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Module 3: Integumentary System

Welcome to Module three where we are going to explore the integumentary
system! Last week despite the small topic, was a huge module, but formed
the basis of every living thing. This week we look at the largest organ in the
body. The cells that make up the skin, along with the sweat and oil glands,
hairs, and nails make up a complex organ serving several functions including
protection. First though, we need to have a brief overview on epithelial and
connective Tissue.

Learning objectives
Tissue

● List several structural and functional characteristics of epithelial tissue

● Name, classify,and describe the various types of epithelia, and indicate

their chief functions(s) and locations(s)

● Define gland

● Differentiate between exocrine and endocrine glands, and multicellular

and unicellular glands

● Describe how multicellular exocrine glands are classified structurally

and functionally

● Indicate common characteristics of connective tissue, and list and

describe its structural elements

● Describe the types of connective tissue found in the body, and indicate
their characteristic functions

Integumentary system

● List the two layers of skin and briefly describe subcutaneous tissue

● Name the tissue type composing the epidermis

● List the major layers of the epidermis and describe the functions of
each layer
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● Name the tissue types composing the dermis. List its major layers and
describe the functions of each layer

● Describe the factors that normally contribute to skin colour

● Briefly describe how changes in skin colour may be used as clinical

signs of certain disease states

● Describe how the skin accomplishes at least five different functions

● List the parts of hair follicle and explain the function of each part

● Describe the functional relationship of arrector pili muscles to the hair

follicles

● Name the regions of a hair and explain the basis of hair colour.

● Describe the distribution, growth, replacement, and changing nature of

hair during the lifespan

● Describe the structure of nails

● Compare the structure and locations of sweat and oil glands, also
compare the composition and functions of their secretions

● Compare and contrast eccrine and apocrine glands

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Tissue
Overview
In the human body, individual body cells are specialised, with each cell type
performing specific functions that help maintain homeostasis and benefit the
body as a whole. Cell specialization allows the body to function in
sophisticated ways, but it has its hazards. When a particular group of cells is
indispensable, its injury or loss can disable or even destroy the body.

These groups of cells that are similar in structure and perform a common or
related function are called tissues.

There are four primary tissue types within the body:

● Epithelial – covers

● Connective – supports

● Muscle – moves

● Nervous – controls
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3.1.1 Epithelial tissue

Epithelial tissue is a sheet of cells that covers a body surface or lines a body
cavity. There are two forms occurring in the body:

● Covering and lining epithelium: forms the outer layer of the skin, dips
into and

● forms the open cavities of the urogenital, digestive, and respiratory

systems: and covers the walls and organs of the closed ventral body
cavity

● Glandular epithelium: fashions the glands of the body

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In its role as a boundary forming tissue, epithelium accomplishes many

functions:

● Protection

● Absorption

● Filtration

● Excretion

● Secretion

● Sensory reception

Special characteristics of epithelium

Polarity

Epithelia exhibit apical- basal polarity, that is, they have two surfaces
that differ in structure and function
● Apical surface: not attached to surrounding tissue, exposed to either

the outside of the body or the cavity of an organ

● Some apical surfaces are smooth and slick

● Most have microvilli increasing the exposed surface area

● Basal surface: attached to underlying connective tissue

● The basal lamina lies adjacent to this and consists of glycoproteins

secreted by the epithelial cells

Specialised contacts
Except for glandular epithelia, epithelial cells fit closely together to form
continuous sheets. The sides of adjacent cells are tied together by tight
junctions and desmosomes.

Supported by connective tissue

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All epithelial sheets rest upon and are supported by connective tissue. In
between the epithelial and connective tissues is a basement membrane
reinforcing the epithelial sheet. The basement membrane consists of two
layers, a basal lamina and a reticular lamina.

Avascular but Innervated

Epithelium contains no blood vessels but is supplied by nerve fibres. They get
their nourishment by substances diffusing from blood vessels in the
underlying connective tissue.

Regeneration
High regeneration capacity. If and when apical-basal polarity and lateral
contacts are destroyed, epithelial cells begin to reproduce rapidly. As long as
they are receiving adequate nutrition, they can replace lost cells.

Classification of epithelial tissue

The name of each epithelium has two parts:

● The first name indicates the number of cell layers present:

1） Simple epithelia: single cell layer – found where absorption,

secretion and filtration occur, and a thin barrier is desirable
2） Stratified epithelia: two or more cell layers stacked on top of
each other – common in areas of high abrasion when
protection is important

● The second name describes the shape of the cell:

1） Squamous cells: flattened and scale like

2） Cuboidal cells: boxlike
3） Columnar cells: tall and column shaped
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The following figures give a good overview of the different types of epithelial
cells:
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Glandular Epithelia

A gland consists of one or more cells that make and secrete a particular
product. Secretion is an active process where glandular cells obtain needed
substances from the blood and transform them chemically into a product that
is then discharged from the cell.

Glands are classified according to two sets of traits:

● Where they release their product:

1） Endocrine: internally secreting

2） Exocrine: externally secreting

● Number of cells:

1） Unicellular: one-celled, scattered within epithelial sheets

2） Multicellular: many-celled, formed by inward growth of an
epithelial sheet into the underlying connective tissue

Endocrine glands
Often called ductless glands as they lose their ducts during development:

● Produce hormones which are chemical messengers that they secrete

by exocytosis directly into the extracellular space
1） Hormones enter the blood or lymphatic fluid and travel to
specific target organs
2） Structurally diverse
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3） Secretions are also varied

4） Not all arise from epithelial tissue

Exocrine glands
All exocrine glands secrete their products onto body surfaces or into body
cavities:

● Unicellular – directly

● Multicellular – via an epithelium walled duct that transports the

secretion to the surface

Exocrine glands are diverse and include:

● Liver

● Pancreas

● Mucous, sweat, oil and salivary glands; and many others

Unicellular exocrine glands

● Mucous cells and goblet cells

● Found in epithelial linings of intestinal and respiratory tracts

● Produce mucin that dissolves with water when secreted

1） This complex glycoprotein when dissolved forms mucous,

a slimy coating that protects and lubricates surfaces
2） In goblet cells accumulating mucin distends the top of the
cell making the cells look like a glass with a stem, this distention doesn’t
occur in mucous cells
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Multicellular exocrine glands

● Structurally more complex

● Two basic parts:

1) An epithelium derived duct

2) Secretory derived unit (acinus) consisting of secretory cells
this is surrounded by supportive connective tissue that supplied it with blood
vessels and nerve fibres, and forms a fibrous capsule that extends into the
gland and divides it into lobes
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3.1.2 Connective tissue

While connective tissue is prevalent in the body, the amount in the

different organs varies. There are four main classes of connective
tissue:
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● Connective tissue proper

● Cartilage

● Bone

● Blood

Its major functions include:

● Binding and supporting

● Protecting

● Insulating

● Storing reserve fuel

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● Transporting substances within the body

Common characteristics of connective tissue

There are two characteristics that connective tissues share that

separate them from other tissues:
● Extracellular matrix:

1) separates the living cells of the tissue

2) allows the tissue to bear weight, withstand tension, and
endure abuse

● Common origin:

1) All connective tissues arise from mesenchyme - an

embryonic tissue

One noticeable difference is the blood vessel supply:

● Cartilage is avascular

● Dense connective tissue is poorly vascular

● Other types have a rich supply of blood vessels

Structural components of connective tissue

Connective tissues have three main components and the composition

and arrangement of these components vary tremendously, creating a
diversity of connective tissues, each adapted to perform a specific
function in the body.

These components are:

● Ground substance

● Fibres

● Cells

Ground substance

The unstructured material that fills the space between the cells and contains
the fibres. It has three components:
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● Interstitial fluid – acts as a molecular sieve, nutrients and other

dissolved substances can diffuse between the blood capillaries and the
cells. The fibres embedded in the ground substance make it less
pliable and hinder diffusion

● Cell adhesion proteins – serve mainly as a connective tissue glue that

allows connective tissue cells to attach to the extracellular matrix

● Proteoglycans - consist of a protein core to which polysaccharides

called glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) are attached. These GAGs trap
water and form a substance that varies from a fluid to a viscous
gel. The more GAGs the more viscous the ground substance

Connective tissue fibres

The fibres of connective tissue are proteins that provide support. There
are three types:
● Collagen

● Elastic

● Reticular

Connective tissue cells

Each class of connective tissue has a resident cell type that exists in
both immature (-blast) and mature (-cyte) forms. Eg:

● Connective tissue proper: Fibroblasts become fibrocytes

● Cartilage: Chondroblasts become chondrocytes

● Bone: osteoblasts become osteocytes

● Blood is an exception to this rule and we discuss this in a later module

Connective tissue is also home to other cell types:

● Adipocytes: adipose or fat cells – store energy as fat

● White blood cells: leukocytes, concerned with tissue response to injury

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● Mast cells: detect foreign microorganisms and initiate local

inflammatory responses against them. Cytoplasm contains secretory
granules with chemicals that mediate inflammation, especially in severe
allergies. These include:
1) Heparin
2) Histamine
3) Proteases
4) Other enzymes

● Macrophages: devour broad range of foreign materials, dispose of

dead tissue cells and central in the immune system

Types of connective tissue

The following summary tables should help explain the different types of
connective tissue:
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3.2.1 The skins layers

The skin is composed of two distinct layers and varies in thickness in different
parts of the body.

● Epidermis: composed of epithelial cells and is the outermost protective

shield of the body

● Dermis: tough underlying layer composed of dense connective tissue

1） Vascularised to allow nutrients to reach the epidermis by

diffusing through the tissue fluid from blood vessels in the
dermis

● Subcutaneous tissue: also known as the hypodermis or superficial

fascia, is not part of the skin, but shares some of the skin’s protective
functions
1） Consists mainly of adipose tissue with some connective tissue
Anchors the skin to the underlying structures – mainly muscle, but
loosely enough that the skin can slide relatively freely
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2） Acts as a shock absorber

3） Acts as an insulator reducing heat loss

3.2.2 The epidermis

There are four distinct cell types and four to five district layers that
make up the epidermis:
● Keratinocytes

● Melanocytes

● Dendritic cells

● Tactile epithelial cells

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Cells of the epidermis

Keratinocytes
● Most epidermal cells are keratinocytes

● The chief role is to produce keratin, the fibrous protein that helps give
the epidermis its protective properties

● Tied together by desmosomes for strength and in some layers, by tight

junctions to hide movement of water between cells(remember from last
week?).

● Found in the deepest layer of the epidermis

● Undergo almost continuous mitosis

● Lose millions of dead keratinocytes everyday through rubbing, giving

us a new epidermis every 25- 45 days

● Persistent friction causes a thickening of the epidermis called a callus.

Melanocytes
● Spider shaped cells that synthesise the pigment melanin

● Found in the deepest layer of the epidermis

● Melanin is made in membrane bound granules called melanosomes,

transferred through the cell processes to nearby keratinocytes.

● Melanin then clusters on the superficial side of the keratinocyte nucleus

forming a pigment shield protecting the nucleus from the damaging
effects of Ultraviolet (UV) radiation in sunlight

● More melanin in keratinocytes than in melanocytes.

Dendritic cells (Langerhans cells)

● These star shaped cells arise from bone marrow and migrate to the
epidermis

● They ingest foreign substances and are key activators of the immune
system
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● Their slender processes extend among the surrounding keratinocytes,

forming a more or less continuous network.

Tactile epithelial cells (Merkel cells)

● These cells are occasionally present at the epidermal- dermal junction

● Intimately associated with a disc like sensory nerve ending

● Functions as a sensory receptor for touch

Layers of the epidermis

Variation in epidermal thickness determines if the epidermis is thick or thin.

In thick epidermis which covers areas subject to abrasion such as palms,

fingertips, soles of the feet, the epidermis consists of fiver layers, or strata.
Going from deep to superficial these are:

● Stratum basale

● Stratum spinosum
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● Stratum granulosum

● Stratum lucidum

● Stratum corneum

In thin epidermis, which covers the rest of the body, the stratum lucidum
appears to be absent.

Stratum basale (basal layer)

● Also called the stratum germinativum or germinating layer

● Deepest epidermal layer

● Attached to the underlying dermis along a wavy borderline

● Consists of a single row of stem cells

Stratum spinosum (prickly layer)

● Several cell layers thick

● The keratinocytes in this layer appear to have spines which are

artifacts created when the cells shrink while holding fast to the
desmosome

● Cells in this layer contain thick bundles of intermediate filaments

consisting of a tension resisting protein pre-keratin which are anchored
to the desmosomes

● Dendritic cells are scattered among the keratinocytes and are most
abundant in this layer

Stratum granulosum (granular layer)

● This layer consists of 1 – 5 cell layers in which keratinocyte

appearance changes drastically and the process of keratinization
begins. The cells flatten, nuclei and organelles begin to disintegrate,
and they accumulate two types of granules:
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1） Keratohyalin - help to form keratin in the upper layers

2） Lamellar – contain a water-resistant glycolipid that is
secreted
into the extracellular space. Along with tight junctions, plays a
major part in slowing water loss across the epidermis

● Above this layer, the epidermal cells are too far from the dermal
capillaries to survive and the glycolipids coating their external surfaces
cut them off from nutrients causing them to die, this is a normal
sequence of events.

Stratum lucidum (clear layer)

● Only found in thick epidermis

● Thin translucent band

● Consists of a few rows of flat dead keratinocytes

Stratum corneum (horny layer)

● Outermost epidermal layer

● 20 – 30 cell layers thick

● Accounts for up to ¾ of the epidermal thickness

● Keratin and proteins that accumulate just inside the plasma membrane
of cells in this layer protect the skin against abrasion and penetration

● The glycolipid between cells helps keep it nearly waterproof

● The cells shed regularly

3.2.3 The dermis

The dermis is made up of strong, flexible connective tissue and its cells are
those found in any connective tissue:
● Fibroblasts

● Macrophages
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● Occasional mast cells and white blood cells

It is a semifluid matrix embedded with fibres and binds the entire body
together like a body stocking. It has two layers that lie next to one another
along and indistinct boundary:
● Papillary

● Reticular

Papillary dermis
● Thin, superficial layer made of areolar connective tissue – fine

interlacing collagen and elastic fibres form a loosely woven mat with
many small blood vessels
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● Dermal papillae indent the overlying epidermis. These contain capillary

loops or pain, or touch receptors called tactile corpuscles or Meissner’s
corpuscles

● Friction ridges which are formed by these papillae lying over dermal
ridges causing the epidermis to form epidermal ridges may enhance
our ability to grip certain surfaces as well as contribute to our sense of
touch.

Reticular dermis
● Deeper layer – accounts for 80% thickness of the dermis

● Coarse, dense irregular connective tissue

● Dermal vascular plexus – network of blood vessels that nourishes this

layer lies between it and the subcutaneous tissue

● Named for its network of collagen fibres

1） Run parallel to skin, separations or less dense regions,

form cleavage (tension) lines in the skin. When an incision is made parallel
to these lines the skin gaps less and heals more readily.
2） These collagen fibres give skin strength and resiliency
while elastic fibres provide the stretch recoil properties of the skin.

● Flexure lines are dermal folds that occur at or near joints where the
dermis is tightly secured to deeper structures.
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3.2.4 Skin colour

Human skin comes in different colours, the distribution of those colours isn’t
random. Populations of darker skinned people tend to be found nearer the
equator where greater protection from the sun is needed, and those with
lightest skin are found nearest the poles. Since all humans have the same
relative number of melanocytes, the differences in skin colouring reflect the
kind and amount of melanin made and retained.

Melanin
● Melanin is a polymer made of an amino acid called tyrosine, it has two

forms that range in colour from reddish yellow to brownish black.

● Melanocytes of black and brown skin people produce many more and
much darker melanosomes than those of fair skinned people and their
keratinocytes retain it longer

● Prolonged sun exposure causes a substantial melanin build up helping

to protect the DNA of skin cells from UV radiation by absorbing the rays
and dissipating the energy as heat.
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1The initial signal for speeding up melanin synthesis is a faster repair rate of DNA that has su

Carotene
● Yellow to orange pigment found in certain plant products

● Tents to accumulate in the stratum corneum and in the fat of the

subcutaneous tissue

● Can be converted to vitamin A in the body which is essential for normal

vision as well as for epidermal health

Haemoglobin
● The pinkish hue of fair skin reflects the crimson colour of the

oxygenated pigment haemoglobin in the red blood cells circulating

through the dermal capillaries.

● Due to the limited amount of melanin in fair skinned people, the

epidermis is nearly transparent and allows haemoglobins colour to
show through.

Along with the skin, the integumentary system includes a number of

associated structures. Each plays a unique role in maintaining body
homeostasis. These skin appendages are:

● Hair and hair follicles

● Nails

● Sweat glands

● Sebaceous (oil) glands

3.2.5 The skin as a barrier

The skin and its appendages perform a variety of functions including:
● Protection
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● Body temperature regulation

● Cutaneous sensation

● Metabolic functions

● Blood reservoir

● Excretion

Protection

The skin is our most vulnerable organ. Constitutes at least 3 types of barriers:
● Chemical: Include skin secretions and melanin

● Physical: Continuity of skin and hardness of keratinised cells

● Biological: Dendritic cells of the epidermis and macrophages in the

dermis

Body temperature regulation

The body works best when its temperature remains within homeostatic limits.
Bodies need to get rid of the heat generated by internal reactions.
● Insensible perspiration: sweat gland secretion of approx. 500ml per day

under normal resting conditions, as long as the environmental

temperature is below 31-32degC

● Sensible perspiration: loss of up to 12L of body water in a day due to

an increase in body temperature – the nervous system stimulates
dermal blood vessels to dilate and the sweat glands into vigorous
activity. Evaporation of sweat from the skin surface dissipates body
heat and efficiently cools the body preventing overheating.

Cutaneous sensation
Exteroceptors are cutaneous sensory receptors which are part of the nervous
system, they respond to stimuli arising outside the body.

Metabolic functions
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Skin cells make several biologically important proteins, make chemical

conversions that supplements those of the liver, and when exposed to
sunlight create a vitamin D precursor.

Blood reservoir
The dermal blood supply holds 5% of the body’s blood volume. When other
organs need a greater blood supply, the nervous system constricts the
dermal blood supply, shunting this blood back into general circulation,
making it available to other organs

Excretion
The elimination of nitrogen containing wastes, water and salt occurs through
sweat.

3.3.1 Structure of a hair

3.3 Hair
Our body is covered with millions of sparse body hairs except for the palms,
soles, lips, nipples and parts of the external genitalia. It has several main
functions:
● On the skin – senses insects

● On the scalp – guards against physical trauma, heat loss and sunlight

● Eyelashes – shield the eyes

● Nose hairs – filter large particles like lint and insects

The hair and their follicles form complex structural units.

3.3.1 Structure of a hair

Hairs or pili are flexible strands produced by the hair follicles and consist
largely of dead, keratinised cells. The hard keratin that makes up hair has two
advantages over that found in epidermal cells:
● It is tougher and more durable

● Individual cells do not flake off

There are two main parts to the hair:

● The root – the part embedded in the skin

● The shaft – the part the projects above the skin's surface

1） Flat and ribbonlike – hair is kinky

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2） Oval – hair is silky and wavy

3） Round – hair is straight and tends to be coarse

There are three concentric layers of keratinized cells:

● Medulla: the central core – consists of large cells and air spaces. Only
part of the cell that contains soft keratin, absent in fine hairs

● Cortex: the bulky layer surrounding the medulla, consists of several

layers of flattened cells

● Cuticle: outermost layer – formed from a single layer of cells

overlapping one another. Helps separate neighbouring hairs so they do
not mat. This is the most heavily keratinized part of the hair, providing
strength and keeping the inner layers tightly compacted

Hair pigment is made by melanocytes at the base of the hair follicle and
transferred to the cortical cells. Again, different concentrations of melanin
produce hair colour. Red hair is coloured by pheomelanin. When melanin
production decreases and air bubbles replace melanin in the hair shaft, hair
turns grey or white.
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3.3.2 Structure of a hair follicle

Hair follicles fold down from the epidermal surface into the dermis and the
deep end expands to form a hair bulb. Wrapped around each hair bulb is a
knot of sensory nerve endings called a hair follicle receptor or a root hair
plexus. When hairs are bent these are stimulated.

Hair papilla is a dermal papilla that protrudes into the hair bulb. It contains a
knot of capillaries that supplies nutrients to the growing hair signaling it to
grow. This papilla is destroyed; the follicle permanently stops producing
hair. Hair grows because the cells in the bulb are rapidly dividing. These cells
make up the hair matrix.

Associated with each hair follicle is a bundle of smooth muscle cells called an
arrector pili muscle. The contraction of this muscle pulls the hair follicle upright
and dimples the skin causing “goose bumps” in response to cold
temperatures or fear.

3.3.3 Types and growth of hair

Hairs can be classified as vellus or terminal.

● Vellus: pale, fair. Seen on children and adult females

● Terminal: coarse. Eyebrows, eyelashes, at puberty appear in the

axillary and pubic regions of both sexes and on the face and chest and
arms and legs of males. Grows in response to stimulating effects of
androgens.

Hair grows on average approximately 2mm per week. Each follicle goes
through a growth cycle where an active growth phase is followed by a resting
phase. In the active phase the newly growing hair pushes the old hair out and
it is shed.

The lifespan of hair varies, and the cycles of adjacent hair follicles are not
synchronised.
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3.4 Nails

Nails form a clear protective covering on the dorsal surface of the distal part of
a finger or toe and contain hard keratin. The nail rests on a bed of epidermis
called the nail bed which contains only the deeper layer of the
epidermis. Each nail has a:

● Proximal root – embedded into the skin

● Nail plate or body – visible attached portion

● Free edge

● Nail bed

● Nail matrix – thickened portion of the nail

● bed responsible for nail growth

● Lunule – region lying over the nail matrix

● Nail folds – the proximal and lateral skin folds

● Cuticle or eponychium – proximal skin fold

● Hyponychium – the thickened area under the free edge securing the
free edge of the nail plate to the tip of the finger or toe
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Information Box:

Clinicians can tell a lot about disease states from fingernails:

Yellow tinged nails can indicate respiratory or thyroid gland disorders
(thickened yellow nails are often a fungal infection though).

Koilonychia or an outward concavity of the nail can indicate an iron deficiency.

Because lines or horizontal lines across the nails can be a sign of severe
illness that affects the whole body such as heart disease, diabetes or
chemotherapy for cancer.

3.5 Sweat Glands

Sweat glands – also called sudoriferous glands, are distributed over the entire
skin surface except the nipples and parts of external genitalia.

There are two types, both are associated with myoepithelial cells, specialised
cells that contract when stimulated by the nervous system. This contraction
forces sweat into and through the glands duct system to the skins
surface. Sweating is regulated by a branch of the autonomic (involuntary)
nervous system.
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Eccrine (merocrine) sweat glands

● More numerous

● Abundant on palms, soles of feet and forehead

● Simple, coiled, tubular gland

● Duct extends to open in a funnel shaped pore at the skin surface

● Process of secretion (sweat) release is called exocytosis

● Sweat is a hypotonic filtrate of the blood:

1） 99% water with some salts (mainly sodium chloride) and

traces of metabolic wastes (urea, uric acid and ammonia)
2） Acidic with a pH of 4-6 Sweating’s major role is to prevent
overheating
3) Heat induced sweating begins on the forehead and spreads
inferiorly
4) Emotionally induced sweating “cold sweat” brought on by
fright or nervousness begins on the palms soles and armpits
and then spreads to other body areas

Apocrine sweat glands

● Confined to the axillary and anogenital areas

● They are still merocrine glands and release their product by exocytosis

● Larger than eccrine glands and lie deeper in the dermis or even
subcutaneous tissue

● Ducts empty into hair follicles

● Secretion contains sweat plus fatty substances and proteins

1） Viscous fluid and sometimes has a milky or yellowish

colour
2） Odourless, but when bacteria on the skin decompose its
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organic molecules it takes on a musky and generally

unpleasant odour.

● Begin functioning at puberty

● Play little role in maintaining a constant body temperature

● Precise function is not known but may be the human equivalent of

other animals sexual scent glands

● Two types of important modified apocrine glands:

1） Ceruminous glands: found in the lining of the ear

canal. Their
secretion mixes with sebum produced by nearby sebaceous
glands to form a sticky, bitter substance called cerumen or
earwax! Thought to deter insects and block entry of foreign
material
2） Mammary glands: these secrete milk and are considered
part of the female reproductive organs even though they are
properly part of the integumentary system

Sebaceous glands
● Simple branched alveolar glands found all over the body except in the

palms and soles

● Small on the body trunk and limbs, large on the face, neck and upper
chest

● Secrete an oily substance called sebum made up of lipids and cell

fragments

● The central cells of the alveoli accumulate oily lipids till they become
engorged and burst – this makes them holocrine glands

● Most develop as outgrowths of hair follicles and secrete sebum into a

hair follicle, or occasionally to a pore on the skins surface.
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● Arrector pili contractions force sebum out of the hair follicles to the skin
surface

● Sebum softens and lubricates the hair skin, prevents hair from
becoming brittle, slows water loss from the skin

● Has a bactericidal action