Directional Overcurrent Relay - Construction, Working Principle &

Applications

An overcurrent relay will operate for fault current flow in any direction, i.e., either in

forward or in the reverse direction. In order to achieve the operation of the relay in the

forward direction, a directional feature is added to the overcurrent relay by adding a

directional relay to the overcurrent relay, such a relay will respond to fault flow in a

particular direction.

Principle of Directional Overcurrent Relay:

A directional overcurrent relay operates on the same principle as that of an overcurrent

relay. But in an overcurrent relay, the driving torque is developed due to the magnetic

fields produced by the operating current of the circuit given through a current

transformer.

While in the case of directional overcurrent relay the driving torque is developed due to

the magnetic fields produced by both the operating current and voltage of the circuit in

which it is connected for protection. The relay operates when the current exceeds a

predetermined set value in a specified direction.

Construction of Directional Overcurrent Relay:

The schematic diagram of the directional overcurrent relay is shown in the figure given

below. It consists of two relay units mounted in a common case, namely

 Directional relay unit, and

 Non-directional or overcurrent relay unit.

Directional Relay Unit:

The directional unit mainly consists of an induction cup relay with two opposite poles

being fed by voltage and current. The potential coil on the upper electromagnet is

connected to the system voltage through a potential transformer. The coil on the lower

electromagnet is energized by the circuit current connected through a current

transformer.
Voltage is taken as the polarizing quantity which remains more or less fixed when the

other quantity i.e., the current undergoes wide changes in phase angle.

The two fluxes are produced by the two quantities for the production of torque. The

contacts of the directional unit are connected in series with another winding over the

lower magnet of the non-directional or overcurrent unit.

Non-directional or Overcurrent Relay Unit:

The overcurrent unit may be of either a shaded pole type or wattmeter type. The coil

wound on the upper electromagnet of the overcurrent unit is tapped and connected to

the circuit current through a current transformer.

The tapping’s are connected to a plug setting bridge to get the required current setting.

An aluminum disc is placed between the two magnets which consist of moving contact

that closes the fixed contact (trip circuit contacts) after the operations of the directional

relay unit.

Working of Directional Overcurrent Relay:

During fault conditions, the fault current flows through the current coil of the relay

which produces a flux in the lower magnet of the directional unit while the current in

the voltage coil produces another flux in the upper magnet of the directional unit. The

two fluxes produce a positive torque that tends to close its contact and operate the

relay.

This in turn makes the relay current flow through the winding over the upper magnet of

the overcurrent unit and therefore produces a flux in this magnet. This flux induces all

the emf in the winding over the lower magnet of the overcurrent unit.
Since this winding is a closed path, the induced emf circulates a current which in turn

produces another flux. The two fluxes produce a torque that makes the overcurrent

relay trip the circuit breaker.

It is clear that the operation of the overcurrent relay is controlled by a directional unit.

Therefore, the directional unit must operate first in order to operate the overcurrent

relay.

Applications of Directional Overcurrent Relay:

 Parallel Feeder Protection - The below shows the protective scheme of the

parallel feeder.

Non-directional relays A1 and B1 are required at the sending end of the

feeders. The direction of the operation relays is indicated by the arrowheads

(↔ ). At the receiving end of the feeders, directional overcurrent relays are

required. The relays A2 and B2 are directional overcurrent relays. The

directions of the operation of these relays are indicated by the arrowhead

(←). When there is a fault F on the feeder the current in the feeder reverses

and it makes directional relay A 2 operate and trips the feeder. Thus, the

faulty feeder is isolated from the system, and continuity of the supply

remains through the healthy feeder.

 Feed Parallel Feeder Protection - As shown in the figure below to ensure

discrimination the relays on the source end buses are non-directional while
 at the load end buses are given directional relays. As directional relays

should operate before non-directional ones, the relays are set for lower time

and current settings.

 Ring Main System Protection - The protective scheme ring mains system is

shown in the below figure. The relays at source buses (A 1, B1 .. F1) are non-

directional because the relays may not operate for faults close to the source

the relays associated directly with the faulty section of the ring should

operate. So, to achieve this discrimination, directional relays (A 2, B2 ... F2)

are used.

 Out-of-step protection for synchronous motors.

  Directional protection in symmetrically loaded networks, active and reactive

power measurements in networks with and without neutral.

 Directional Earth Fault Protection - In this type of relay, the voltage coil is

activated by residual voltage, the principle of operation of the relay

employed in this scheme is based on residual current. Under normal working

conditions, the residual current will be zero. When a fault occurs, the

residual current will have some value and if this current exceeds the

specified value, the relay operates. Relay senses the direction in which earth

fault occurs with respect to relay relocation.

Voltage Transformer Grounding or Earthing - Advantages &

Disadvantages

In this system of earthing, the neutral point is earthed through the primary winding of a

single-phase voltage transformer as shown in the figure below. The secondary winding

of the voltage transformer is connected in series with a low resistor and a relay.

As the neutral of the system is connected through voltage transformer. A very high

reactance earthing is provided by the voltage transformer. The voltage transformer acts

as a fault indicator. If an earth fault occurs on any of the phases, it produces a voltage

across the relay connected across the secondary. The relay operates and trips the
protecting devices connected. The protecting device, thus isolates the circuit till the

fault is eliminated.

The voltage transformer earthed neutral acts as a reflection point for travelling waves

passing through the machine winding. These travelling waves cause high voltages in

the circuit and in order to prevent high voltage built up a surge diverter is connected

between the neutral point and the earth.

Advantages of Voltage Transformer Grounding:

 Arcing grounds are eliminated.

 The neutral is earthed through a voltage transformer and thus its operational

characteristics are similar to an isolated neutral system.

 The transient overvoltages are decreased since the voltage transformer

grounding system provides extremely high reactance to the earth's path.

Disadvantages of Voltage Transformer Grounding:

 Insulation of the system is overstressed.

 For travelling waves, the earth neutral acts as a reflection point which may

result in the high voltage build-up.

Earthing or Grounding Transformer - Zig-Zag & Star-Delta

Transformer

Generally, at every voltage level, the neutral point is available from the generator or

transformer i.e., when the star connected. But when there is a delta connection or

when the neutral is desired on the busbars etc., then the neutral point will not be
available. In such cases, the most common method used for neutral grounding is

through earthing transformer.

The earthing transformer, also known as the grounding transformer provides a neutral

point where it is not available. The earthing or grounding transformer provides a low

impedance path to the neutral and overvoltage’s due to arcing grounds, static induced

charges, and lightning surges are eliminated by discharging to earth. By using earthing

transformer, a neutral point is created in the following way,

 Using a zig-zag earthing transformer, and

 Using star-delta earthing transformer.

Zig-Zag Earthing Transformer:

The system neutral grounded through a zig-zag transformer is shown below. It is a

three-phase, dry-type, air-cooled autotransformer.

There is no secondary winding in a zig-zag transformer. The schematic arrangement of

winding in an earthing transformer is shown in the below figure.

In a zig-zag transformer, there are three limbs and each limb is provided with two

identical windings. These windings are wound such that under normal conditions the

two fluxes on each limb oppose each other in such a manner that the net flux on each

limb is negligibly small. Hence, during normal conditions, the transformer draws very

little magnetizing current.

During an earth fault on the circuit, the zero-sequence current will flow in the

transformer winding through the earthing. The earth fault current finds little

impedance. Earthing transformers are of short time rating (10 seconds to 1 minute)

which makes them small in size when compared to the power transformer of the same

rating.

Star-Delta Earthing Transformer:

In case the zig-zag transformer is not available, then a star-delta transformer can be

used without loading the delta side as shown below.

In a star-delta transformer, the primary winding of the transformer is in star connection

with neutral connected to the ground. The terminals of the primary winding are

connected to the three-phase ungrounded system. The secondary of the transformer is

in delta connection and is not connected to any external circuit i.e., it operates

unloaded.

The operation of this transformer is similar to the zig-zag transformer, which offers high

impedance to the current under normal conditions, and on the occurrence of a ground

fault, a low impedance path is provided for the ground fault currents.

It should be ensured that not to operate more than one earthing transformer connected

to the same supply system at the same time and also short-circuit protection should be

provided in each line of the transformer.

Solid Grounding or Effective Grounding - Working & Advantages

When the neutral of the system is directly connected to the ground with negligible

resistance and reactance between them, then the grounding system is known as solid

grounding or effective grounding.

Mastering 3-Phase Power:

A system is said to be solidly grounded when for all points of the system, the ratio
of zero sequence reactance X0 to positive sequence reactance X1 does not exceed 3
and the ratio of zero sequence resistance to positive sequence resistance does not
exceed 1 under all conditions and for any amount of generator capacity.

Consider a 3-phase power system with neutral solidly grounded and an earth fault on

phase B as shown in the above figure. On the occurrence of earth fault over any phase,

the phase to earth voltage of the phase on which the earth fault occurs becomes zero

i.e., the potential of the neutral and phase B will be at earth potential. While the phase

to ground voltages of healthy phases remains unchanged.

It will be seen that the fault current I F will completely neutralize the capacitive current

ICF because IF is in phase opposition to ICF. In a solidly grounded system, the voltages of

healthy phases under earth fault conditions will not exceed 80% of the line to line

voltage. The phasor diagram is shown below.

For a fault, on phase B voltages VRE and VYE have still maintained at their (pre-fault)

values. The capacitive currents flowing in the healthy phases are I CR and ICY will lead
their corresponding voltages by 90°. Earth fault current I F is a 90° lagging current (due

to predominantly inductive impedance) with respect to phase to neutral voltage of

faulty phase. The total capacitive current ICF is a resultant of ICR and ICY.

Advantages of Solid Grounding:

 In solid grounding, the neutral is effectively held at earth potential.

 We have seen that the phase-to-earth voltage of the phase with earth fault

becomes zero and it remains normal in the case of healthy phases. Hence,

the equipment is to be insulated for phase voltage, which results in a saving

in the cost of equipment.

 Due to phase opposition of resultant capacitive current I CF with the fault

current IF. These two currents will nullify each other completely. Hence in

solid grounding, the arcing ground phenomenon and overvoltage conditions

cannot occur.

 When compared to other types of grounded systems, solidly grounded

systems are less expensive for all operating voltages as the voltages of

healthy phases in case of line to a ground fault do not exceed 80% of the
 line-to-line voltage, whereas in the case of other groundings the voltage of

healthy phases rises to about 100% of line-to-line voltage.

 The solid grounding system permits the use of discriminative protective

gears due to the availability of a large fault current between the fault point

and grounded neutral.

 In solid grounding, the ground fault relaying is simple and satisfactory.

Disadvantages of Solid Grounding:

 In solid grounding, there will be high fault currents which may cause the

system to become unstable.

 There may be a burning of circuit breaker contacts due to high fault

currents.

 Interference in the neighboring communication lines will be greater due to

high fault currents.

Resistance Grounding - Working, Phasor Diagram & Advantages

The system in which the neutral point is grounded through a current limiting device

(resistor) is known as a resistance grounded system and the grounding is referred to as

resistance grounding. This method is used when it becomes necessary to limit the earth

fault current.

The resistor used in this grounding may comprise either wire or water column

resistance and the value of resistance used is generally higher than the system

reactance so as to limit the power loss in the resistor due to earth fault.
The value of resistance required for grounding purposes increases with the increase in

operating voltage in order to limit the short circuit current during an earth fault. The

resistance grounded system with earth fault at point F in phase B is shown above and

its phasor diagram is shown in the below figure.

Where,

 IC = Capacitive current

 √3IC = Capacitive current per phase

 3IC = Resultant capacitive fault current

 IF = Fault current.
The current IF, IBR, and IBY will be flowing through fault point F in phase B. The phase

angle of the fault current will depend upon the impedance at the fault point. The

capacitive currents IBR and IBY will lag the voltages VBR and VBY respectively by 90°. The

fault current IF is resolved into two components one is the reactive component I X and

the other is the resistive component IR.

The resultant capacitive fault current will be in phase opposition with the reactive

component at fault point F. This resultant capacitive fault current can be neutralized by

adjusting the value of resistance R to a sufficiently low value. Resistance grounding is

used for low voltage short-length overhead lines, as the charging currents in these lines

are small.

If the earthing resistance is of low value (when I rea is equal to IC), the fault currents are

high and the system condition approaches the solid earthing. On the other hand, if the

earthing resistance is of higher value so that I rea is less than IC then the system

conditions approach that of the ungrounded neutral system with the risk of transient

overvoltages occurring.

The value of resistance is so chosen that at the time of an earth fault on any phase, a

current equal to the full load current of the largest alternator or transformer feeding the

system, flows in the earth connection. This will keep the overvoltages within limits

which can be easily handled by the equipment and switch gears.

Advantages of Resistance Grounding:

 In resistance grounding, the arcing grounds can be minimized by adjusting

the connected resistance to a suitable value.

 Resistance grounding improves the stability of the system, as the power

dissipation in the grounding resistance reduces the accelerating power.

 Because of the presence of earthing resistance, the ground-fault current in a

resistance grounded system is comparatively small with respect to the solidly

 grounded system. Hence, the inductive interference with the neighboring

circuit is also reduced.

 In a resistance grounded system, the transient ground faults will be

converted into controlled current faults.

 A low value of resistance in resistance grounding permits the use of

discriminative types of protective gears.

Disadvantages of Resistance Grounding:

 During an earth fault, the system neutral will almost be invariably displaced,

because of which there is a need for lightning arrestors, and also the

insulation of the equipment for higher voltages is required resulting in an

increase in the cost of the system.

 Resistance grounded system is more expensive than a solidly grounded

system.

 In a resistance grounded system, there is a large amount of energy loss for

the dissipation of fault energy.

Reactance Grounding - Operation, Advantages & Disadvantages

The system in which the neutral point is grounded through impedance which is highly

reactive is known as a reactance grounded system and the grounding is referred to as

reactance grounding.
...

Necessity of Reactance Grounding:

If solid grounding is employed in the transmission lines whose operating voltage is 3.3

kV to 33 kV, then the fault currents will be high. In order to overcome this problem,

either resistance grounding or reactance grounding is used.

Reactance grounding is used for circuits where the charging currents are high because

by reactance grounding additional reactance is provided to the system, thereby

increasing the lagging current due to which the capacitive currents are neutralized.

Reactance grounding lies between effective grounding and resonant grounding. In

reactance grounding, the value of reactance is selected such that it must keep currents

within the safe limit i.e., by reactance grounding the fault current is limited.

It also provides necessary phase opposition between capacitive ground current and the

fault current. Whereas in the case of resistance grounding only fault current is limited

without providing any phase opposition.

Depending upon the ratio of zero sequence reactance X 0 to positive sequence reactance

X1 the system is said to be solidly grounded or reactance grounded. If the ratio (X 0/X1)

exceeds three, the system is said to be a reactance grounded system and if this ratio is

less than three, then the system is said to be a solidly grounded system. Even if the

neutral of the system is effectively grounded and the ratio exceeds three, then the

system is supposed to be a reactance grounded system rather than the solidly

grounded system.

Reactance grounding is used for the lightly loaded transmission lines, underground

cables, synchronous condensers, and circuits that have high charging currents.

Reactance grounding ensures satisfactory relay operation and partial grading of

equipment insulation. Also, the interference with communication circuits is reduced in

reactance grounding when compared to that of solid grounding.

Reactance Grounding:

A 3-phase system provided with reactance grounding is shown in the below figure. In

reactance grounding, the neutral N of the system is grounded through a reactance.

Thus additional reactance is provided to the system, thereby increasing the lagging

current due to which the capacitive ground currents are neutralized.

Here the fault current is dependent upon the reactance. Thus, varying the reactance in

the neutral to earth line, the magnitude of the fault current can be varied.

Advantages of Reactance Grounding:

 Reactance grounding provides satisfactory relay operation.

 In reactance grounding, arcing grounds are avoided.

 By using reactance grounding the transient ground faults will be converted

into controlled current faults.

 If the system is reactance grounded, then the partial grading of the

apparatus insulation is required.

 When compared to the solidly grounded system, the interference with

communication circuits is reduced in the reactance grounded system.

Disadvantages of Reactance Grounding:

 In reactance grounding, the relaying device needs more fault current to

operate compared to the fault current required in a resistance grounded

system.
  In reactance grounding under fault conditions, very high transient voltages

appear.

Due to these disadvantages, reactance grounding is not in common use.

What is Tower Footing Resistance? - Its Reduction Methods

The resistance offered to the lightning current when the tower is directly exposed to

lightning is called tower footing resistance. It is the value of footing resistance

measured at 50 Hz. The performance of the line purely depends upon the value of
resistance during lightning. The resistance is the function of soil resistivity, critical

breakdown gradient of soil, length of driven grounds, and surge currents.

The voltage and the current transmitted into the tower will depend upon the surge

impedance of the tower and ground impedance (i.e., the tower-footing resistance) of

the tower. Taking all the factors into consideration such as wave shape, the magnitude

of lightning current striking the tower, surge impedance, potential wave at the top of

the tower, footing impedance, etc.

The tower-footing resistance is given by, R = V/I Ω

The value of tower-footing resistance should be always low. If the tower-footing

resistance is low, the chances of occurrence of flashover are eliminated and the

potential at the top of the tower is reduced. Always tower-footing resistance is

connected in parallel with ground rods or counterpoise wires.

If the tower-footing resistance is low, it helps in controlling the lightning overvoltage’s

on the lines effectively with the help of ground wires. The tower-footing resistance lies

between 10-20Ω. For medium-voltage transmission lines, it is less than 10Ω. Thus, in

order to keep the tower-footing resistance low some special arrangements are made.
Reduction of Tower Footing Resistance:

The tower resistance is reduced by two methods, either by driving rods near the tower

and connecting them to the tower base or by burying counterpoise wires into the

ground and connecting them to the tower base.

The driven rods are made up of galvanized iron or copper weld. This method is best

suited in the locations where the soil is free from rocks i.e., it is best suited in sandy

soil. Sometimes driven galvanized iron pipes are also used. Below shows the driven rod

in the ground, connected to the base of the tower.

The counterpoise wires method of reducing tower-footing resistance is extensively used

compared to driven rods due to its simple implementation. The wires are usually made

up of copper, aluminum, galvanized iron, or stranded cable and are arranged either

radially (continuous) or tower-to-tower (non-continuous) as shown below.

In a continuous counterpoise wire arrangement, the wire is buried underground along

the line route and is connected to each tower base. This arrangement is more efficient

than non-continuous counterpoise wires.

Current is drawn into the counterpoise from 1.5 to 2.5 km away from the point of the

stroke and fed into the stroke by means of the counterpoise wire and the overhead

ground wires.

The concentration of the current at any tower is thus reduced. The reduced current at

any tower causes a reduced voltage drop at the tower base, and thus the tower

potential is held to a value below the flashover voltage of the line insulators.
By the above methods, the lightning current is reduced, thereby reducing the voltage at

the base of the tower. Therefore, the potential value at the base of the tower is lower

than the flashover voltage and helps in neutralizing them to the ground. Hence, tower-

footing resistance is recommended to be low always.