, the 4-legged core type and the shell-type three-phase transformer provide a path for zero-sequence flux.

30
Note: The zerosequence flux leaks out of the core and returns through the transformer tank.
Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

3-Legged Core Type

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Training Course in Power System Modeling

180

Three-Phase Transformer
Zero Sequence Impedance*
Transformer Connection Zero-Sequence Network

Z0 = Z1

VH
-

+ r

VX
-

+ r

Z0 = Z1
VH
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

+ r

VX
-

+ r

*Excluding 3-phase unit with a 3-legged core.

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

181

Three-Phase Transformer
Zero Sequence Impedance*
Transformer Connection Zero-Sequence Network

Z0 = Z1

VH
-

+ r

VX
-

+ r

Z0 = Z1
VH
+ r

VX
-

+ r

*Excluding 3-phase unit with a 3-legged core.

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

182

Three-Phase Transformer
Zero Sequence Impedance*
Transformer Connection Zero-Sequence Network

Z0 = Z1

VH
-

+ r

VX
-

+ r

Z0 = Z1
VH
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

+ r

VX
-

+ r

*Excluding 3-phase unit with a 3-legged core.

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

183

Three-Phase Transformer
Example: Consider a two-winding three-phase transformer with the following nameplate rating: 25 MVA 69 -13.8YG kV (Dyn1) Z=7%. Draw the positive and zero-sequence equivalent circuits. Use the transformer rating as bases. Positive/Negative Sequence impedance Z1=j0.07
+ r + r -

Zero Sequence impedance Z0=j0.07

+ r + r -

VH

VX

VH

VX

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

184

Three-Phase Transformer
Example: A three-winding three-phase transformer has the following nameplate rating: 150/150/45 MVA 138zG-69zG-13.8 kV (Yy0d1). H-X @ 150 MVA = 14.8% H-Y @ 45 MVA = 21.0% X-Y @ 45 MVA = 36.9% Draw the positive and zero-sequence equivalent circuits. Use 100 MVA and the transformer voltage ratings as bases. At the chosen MVA base,

Z HX = 0.148 ( 100 / 150 ) = 0.10 p.u. Z HY = 0.21( 100 / 45 ) = 0.47 p.u. Z XY = 0.369 ( 100 / 45 ) = 0.82 p.u.
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

185

Three-Phase Transformer
We get
1 Z H = 2 ( 0.10 + 0.47 0.82 ) = 0.125 p.u. Z X = 1 ( 0.10 0.47 + 0.82 ) = 0.225 p.u. 2 1 Z Y = 2 ( 0.10 + 0.47 + 0.82 ) = 0.595 p.u.

Positive/Negative Sequence Network

Zero Sequence Network

ZH

ZX ZY
+ r -

VH
-

+ r

r VX
-

ZH

ZX ZY
+ r -

VY

VH
-

+ r

r VX
-

VY

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

186

Three Phase Model

THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMER AND 3 SINGLE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS IN BANK Primary
A B C

Secondary

abc T
Core Loss

a b c

Admittance Matrix

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

187

Three Phase Model

CORE LOSS MODELS
1. Constant P & Q Model 2. EPRI Core Loss Model

2 kVA Rating 2 CV A V + B Pp .u . = System Base 2 kVA Rating 2 FV Q p .u . = D V + E System Base

( (

) )
|V| in per unit

A = 0.00267 D = 0.00167

B = 0.734x10 -9 E = 0.268x10 -13

C = 13.5 F = 22.7

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

188

Three Phase Model

I1 I2 z12 z11 z23 z22 I3 z34 z33 I4 z45 z44 I5 z56 z55 z66 I6

+ V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 + V5 + V6

Primitive Coils
-

z11 z21 z31 z41 z51 z61

z12 z22 z32 z42 z52 z62

z13 z23 z33 z43 z53 z63

z14 z24 z34 z44 z54 z64

z15 z35 z45 z55 z65

z16 z36 z46 z56 z66

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

z25 z26

Primitive Impedances

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Training Course in Power System Modeling

189

Transformer Model
Three Identical Single-phase Transformers in Bank z11 z21 z12 z22 z33 z43 z34 z44 z55 z65 z56 z66
Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

I1
z11 z12 z22

I2

I3
z33 z34 z44

I4

I5
z55 z56 z66

I6

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Training Course in Power System Modeling

190

Transformer Model Node Connection Matrix, C

V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 V6 VA VB VC Va Vb Vc

[V123456] = [C][VABCabc ]
Matrix C defines the relationship of the Primitive Voltages and Terminal Voltages of the Three-Phase Connected Transformer
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

191

Transformer Model
VA IA 1 3 5 IB 6 Ic Vc 2 Ia 4 Ib Vb Va VC IC

VB

Wye Grounded-Wye Grounded Connection

Node Connection Matrix, C

V1 V2 1 1 1 1 1 1 VA VB VC Va Vb Vc

[V123456]

[C][VABCabc ]

V3 V4 V5 V6

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

192

Transformer Model
VA IA 1 3 5 IC 4 Ic Vc 6 2 Ib Vb Ia Va

VC VB

IB

Wye Grounded-Delta Connection

Node Connection Matrix, C

V1 V2 1 1 -1 1 1 -1 1 -1 1 VA VB VC Va Vb Vc

[V123456] = [C][VABCabc ]

V3 V4 V5 V6

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

193

Transformer Model
R1

M
1 L1

R2

a
L2 2 R2

3 Identical Single-Phase B Transformers connected Wye-Delta C Let,

R1 R1 N
3 L1

M L2 4 M L2 6

b
R2

5 L1

Z 1 = R1 + jL1 = Z 3 = Z 5 Z 2 = R2 + jL2 = Z 4 = Z 6 Z M = Z 12 = jM = Z 34 = Z 56

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

194

Transformer Model
V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 V6 Z1 ZM ZM Z2 Z1 ZM ZM Z2 Z1 ZM ZM Z2 I1 I2 I3 I4 I5 I6 Z2 -ZM -ZM Z1 Z2 -ZM -ZM Z1 Z2 -ZM
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

The Primitive Voltage Equations

The Inverse of the Impedance Matrix

The Primitive Admittance Matrix

1 Z1 Z2 ZM2

-ZM Z1

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

195

Transformer Model
YBUS = [C][ Yprim][CT]
A
Z2 Z2

a
-ZM

b
ZM -ZM

c A
ZM -ZM

B C a b c

YBUS =

1 Z1 Z2 ZM2 -ZM ZM -ZM ZM

Z2 ZM

ZM 2Z1 -Z1 -Z1 2Z1 -Z1

-Z1 -ZM 2Z1

-ZM

-Z1

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

196

Transformer Model
The Bus Admittance Matrix

Iinj = [C Yprim CT] Vnode YBUS = [C][Yprim][CT]

1 1

Z2 -ZM
1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1

-ZM Z1 Z2 -ZM -ZM Z1 Z2 -ZM -ZM Z1

1 1 1 1 1 -1 1 -1 -1

1 Z1 Z2 ZM2

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

197

Three Phase Model

Define

z2 yt = 2 z1 z 2 z m
yt yt

n1 a= n2
-ayt ayt -ayt yt ayt 2a2yt -a2yt -ayt -a2yt -a2yt 2a2yt -a2yt ayt -ayt -a2yt -a2yt 2a2yt

YBUS =

-ayt ayt -ayt ayt

ayt

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

198

Three Phase Model

If the admittances are already in per unit system, then the effective turns ratio a must be

n1 1 = a= n2 3

yt yt yt
1 3 1 3

1 3

yt

1 3 1 3

yt yt
1 3 1

z2 yt = 2 z1 z 2 z m

yt yt

yt yt
1 3 1 3

1 3

yt

yt yt
1 3

yt

3 2 yt 3 1 yt 3 1 yt 3

yt

3 1 1 yt yt 3 3 2 yt 1 yt 3 3 2 1 y yt 3 t 3

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

199

Three Phase Model

Summary
A A B C B C a b c

YAA YBA YCA YaA YbA YcA

YAB YBB YCB YaB YbB YcB

YAC YBC YaC YbC YcC

YAa

Yab

YAc

YBa YBb YBc YCb Ycc Yab Ybb Ycb Yac Ybc Ycc Yaa Yba Yca

[Ybus] =
YPP YPS YSP YSS

YCC YCa

a b c

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

200

Three Phase Model

PRI
Wye-G Wye-G Wye-G Wye Wye Wye Delta Delta Delta

SEC
Wye-G Wye Delta Wye-G Wye Delta Wye-G Wye Delta

YPP
YI YII YI YII YII YII YII YII YII

YSS
YI YII YII YII YII YII YI YII YII

YPS
-YI -YII YIII -YII -YII YIII YIIIT YIIIT -YII

YSP
-YI -YII YIIIT -YII -YII YIIIT YIII YIII -YII

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

201

Three Phase Model

Summary yt

2yt -yt -yt

yt yt

YI =

YII = 1/3 -yt 2yt -yt -yt -yt 2yt -yt yt -yt yt -yt

-yt YIII = 1/3 yt

yt -yt yt -yt YIIIT = 1/3

yt

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

202

Three Phase Model

Example:
Three single-phase transformers rated 50 kVA, 7.62kV/240V, %Z=2.4, X/R=3 are connected Wye(grounded)-Delta. Determine the Admittance Matrix Model of the Transformer Bank. Assume yt = 1/zt

Zp.u. = ____ +j ____

yp.u. = ____ -j ____

[Ybus] =

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

203

3-Phase Transformer Impedance Matrix Model

Distributing Transformer Impedance Between Windings Impedance Matrix in BackwardForward Sweep Load Flow
Wye-Grounded Wye-Grounded Delta-Delta

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

204

Transformer Equations
Consider the winding-to-winding relationship between primary and secondary:
From transformer equations,

VPRI =a VSEC

Z PRI 2 =a Z SEC
N PRI a= N SEC
Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

I PRI 1 = I SEC a
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Training Course in Power System Modeling

205

Distributing Transformer Impedance Between Windings

Transformers are typically modeled with series impedance lumped at either end. To properly model transformer behavior, series impedance must be modeled in both windings. PROBLEM: divide ZT into ZP and ZS given a

ZT = Z P + Z S '
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

206

Distributing Transformer Impedance Between Windings

ASSUMPTION: Transformer impedance varies as number of wire turns.

Z S = aZ P
Referring ZS to primary side ,

ZS ' = a ZS = a ZP
2 3

Substituting,

ZT = Z P + a Z P
3

= (1 + a3 ) Z P
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

207

Distributing Transformer Impedance Between Windings

To find ZP and ZS,

1 ZP = ZT 3 (1 + a )
a ZS = ZT 3 (1 + a )
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

208

Impedance Matrix in BackwardForward Sweep Load Flow

Transformer model involved in
backward summation of current forward computation of voltage

Wye-Grounded Wye-Grounded Delta-Delta

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

209

Wye Grounded Wye Grounded

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

210

WyeGnd-WyeGnd Backward Sweep

Secondary to Secondary Winding
I Sec _ Winding _1 1 0 0 I a I Sec _ Winding _ 2 = 0 1 0 I b I Sec _ Winding _ 3 0 0 1 I c

Secondary Winding to Primary Winding

if in PU: If not in PU:

I Pr i _ Winding _1 1 0 0 I Sec _ Winding _1 I Pr i _ Winding _ 2 = 0 1 0 I Sec _ Winding _ 2 I Pr i _ Winding _ 3 0 0 1 I Sec _ Winding _ 3

Primary Winding to Primary

1 I Pr i _ Winding _1 a I Pr i _ Winding _ 2 = 0 I Pr i _ Winding _ 3 0

0 1 a 0

0 I Sec _ Winding _1 0 I Sec _ Winding _ 2 I 1 Sec _Winding _ 3 a

I A 1 0 0 I Pr i _ Winding _1 I = 0 1 0 I B Pr i _ Winding _ 2 I C 0 0 1 I Pr i _ Winding _ 3

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Training Course in Power System Modeling

211

WyeGnd-WyeGnd Forward Sweep

Primary to Primary winding
VPr i _ Winding _1 1 0 0 VAN I Pr i _ Winding _1 * Z Pr i _ Winding _1 VPr i _ Winding _ 2 = 0 1 0 VBN I Pr i _ Winding _ 2 * Z Pr i _ Winding _ 2 VPr i _ Winding _ 3 0 0 1 VCN I Pr i _ Winding _ 3 * Z Pr i _ Winding _ 3

Primary Winding to Secondary Winding

If in PU: VSec _ Winding _1

Secondary Winding to Secondary

1 0 0 VPr i _ Winding _1 If not in PU: VSec _ Winding _1 a V VSec _ Winding _ 2 = 0 1 0 Pr i _ Winding _ 2 VSec _ Winding _ 2 = 0 VSec _ Winding _ 3 0 0 1 VPr i _ Winding _ 3 V

Sec _ Winding _ 3

0 1 a 0

Van 1 0 0 VSec _ Winding _1 I Sec _ Winding _1 * Z Sec _ Winding _1 V = 0 1 0 V I Sec _ Winding _ 2 * Z Sec _ Winding _ 2 bn Sec _ Winding _ 2 Vcn 0 0 1 VSec _ Winding _ 3 I Sec _ Winding _ 3 * Z Sec _ Winding _ 3
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

0 VPr i _ Winding _1 0 VPr i _ Winding _ 2 V 1 Pr i _ Winding _ 3 a

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

212

Delta-Delta Transformer Connection

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

213

Delta-Delta Backward Sweep

Secondary to Secondary Winding
I Sec _ Winding _1 1 1 0 I a 1 I Sec _ Winding _ 2 = 0 1 1 I b 3 I Sec _ Winding _ 3 1 0 1 I c

Secondary Winding to Primary Winding

If in PU:

I Pr i _ Winding _1 1 0 0 I Sec _ Winding _1 I Pr i _ Winding _ 2 = 0 1 0 I Sec _ Winding _ 2 I Pr i _ Winding _ 3 0 0 1 I Sec _ Winding _ 3

If not in PU:

Primary Winding to Primary

I a 1 0 1 I Pr i _ Winding _1 I = 1 1 0 I b Pr i _ Winding _ 2 I c 0 1 1 I Pr i _ Winding _ 3

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

1 I Pr i _ Winding _1 a I Pr i _Winding _ 2 = 0 I Pr i _ Winding _ 3 0

0 1 a 0

0 I Sec _ Winding _1 0 I Sec _ Winding _ 2 I 1 Sec _ Winding _ 3 a

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

214

Delta-Delta Forward Sweep

Primary to Primary Winding
VPr i _ Winding _1 1 1 0 VAN I Pr i _ Winding _1 * Z Pr i _ Winding _1 VPr i _ Winding _ 2 = 0 1 1 VBN I Pr i _ Winding _ 2 * Z Pr i _ Winding _ 2 VPr i _ Winding _ 3 1 0 1 VCN I Pr i _ Winding _ 3 * Z Pr i _ Winding _ 3

Primary Winding to Secondary Winding

If in PU:

1 VSec _ Winding _1 1 0 0 VPr i _ Winding _1 VSec _ Winding _1 a VSec _ Winding _ 2 = 0 1 0 VPr i _ Winding _ 2 VSec _ Winding _ 2 = 0 VSec _ Winding _ 3 0 0 1 VPr i _ Winding _ 3 VSec _ Winding _ 3 0 Secondary Winding to Secondary
If not in PU:

0 1 a 0

1 3 0 3 V a V = 1 1 5 0 b 3 V c 1 3 0 3

0 0 0

0 0 1

0 VPr i _ Winding _1 0 VPr i _ Winding _ 2 V 1 Pr i _ Winding _ 3 a

V S e c _ W in d in g _ 1 V S e c _ W in d in g _ 2 V S e c _ W in d in g _ 3

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

215

Transmission and Distribution Line Models

Series Impedance of Lines Shunt Capacitance of Lines Nodal Admittance Matrix Model Data Requirements

Transmission Line
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Distribution Line
Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

216

Transmission and Distribution Line Models +

Z = R + jXL
1 Y C 2 1 Y C 2

+
VR

A B C

Balanced Three-Phase System

Zaa Zba Zca Yaa Yba Yca Yab Ybb Ycb Yac Ybc Ycc

Zab Zbb Zcb

Zac Zbc Zcc Yaa Yba Yca Yab Ybb Ycb Yac Ybc Ycc

a b c

Unbalanced Three-Phase System

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

217

Series Impedance of Lines

Conductor Materials
Aluminum (Al) is preferred over Copper (Cu) as a material for transmission and distribution lines due to:
lower cost lighter weight larger diameter for the same resistance*
* This results in a lower voltage gradient at the conductor surface (less tendency for corona)

Copper is preferred over Aluminum as a material for distribution lines due to lower resistance to reduce system losses.
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

218

Series Impedance of Lines

Stranding of Conductors
Alternate layers of wire of a stranded conductor are spiraled in opposite directions to prevent unwinding and make the outer radius of one layer coincide with the inner radius of the next. The number of strands depends on the number of layers and on whether all the strands are of the same diameter. The total number of strands of uniform diameter in a concentrically stranded cable is 7, 19, 37, 61, 91, etc. Steel Aluminum Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced

Hard-Drawn Copper

(Cu)
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

(ACSR)
Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

219

Series Impedance of Lines

Resistance of Conductors
The Resistance of a Conductor depends on the material (Cu or Al) Resistance is directly proportional to Length but inversely proportional to cross-sectional area

L R= A

R Resistance Resistivity of Material L Length A Cross-Sectional Area

Resistance increases with Temperature Skin-Effect in Conductors

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

220

Series Impedance of Lines

Resistance of Conductors
Conductor Size Type Value Unit INDEX 1 ACSR 6 AWG 2 ACSR 5 AWG 3 ACSR 4 AWG 4 ACSR 4 AWG 5 ACSR 3 AWG 6 ACSR 2 AWG 7 ACSR 2 AWG 8 ACSR 1 AWG 9 ACSR 1/0 AWG 10 ACSR 2/0 AWG
Source: Westinghouse T&D Handbook

Strands 6/1 6/1 7/1 6/1 6/1 7/1 6/1 6/1 6/1 6/1

O.D. (Inches) 0.19800 0.22300 0.25700 0.25000 0.28100 0.32500 0.31600 0.35500 0.39800 0.44700

GMR Resistance (feet) (Ohm/Mile) 0.00394 3.98000 0.00416 3.18000 0.00452 2.55000 0.00437 2.57000 0.00430 2.07000 0.00504 1.65000 0.00418 1.69000 0.00418 1.38000 0.00446 1.12000 0.00510 0.89500

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

221

Series Impedance of Lines

Line Inductance
Self Inductance: L = L int + L ext

Mutual Inductance (between 2 conductors): z 11 1 r I1 z

2

1
12

r I2

z 22

V 1 1' = I 1 z 11 + I 2 z 12
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

222

Series Impedance of Lines

Carsons Line
Carson examined a single overhead conductor whose remote end is connected to earth.

Local Earth
REF

Va
-

+ r

z aa
r Ia

r V =0 d
r Id

z ad

Remote Earth Fictitious Return Conductor

zdd

The current returns through a fictitious earth conductor whose GMR is assumed to be 1 foot (or 1 meter) and is located a distance Dad from the overhead conductor.
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

223

Series Impedance of Lines

The line is described by the following equations:

r r r r r Note: I a = I d , Vd = 0 and Va ' Vd ' = 0.

Subtracting the two equations, we get or

r r r r r Vaa ' = Va Va ' = zaa I a + zad I d r r r r r Vdd ' = Vd Vd ' = zad I a + zdd I d

r r Va = ( zaa + zdd 2 zad ) I a r r zaa Va = zaa I a

= zaa + zdd 2 zad

zaa is the equivalent impedance of the single overhead conductor.

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

224

Series Impedance of Lines

Primitive Impedances:

2s 1) zaa = ra + j La = ra + j k (ln Dsa 2s zdd = rd + j k (ln 1) Dsd 2s zad = j M = j k (ln 1) Dad

k = (2 f )(2 x10 7 ) ohm/meter

ra, rd = resistances of overhead conductor and

fictitious ground wire, respectively Dsa, Dsd = GMRs of overhead conductor and fictitious ground wire, respectively Dad = Distance between the overhead conductor and fictitious ground wire
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

225

Series Impedance of Lines

Earth Resistance: Carson derived an empirical formula for the earth resistance. -3 /mile r = 1.588 x 10 f
d

= 9.869 x 10-4 f

/km

where f is the power frequency in Hz Note : At 60 Hz,

rd = 0.09528

/mile /km

= 0.059214
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

226

Series Impedance of Lines

Geometric Mean Radius
For a solid conductor with radius r, Ds Bundle of Two
d d d
1 4

= r

= 0.78 r

Bundle of Four

Ds = Dsc d

Ds = 1.09 4 Dsc d 3
Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Note: Dsc=GMR of a single conductor

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Training Course in Power System Modeling

227

Series Impedance of Lines

Equivalent Impedance: Substitute the primitive impedances into

D ad 2 zaa = ( ra + rd ) + j k ln Dsa Dsd D ad 2 De = Define Dsd

We get

We get

zaa = zaa + zdd 2 zad

De zaa = (ra + rd ) + jk ln Dsa

/unit length

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

228

Series Impedance of Lines

The quantity De is a function of frequency and earth resistivity.

De = 2160 / f
Return Earth Condition
Sea water Swampy ground Average Damp Earth Dry earth Sandstone

feet

Typical values of De are tabulated below. Resistivity (-m)

0.01-1.0 10-100 100 1000 109

De (ft)
27.9-279 882-2790 2790 8820 8.82x106

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

229

Series Impedance of Lines

Three-Phase Line Impedances
a
+r -

b
+r

Va

Vb +r Vc
-

r Ia r Ib r Ic

z aa zbb z cc z ad zbd

zab z ca b zbc z cd
d c All wires grounded here

REF

r V =0 d
d

r Id

zdd

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

230

Series Impedance of Lines

The voltage equation describing the line is

r r r Vaa ' Va Va ' r r r Vbb ' Vb Vb ' r = r r Vcc ' Vc Vc ' r r r Vdd ' Vd Vd '

zaa zba zca zda

zab zbb zcb zdb

zac zbc zcc zdc

zad zbd zcd zdd

r Ia r Ib r Ic r Id

Since all conductors are grounded at the remote end, we get from KCL or

r r r r I a + Ib + Ic + I d = 0 r r r r I d = ( I a + I b + I c )

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

231

Series Impedance of Lines

We can subtract the voltage equation of the ground conductor from the equations of phases a, b and c. The resulting matrix equation is

r Va r Vb r Vc

zaa zab zac

zab zbb zbc

zac zbc zcc

r Ia r Ib r Ic

V/unit length

Self Impedances:

zaa = zaa 2 zad + zdd zcc = zcc 2 zcd + zdd

zbb = zbb 2zbd + zdd

/unit length /unit length /unit length

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

232

Series Impedance of Lines

Mutual Impedances:

z ab = z ab z ad z bd + z dd z bc = z bc z bd z cd + z dd z ac = z ac z ad z cd + z dd

/unit length /unit length /unit length /unit length

x=a,b,c,d

Primitive Impedances:

2s 1) z xx = rx + j k (ln Dsx
2s z xy = j k (ln 1) Dxy
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

/unit length
xy=ab,bc,ca,ad,bd,cd

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

233

Series Impedance of Lines

Assumptions: 1. Identical phase conductors

Ds = Dsa = Dsb = Dsc

2. Distances of the overhead conductors to the fictitious ground conductor are the same

De = Dad = Dbd = Dcd

We get

De zaa = zbb = zcc = (ra + rd ) + j k ln Ds De /unit length z xy = rd + j k ln Dxy xy=ab,bc,ca

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

234

Series Impedance of Lines

Example: Find the equivalent impedance of the 69-kV line shown. The phase conductors are 4/0 hard-drawn copper, 19 strands which operate at 25oC. The line is 40 miles long. Assume an earth resistivity of 100 -meter.
ra=0.278 /mile @ 25oC Dsc=0.01668 ft @ 60 Hz

10 a b

10 c

De z aa = z bb = z cc = ( ra + rd ) + jk ln Ds 2790 = ( 0.278 + 0.095 ) + j0.121 ln 0.01668 /mile = 0.373 + j1.459 Z aa = 14.93 + j 58.38
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

235

Series Impedance of Lines

z ab = z bc = 0.095 + j0.121 ln 2790 10 = 0.095 + j0.683 Z ab = 3.81 + j 27.33 z ac = 0.095 + j0.121 ln 2790 20 Z ac = 3.81 + j 23.97
We get

/mile

14.93+ j58.38 3.81+ j27.33 3.81+ j23.97 Zabc= 3.81+ j27.33 14.93+ j58.38 3.81+ j27.33 3.81+ j23.97 3.81+ j27.33 14.93+ j58.38
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

236

Series Impedance of Lines

Lines with Overhead Ground Wire r
a b
+r

Va +r z ww z ad Vb +r w r Vc + zbd Vw z cd z wd r V =0 d REF
d r Id

Ia r Ib r Ic r Iw

z aa

zbb z cc

zab z ca zbc

b c w All wires grounded here

zdd
Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Training Course in Power System Modeling

237

Series Impedance of Lines

The primitive voltage equation is

r r Va Va ' r r Vb Vb ' r r Vc Vc ' r 0 Vw ' r 0 Vd '

zaa zba
=

zab zbb zcb z wb zdb

zac zbc zcc zwc zdc

zaw zbw zcw zww zdw

zad zbd zcd zwd zdd

zca zwa zda

r Ia r Ib r Ic r Iw r Id

V/unit length

From KCL,rwe get r or

r r r I a + Ib + Ic + I w + Id = 0 r r r r r I d = ( I a + Ib + Ic + I w )
Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Training Course in Power System Modeling

238

Series Impedance of Lines

It can be shown that

Vw

r Va r Vb r Vc r

zaa zba zca zwa

zab zbb zcb zwb

zac zbc zcc zwc

zaw zbw zcw zww

Iw

r Ia r Ib r Ic r

where

Vw = 0

De zxx = ( rx + rd ) + jk ln Dsx
De z xy = rd + j k ln Dxy
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

xx=aa,bb,cc,ww

xy=ab,ac,aw,bc,bw,cw
Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

239

Series Impedance of Lines

Using Kron Reduction technique,

V1

Z1 Z2 = Z3 Z4 0

I1 I2

where Z1, Z2, Z3 and Z4 are also matrices.

V1 = (Z1 Z2Z4 Z3 )I1

I2 is eliminated and the matrix is reduced to the size of Z1
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

240

Series Impedance of Lines

Eliminating the ground wire current Iw

We get

z aa z Z 1 = ba z ca

z ab z bb z cb

z ac zaw z z bc Z2 = bw zcw z cc
z aw z wb z ab z ww z bw z wb z bb z ww z cw z wb z cb z ww

Z 3 = [zaw zbw zcw ]

Z 4 = z ww
z aw z wc z ac z ww z bw z wc z bc z ww z cw z wc z cc z ww

z abc

z aw z wa z aa z ww z z bw z wa = ba z ww z ca z cw z wa z ww

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

241

Series Impedance of Lines

Example: Find the equivalent impedance of the 69-kV line shown. The phase conductors are the same as in the previous examples. The overhead ground wires have the following characteristics: w
rw=4.0 /mile @ 25oC Dsw=0.001 ft @ 60 Hz

For the ground wire, we get

15 10 a b 10 c

z ww

De = ( rw + rd ) + jk ln Dsw

Z ww

2790 = ( 4.0 + 0.095 ) + j0.121 ln 0.001 = 4.095 + j1.8 /mile = 163.8 + j72
Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Training Course in Power System Modeling

242

Series Impedance of Lines

z aw = z cw
Z aw
2790 = 0.095 + j0.121 ln 18.03 = Z cw = 3.81 + j 24.47

De /mile = rd + jk ln Daw

Z bw = 0.095 + j0.121 ln 2790 /mile 15 Z bw = 3.81 + j 25.36

From a previous example, we got

14.93+ j58.38 3.81+ j27.33 3.81+ j23.97 3.81+ j27.33 14.93+ j58.38 3.81+ j27.33 Z1= 3.81+ j23.97 3.81+ j27.33 14.93+ j58.38
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

243

Series Impedance of Lines

Using the ground wire impedances, we also get

3 .81 + j 24 .47 3 .81 + j 25 .36 T = Z3 Z2 = 3 .81 + j 24 .47

17.5 + j56.11 Zabc = 6.48 + j 25.0 6.38 + j 21.7

Z 4 = 163.8 + j72

Performing Kron reduction, we get

6.48 + j 25.0 17.71+ j55.97 6.48 + j 25.0

6.38 + j 21.7 6.48 + j 25.0 17.5 + j56.11

Note: The self impedances are no longer equal.

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

244

Series Impedance of Lines

Line Transposition
Line transposition is used to make the mutual impedances identical. r Ia Phase c r Pos.1 Ib Phase a r Pos.2 Ic
Pos.3 s1 Section 1
Note:

Phase b s2

s3 Section 3

Section 2

Each phase conductor is made to occupy all possible positions.

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Training Course in Power System Modeling

245

Series Impedance of Lines

Voltage Equations for Each r V a Z 11 1 r V = Z 21 1 For Section 1 rb V c Z 31 1 r V c Z 11 2 r For Section 2 V a = Z 21 2 r V b Z 31 2 r V b Z 11 3 r For Section 3 V c = Z 21 3 r V a Z 31 3
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Section r Z 12 1 Z 13 1 I a r I Z 22 1 Z 23 1 b r Z 32 1 Z 33 1 I c r Z 12 2 Z 13 2 I c r I Z 22 2 Z 23 2 a r Ib Z 32 2 Z 33 2 r Z 12 3 Z 13 3 I b r I Z 22 3 Z 23 3 c r I a Z 32 3 Z 33 3

volts

volts

volts

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

246

Series Impedance of Lines

The total Voltage Drop at phases a, b, and c are:

r r Va = ( Z 111 + Z 22 2 + Z 33 3 )I a r + ( Z 12 1 + Z 23 2 + Z 313 )I b r + ( Z 13 1 + Z 21 2 + Z 32 3 )I c r r Vb = ( Z 211 + Z 32 2 + Z 13 3 )I a r + ( Z 22 1 + Z 33 2 + Z 11 3 )I b r + ( Z 23 1 + Z 31 2 + Z 12 3 )I c r r Vc = ( Z 311 + Z 12 2 + Z 23 3 )I a r + ( Z 32 1 + Z 13 2 + Z 213 )I b r + ( Z 33 1 + Z 11 2 + Z 22 3 )I c

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

247

Series Impedance of Lines

Define f1, f2 and f3 as as the ratios of s1, s2 and s3 to the total length s, respectively. We get r r

Va = ( f 1 Z 11 + f 2 Z 22 + f 3 Z 33 )I a r
r Vb r Vc

r + ( f 1 Z 13 + f 2 Z 21 + fr3 Z 32 )I c = ( f 1 Z 21 + f 2 Z 32 + f 3 Z 13 )I a r + ( f 1 Z 22 + f 2 Z 33 + f 3 Z 11 )I b r + ( f 1 Z 23 + f 2 Z 31 + f 3 Z 12 )I c r = ( f 1 Z 31 + f 2 Z 12 + f 3 Z 23 )I a r + ( f 1 Z 32 + f 2 Z 13 + f 3 Z 21 )I b r + ( f 1 Z 33 + f 2 Z 11 + f 3 Z 22 )I c

+ ( f 1 Z 12 + f 2 Z 23 + f 3 Z 31 )I b

s1 f1 = s s2 f2 = s s3 f3 = s

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

248

Series Impedance of Lines

Define:

Z k 1 = f 1 Z 12 + f 2 Z 23 + f 3 Z 13 Z k 2 = f 1 Z 13 + f 2 Z 12 + f 3 Z 23 Z k 3 = f 1 Z 23 + f 2 Z 13 + f 3 Z 12 Z s = Z 11 = Z 22 = Z 33
r V a Z s r Vb = Z k 1 r Vc Z k 2

Substitution gives

Z k1 Zs Zk3

r Z k 2 I a r I Z k 3 b Volts r Z s I c
Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Training Course in Power System Modeling

249

Series Impedance of Lines

It can be shown that

De Z s = ( ra + rd )s + jks ln Ds De De De Z k 1 = rd s + jks f 1ln + f 2 ln + f 3 ln D12 D23 D31 Zk2 Z k3

De De De = rd s + jks f 1ln + f 2 ln + f 3 ln D31 D12 D23 De De De = rd s + jks f 1ln + f 2 ln + f 3 ln D23 D31 D12
Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Training Course in Power System Modeling

250

Series Impedance of Lines

Example: Find the equivalent impedance of the 69-kV line shown. The phase conductors are 4/0 hard-drawn copper, 19 strands which operate at 25oC. The line is 40 miles long. Assume s1=8 miles, s2=12 miles and s3=20 miles.
ra=0.278 /mile @ 25oC Dsc=0.01668 ft @ 60 Hz

10 a b

10 c

Without the transposition,

Section 1

14.93 + j58.38 3.81+ j27.33 3.81+ j23.97 Zabc = 3.81+ j27.33 14.93 + j58.38 3.81+ j27.33 3.81+ j23.97 3.81+ j27.33 14.93 + j58.38
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

251

Series Impedance of Lines

Solving for the mutual impedances, we get

Z k 1 = f 1 Z 12 + f 2 Z 23 + f 3 Z 13 = 0.2( 3.81 + j 27.33 ) + 0.3( 3.81 + j 27.33 ) + 0.5( 3.81 + j 23.97 ) = 3.81 + j 25.65
Similarly, we get

Z k 2 = f 1 Z 13 + f 2 Z 12 + f 3 Z 23 Z k 3 = f 1 Z 23 + f 2 Z 13 + f 3 Z 12
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

= 3.81 + j 26.66 = 3.81 + j 26.32

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

252

Series Impedance of Lines

The impedance matrix of the transposed line is

14.93+ j58.38 3.81+ j25.65 3.81+ j26.66 Zabc= 3.81+ j25.65 14.93+ j58.38 3.81+ j26.32 3.81+ j26.66 3.81+ j26.32 14.93+ j58.38
For comparison, the impedance matrix of the untransposed line is

14.93+ j58.38 3.81+ j27.33 3.81+ j23.97 Zabc= 3.81+ j27.33 14.93+ j58.38 3.81+ j27.33 3.81+ j23.97 3.81+ j27.33 14.93+ j58.38
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

253

Series Impedance of Lines

Completely Transposed Line
ra s Vb = Z m r Vc Z m where
If s1=s2=s3, the line is completely transposed. We r r get V Z Z Z I
m

Zs Zm

ra I Z m b r Volts Z s I c
m

De Z s = ( ra + rd )s + jks ln Ds
Z m = ( Z 12 + Z 23 + Z 13 )
1 3
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Ds, Dm = GMR and GMD, respectively

De = rd s + jks ln Dm

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

254

Series Impedance of Lines

Geometric Mean Distance (GMD)
Typical three-phase line configurations
D12 D31 D12 D31 D23 D31 D23 D23 D12
D
31

23

D12

Dm = 3 D12D23D31
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

255

Series Impedance of Lines

Example: For the same line assume a complete transposition cycle.
10 10

The GMD is

Dm = 3 10( 10 )( 20 ) = 12.6 feet

Z m = 3.81 + j 26.21

We get the average of the mutual impedances. The impedance of the transposed line is

14.93+ j58.38 3.81+ j26.21 3.81+ j26.21 Zabc= 3.81+ j26.21 14.93+ j58.38 3.81+ j26.21 3.81+ j26.21 3.81+ j26.21 14.93+ j58.38
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

256

Series Impedance of Lines

Phase to Sequence Impedances
Consider a transmission line that is described by the following voltage equation:

or

r Va Z aa r Vb = Z ab r Vc Z ac

Z ab Z bb Z bc

r r Vabc = Z abc I abc

and

r Z ac I a r I Z bc b r Z cc I c

volts

From symmetrical components, we have

r r Vabc = AV012

r r I abc = AI 012

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

257

Series Impedance of Lines

Substitution gives or

r r AV012 = Z abc AI 012 r r 1 V 012 = A Z abc A I 012

which implies that

Z 012 = A 1 Z abc A
Performing the multiplication, we get

Z 0 Z s 0 + 2 Z m0 Z = Z Z m1 1 s1 Z 2 Z s 2 Z m 2

Z s2 Z m2 Z s0 Z m0 Z s 1 + 2 Z m1

Z s 1 Z m1 Z s 2 + 2Z m 2 Z s 0 Z m0

Note: Z012 is not symmetric.

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

258

Series Impedance of Lines

It can be shown that
1 Z s 0 = 3 ( Z aa + Z bb + Z cc ) 1 Z s 1 = 3 ( Z aa + aZ bb + a 2 Z cc ) 1 Z s 2 = 3 ( Z aa + a 2 Z bb + aZ cc )

Z m 0 = 1 ( Z ab + Z bc + Z ca ) 3 Z m 1 = 1 ( a 2 Z ab + Z bc + aZ ca ) 3
1 Z m 2 = 3 ( aZ ab + Z bc + a 2 Z ca )
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

259

Series Impedance of Lines

If the line is completely transposed,

Z s0 = Z s Z s1 = Z s 2 = 0
Z 0 Z s + 2 Z m Z = 0 1 Z 2 0

Z m0 = Z m

Z m1 = Z m 2 = 0
0 Zs Zm 0 0 0 Zs Zm

The sequence impedance matrix reduces to

Note: The sequence impedances are completely decoupled.

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

260

Series Impedance of Lines

For a completely transposed line, the equation in the sequence domain is r r

V a0 Z 0 r V a1 = 0 r 0 Va2

0 Z1 0

0 I a0 r I 0 a1 r Z 2 I a2

where

Dm Z 1 = Z 2 = ra s + jks ln Ds Z 0 = ra s + 3rd s + jks ln De

3 2

Ds Dm

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

261

Series Impedance of Lines

Example: For the same line and assuming a complete transposition cycle, find the sequence impedances of the line.

10

10

In the previous example, we got

Z s = 14.93 + j 58.38

Z m = 3.81 + j 26.21
The sequence impedances are

Z 0 = Z s + 2 Z m = 22.55 + j110.80 Z 1 = Z 2 = Z s Z m = 11.12 + j 32.17

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

262

Shunt Capacitance of Lines

Caw b Cab a Cbg Ccg Cac c Cag Cbw Cbc Ccw Cwg Self-capacitance Mutual-capacitance w

Capacitance of Three Phase Lines

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

263

Shunt Capacitance of Lines

Voltage Due to Charged Conductor
Consider two points P1 and P2 which are located at distances D1 and D2 from the center of the conductor. The voltage drop from P1 to P2 is Electric charge q
+

D1

P1 D2 P2

v 12

D2 = ln 2 D1 q

Volts

r a

r r D = E=

q 2 x

ar

Permitivity of medium Electric Field of a Long Conductor

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Training Course in Power System Modeling

264

Shunt Capacitance of Lines

Capacitance of a Two-Wire Line
The capacitance between two conductors is defined as the charge on the conductors per unit of potential difference between them. Consider the two cylindrical conductors shown.
qa qb

D Due to charge qa, we get the voltage drop vab.

v ab

qa D ln = 2 ra
Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Training Course in Power System Modeling

265

Shunt Capacitance of Lines

Due to charge qb, we also get the voltage drop vba.

v ba

qb D ln = 2 rb

or

v ab

qb qb rb D ln = = ln 2 rb 2 D

Applying superposition, we get the total voltage drop from charge qa to charge qb.

v ab

qa rb qb D ln + = ln 2 ra 2 D
qa D2 ln = 2 ra rb
Volts
Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Since qa+qb=0, we get

v ab

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Training Course in Power System Modeling

266

Shunt Capacitance of Lines

Self-Capacitance
In general, ra=rb. We get

v ab

D = ln r

qa

Volts

The capacitance between conductors is qa = C ab = Farad/meter D Vab ln r The capacitance to neutral is

C an = C bn = 2C ab

2 = D ln r

Farad/meter

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

267

Shunt Capacitance of Lines

Mutual Capacitance
In capacitance calculations, the earth is assumed as a perfectly conducting plane. The electric field that results is the same if an image conductor is used for every conductor above ground.
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration +qa

Dab

+qb

Daw Dac
+qc

+qw

Haa Hab

Hac

Haw
-qc -qw

-qa

-qb

Mirror Conductors below ground

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

268

Shunt Capacitance of Lines

The voltage drop from conductor a to ground is
1 va = 2 vaa' H aa H ab H an 1 = ( q a ln + qb ln + ... + q n ln 4 ra Dab Dan ra Dab Dan q a ln qb ln ... q n ln ) H ab H an H aa

Combining common terms, we get

H aa H ab H an ( q a ln + qb ln + ... + q n ln ) va = Dab Dan 2 ra 1

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

269

Shunt Capacitance of Lines

In general, for the kth overhead conductor

H bk H kk H ak ( q a ln vk = + qb ln + ... + q k ln Dak Dbk rk 2 H nk + ... + q n ln ) Dnk 1

Pab Pbb M Pnb Pac Pbc M Pnc ... Pan q a H kk 1 ln q Pkk = ... Pbn b 2 rk H kj 1 M M M Pkj = 2 ln D kj ... Pnn q n
Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Using matrix notation, we get

v a Paa v P b = ba M M v n Pna

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Training Course in Power System Modeling

270

Shunt Capacitance of Lines

[v ] = [P ][q ]
Since, q = Cv, ,then

[C ] = [P ]
C ac Cbc M C nc

Inversion of matrix P gives

+ C aa C ba C= M C na

C ab + Cbb M C nb

... C an ... Cbn M M ... + C nn

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

271

Shunt Capacitance of Lines

The Shunt Admittance is

Ybus

+ j C aa jC ba = j C na

j C ab + jC bb j C nb

j C ac j C bc j C nc

... jC an ... j C bn ... + j C nn

The difference between the magnitude of a diagonal element and its associated off-diagonal elements is the capacitance to ground. For example, the capacitance from a to ground is

C ag = C aa C ab C ac ... C an

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

272

Shunt Capacitance of Lines

Capacitance of a Transposed Line
Pos.1 Pos.2 Pos.3

qa qb qc
1 3

Phase c Phase a Phase b

1 3

1 3

Section 1

Section 2

Section 3

The capacitance of phase a to neutral is

C an = C bn = C cn

qa 2 = = Dm v an ln r

Farad/meter, to neutral

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

273

Shunt Capacitance of Lines

Capacitive Reactance 1 xc = 2fC

Dm 2.862 9 x 10 ln xc = f r Dm 1.779 6 xc = x 10 ln f r

-meter, to neutral -mile, to neutral

Note: To get the total capacitive reactance, divide xc by the total length of the line.
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

274

Shunt Capacitance of Lines

Sequence Capacitance

r r r r I abc = jCabcVabc I abc = YabcVabc r r r r From Vabc = AV012 and I abc = YabcVabc, we get r r A I 012 = j C abc A V012 r r or 1 I 012 = jA Cabc AV012
Thus, we have

Using matrix notation, we have

C012 = A 1C abc A
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

275

Shunt Capacitance of Lines

For a completely transposed line,

Cs0 = Caa = Cbb = Ccc C m 0 = C ab = C bc = C ac

Substitution gives

C012 or

0 0 ( Cs0 2Cm0 ) = 0 ( Cs0 + Cm0 ) 0 0 0 ( Cs0 + Cm0 )

C0 = Cs0 2Cm0 C1 = C2 = Cs0 + Cm0
Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Training Course in Power System Modeling

276

Shunt Capacitance of Lines

Example: Determine the phase and sequence capacitances of the transmission line shown. The phase conductors are 477 MCM ACSR 26/7 whose radius is 0.0357 ft. The line is 50 miles long and is completely transposed. 14 14 Calculate distances a b c Haa=Hbb=Hcc=80 ft

Hab=Hbc=81.2 ft Hac=84.8 ft Find the P matrix

40

H aa Paa = Pbb = Pcc = ln 2 0 ra 1

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Training Course in Power System Modeling

277

Shunt Capacitance of Lines

1 x 10 -9 0 = For air, 36
Substitution gives
9

Farad/meter

Similarly, we get

80 Paa = 18 x 10 ln 0.0357 = 138.86 x 10 9 Meter/Farad = 86.29 x 10 6 Mile/Farad

H ab Pab = Pbc = ln 2 0 Dab = 19.66 x 10 6 Mile/Farad 1

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Training Course in Power System Modeling

278

Shunt Capacitance of Lines

The P matrix can be shown to be

86.29 19.66 12.39 P = 19.66 86.29 19.66 x 106 mi/F 12.39 19.66 86.29
Using matrix inversion, we get the C matrix.

12.34 2.54 1.19 2.54 12.75 2.54 x 10-9 F/mi C= 1.19 2.54 12.34
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

279

Shunt Capacitance of Lines

For 50 miles, we get C=

The capacitances to ground are

6.17 1.27 1.27 6.38 0.60 1.27

0.60 1.27 6.17

x 10-7 F

Cag = Caa Cab Cac = 0.43 F Cbg = Cbb Cab Cbc = 0.38 F Ccg = Ccc Cbc Cac = 0.43 F
Since the line is transposed,

Cg0 = 1 (Cag + Cbg + Ccg ) = 0.41 F 3

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

280

Shunt Capacitance of Lines

The self- and mutual capacitances are

C s0 = 1 ( C aa + Cbb + Ccc ) = 0.62 F 3 C m0 = 1 ( C ab + Cbc + C ca ) = 0.105 F 3

The sequence capacitances are

C0 = C s0 2C m0
= 0.41 F
a Cg0

Cm0

b Cm0 Cm0 c

C1 = C 2 = C s 0 + C m0
= 0.725 F
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Cg0

Cg0

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

281

Nodal Admittance Matrix Model

[Z]

IiABC ViABC
Yaa Yba Yca Yab Ybb Ycb Yac

Zaa Zba Zca Ybc [Y]/2 Ycc

Zab Zbb Zcb

Zac Zbc Zcc Yaa [Y]/2 Yba Yca Yab Ybb Ycb

Ikabc Vkabc
Yac Ybc Ycc

[IiABC] [Ik
abc]

[Z]-1+[Y]/2 -[Z]-1 6x6

-[Z]-1 [Z]-1+[Y]/2

[ViABC] [Vkabc] 6x1

6x1

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

282

Nodal Admittance Matrix Model

3
Example

1 B

3 C 4

A Phase Conductor 336,400 26/7 ACSR Neutral Conductor 4/0 6/1 ACSR Length: 300 ft.

24

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

283

Data Requirements
Phasing Configuration System Grounding Type Length Phase Conductor Type, Size & Strands Ground/Neutral Wire Type, Size & Strands Conductor Spacing Conductor Height Earth Resistivity
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

284

Distribution Line Models

Dca Dab Dbc a b c Dca c Dbc a Dca Hg Ha Hc a b Dab b Dab Dbc c Hb

Ha

Hb

Hc

Hg

Hg

Hc Hb Ha

Horizontal One Ground Wire (a)

Vertical One Ground Wire (b)

Triangular One Ground Wire (c)

Configuration, Spacing, and Height (Subtransmission Lines)

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

285

Distribution Line Models

Dgg Dgg Dgg

D12 Circuit No. 1 Horizontal Two Ground Wires (d) Triangular Two Ground Wires (e) Circuit No. 2

Parallel Two Ground Wires (f)

Line Spacing (Ground Wires)

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

286

Distribution Line Models

A B C B

A B C N

B C A N

C A B N

3-Phase (ABC)
A B B

3-Phase (BCA) A B N N N
A

3-Phase (CAB) A B A N Hg

Note:
N Consider the grounded neutral as Ground Conductor for Hg

V-Phase (AB)

V-Phase (BA)

1-Phase (A)

Configuration, Spacing, and Height (Distribution Lines)

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Training Course in Power System Modeling

287

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering