MODULE - I: VECTOR DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

STRUCTURE

1.0 Learning Objectives

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Scalar and Vector Point Functions

1.2.1 Vectors in 2-Space and 3-Space

1.2.2 Vector Addition, Scalar Multiplication

1.2.3 Inner Product (Dot Product)

1.2.4 Vector Product (Cross Product)

1.2.5 Triple Product (Scalar and vector Triple Product)

1.3 The Gradient of a Scalar Point Function

1.3.1 Definition

1.3.2 Geometrical Interpretation

1.3.3 Directional Derivative

1.3.4 Direction of Maximum Increase

1.4 Divergence of a Vector Point Function

1.4.1 Definition

1.4.2 Physical Interpretation

1.4.3 Properties of Divergence of a Vector Point Function

1.5 Examples

1.6 Summary

1.7 Unit End Questions

1.8 References

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1.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

 Explain Scalar and Vector Point Functions

 Explain Gradient of a Scalar Point Function
 Explain the Divergence of a Vector Point Function

1.1 INTRODUCTION

In physical problems we often come across quantities such as temperature of a liquid, distance
between two points, density of a gas, velocity and acceleration of a particle or a body, tangent
to a curve and normal to a surface. In Unit 5, you have learnt that physical quantities can be
categorized either as a scalar or as a vector. You might have noticed that some physical
quantities, whether scalars or vectors, are variable. That is, their values are not constant or static
but change with the change in variable. For example, the density of a gas, which is a scalar
quantity, changes from place to place and is different at different places. Similarly, tangent to
a curve may have different directions at different points of the curve. This variable character
of scalars and vectors give rise to scalar functions and vector functions. Further, you may notice
that at different positions the temperature or velocity of a body does not remain same. The
distribution of temperature or velocity is therefore defined at each point of a given domain in
space which leads to the idea of scalar fields and vector fields

1.2 SCALAR AND VECTOR POINT FUNCTIONS

The term “scalar” contrasts with the term “vector.” Real numbers are commonly referred to
as scalars in any context where vectors and real numbers are discussed together. A scalar is
thus a real number in this unit.

Let us go over the definition of “function” in general. A function is a correspondence between

two classes of objects, which are known as the domain of definition of the function and the
range of values of the function, or, more colloquially, the domain and the range of the function.
The function is the correspondence that assigns a corresponding object in the range to each
object in the domain. Consider the case where the domain is a set of points and the range is a
set of real numbers. In this case, the function is referred to as a scalar point function. If f is the
function, P is a variable point, and w is the value of the given function at P, we can write
w  f  P.

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Ex 1. Consider all the points inside a closed box at a fixed point in time, and let w represent
the temperature (in degrees Celsius) at point P.

Ex 2. Let R be a fixed point on the surface of a sphere of unit radius. Let w be the shortest
great-circle distance from P to R if, P is any point on the sphere.

Ex 3. If C is a plane curve, and P is any point on the curve, let w be the radius of curvature of
C at P, assuming the curve is smooth enough to have a well-defined curvature.

The most important aspect of the definition of a scalar point function is that it is independent
of coordinate systems. We do not need any coordinate systems to understand a scalar point
function. If a coordinate system is used to locate various points, the function is essentially the
correspondence between P and w, not the correspondence between the coordinates of P and w.
However, there is a connection between a point function f  P  and certain functions of the

coordinates of P. The concept of invariance under coordinate transformations is represented by

this link. Assume that f is a given point function defined across some region of Euclidean three-
dimensional space. Choose a system of rectangular coordinates x, y, z, and consider  x, y, z  to

be the coordinate of P. The value of f at P will then depend on  x, y, z  , so that the scalar point

function f determines F as a real-valued function of the three variables x, y, and z. Assume that
a rotation of the axes yields another rectangular coordinate system x', y', z' from the xyz-system.
F  x, y, z  is transformed into some new function W  x, y, z  when x, y, and z are expressed in

terms of x', y', and z' by equations of the form

x  l1 x  l2 y  l3 z 
y  m1 x  m2 y  m3 z   1.2  2 
z  n1 x  n2 y  n3 z 

However, because  x, y , z  and  x, y, z both refer to the same point P, we get

f  P   W  x, y, z  . the scalar point function f is invariant under coordinate transformations.

f  P  Can also be written as a function of cylindrical or spherical coordinates.

Without any reference to co-ordinate systems, it is feasible to directly define the concepts of
continuity and differentiability for scalar point functions. On the other hand, however, the
definitions might be made with reference to some arbitrarily chosen rectangular coordinate
system. Hence, in that system if f  P   F  x, y, z  , it can be said that f is continuous at P0 if F

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is continuous at  x0 , y0 , z0  , with a similar definition holding for differentiability. These

definitions are made with reference to a particular system of Cartesian coordinates, but in
reality, they are independent of the choice of the system. For instance, if
F  x, y, z   H  x, y, z  , where the two frameworks are connected by a rotation, and if F is

differentiable, then H is differentiable.

Vector Point Functions

Within the matter of being free of specific choices of co-ordinate frameworks, the concepts of
a vector point function and a scalar point function are very much similar. The contrast is that
the function values are vectors rather than scalars. The domain of a vector point function is a
set of points P, while the range is a set of vectors.

Let f be the function and F the vector corresponding to P. So, we write F = f (P) where f (P)
depends only on P itself and not on the coordinates we happen to use.

Ex 1. Let us consider a fixed vector A and R = OP . The following expressions defines a vector
point function.

R  A R  , R, R  A, R
2
R

While dealing with vector point function, it is convenient to introduce a co-ordinate system. A
rectangular coordinate system will be used for our case. Assume we have a xyz-system with
origin O, and the fundamental orthonormal triad associated with the xyz-system be i, j, k.
Suppose we have a function F = f(P), and the components of F are designated as F1(x, y, z),
F2(x, y, z), and F3(x, y, z). Then

F  F1  x, y, z  i  F2  x, y, z  j  F3  x, y, z  k  1.2  4 

F will have a different set of components in another rectangular system x'y'z', derived by
rotation from the xyz-system, and with the triad i', j', k' for the new system, F will be written
in the form

F  F1 x, y, z  i  F2  x, y, z  j  F3  x, y, z  k  1.2  5

A vector point function is frequently referred to as a vector field, especially when the domain
of definition is a two- or three-dimensional space. This terminology stems from a particular
way of describing the vector function. If we draw the vector F in space, with its starting point
at the point P to which F corresponds, it allows one to depict how the magnitude and direction

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of F varies with the location of P. A vector field is a geometrical configuration, whether it is
really drawn or simply imagined.

1.2.1 Vectors in 2-Space and 3-Space

The “axis of reals” is a straight line that represents the real number system, with each point
representing a real number. This line is referred to as the one-dimensional Euclidean space.
The origin of this space is represented by the number zero.

The plane of plane analytic geometry is the two-dimensional Euclidean space, with points
 x, y  identified by a Cartesian co-ordinate system consisting of an x-axis and a y-axis meeting
at right angles. Points are sometimes denoted by  x1 , x2  rather than  x, y  , without change in

meaning. The origin position is the point (0, 0).

The Euclidean space is a three-dimensional space of points  x, y , z  with mutually

perpendicular coordinate axes. The point  0, 0, 0  in is the origin.

Let us represent elements of as A   A1 , A2 , A3  , B   B1 , B2 , B3  and so forth. We'll name them

vectors, and the symbols will be in boldface text. The components of A are A1, A2, and A3. The
name vector is used because we will be introducing definitions of algebraic operations on the
elements of what is known as a vector space in the technical terminology of linear algebra. It
is usual to represent A as an arrow pointing from  0, 0, 0  to  A1 , A2 , A3  . If P is the arrow's tip

(see Fig. below), then P is represented by the vector A when A is thought of as a point.

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1.2.2 Vector Addition, Scalar Multiplication

There is a vector algebra in that is based on vector addition and subtraction as well as vector
multiplication by real values (which are often called scalars). The vector  0, 0, 0  is known as

the zero vector and is represented by the symbol 0.

The vector sum of A and B is defined by

A  B   A1 , A2 , A3    B1 , B2 , B3 
  A1  B1 , A2  B2 , A3  B3   1.2.2  1

The vector difference is defined by

A  B   A1 , A2 , A3    B1 , B2 , B3 
  A1  B1 , A2  B2 , A3  B3   1.2.2  2 

Multiplying A by a scalar c is defined by

cA  c  A1 , A2 , A3 
  cA1 , cA2 , cA3   1.2.2  3

The validity of the following algebraic rules is simply demonstrated:

A  B  B  A; commutative law  1.2.2  4 

 A  B   C  A   B  C ; associative law  1.2.2  5

A  0  A  1.2.2  6 

c  A  B   cA + cB  1.2.2  7 

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 a  b  A  aA + bA  1.2.2  8

a  bA    ab  A  1.2.2  9 

1A  A  1.2.2  10 

0A = 0  1.2.2  11

1.2.3 Inner Product (Dot Product)

These algebraic rules are so completely congruent with the conventional laws of real-number
algebra that it is easier to quickly become adept in vector algebra. However, to produce the
product of two vectors, we define what is known as the scalar product of two vectors. The
standard notation for it uses a dot between the factors, so A B is known as the dot product of
A and B. It is also known as the inner product. The dot product gives a scalar. The definition
is made up of the following components:

A B  A1B1  A2 B2  A3 B3  1.2.3  1

The following rules are easily verified as valid:

A B  B A; commutative law  1.2.3  2 

cos  0

 cA  B  c  A B   1.2.3  4 

Nevertheless, even though neither A nor B is the zero vector, it can happen that A B = 0 . For
instance, 1, 1, 1 1, 2, 1  0 .

From the result obtained in (1.2.3-1), it can be immediately followed that

 A A   A12  A2 2  A32   1.2.3  5

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is the length of the vector A, that is, the distance to the tip of A (or to A, thought of as a point)
from the origin, O. The length of A will be denoted by A and it’ll be called the norm of A .

Thus

A   A A  1.2.3  6 
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The only vector with a length of zero is 0. Each nonzero vector determines (or have) a direction
in 3
. If A  0 and B  0 , we say that A and B are pointing in the same direction if one is a
positive multiple of the other B  cA , where c  0 . A and B have opposing orientations when
B is a negative multiple of A.
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A translation of the space is achieved by subjecting each vector in to a transformation by
adding the same nonzero vector C to each vector, transforming each A into A + C. Every point
is transferred to a new point that is C units away from the original location in the direction of

C.

The addition and subtraction of vectors can be conveniently seen. Imagine two non-zero
vectors, A and B, as arrows pointing away from the origin. The two vectors establish a singular
plane if B is not a multiple of A. The vector originating from the origin that forms the diagonal
of the parallelogram whose neighboring sides are A and B is the sum C  A  B . Another
intuitive approach to explain the circumstance is as follows:

Displace B in a different position by

translating it so that its origin and tip coincide
with each other. The vector from the starting
point of A to the final position of the
displaced vector is thus equal to the A  B .
The term “the parallelogram law of addition” refers to this manner of describing vector
addition. A  B Spans from the beginning point of A to the tip of the displaced vector B,
depending on whether B is moving in the same direction as A or in the other direction.

Using the parallelogram law, vector subtraction can also be represented visually. The vector B
when added to the vector A  B yields the vector A.

The dot product A B can also be given a geometric interpretation that can be displayed
visually. To illustrate this, we use the law of cosines and attributes of the dot product. We know
from (1.2.3-6) that

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 A - B   A - B   A - B   1.2.3  7 
2

But, by the algebraic rules,

 A -B  A -B =  A -B A  A -B B

= A A -B A  A B +B B
= A  2A B + B  1.2.3  8 
2 2

Therefore

A - B  A  2A B + B  1.2.3  9 
2 2 2

Consider the figure shown below, where  represents the angle formed by the vectors A and
B. (In this case, it is assumed that neither A nor Bare 0.) The side opposite to  of the triangle
with vertices at 0 and the tips of A and B is a line segment with the same length as A  B . By
the cosine law

A - B = A  2 A B cos + B  1.2.3  10 

2 2 2

On comparing (1.2.3 - 9) with (1.2.3 - 10) we see that

A B = A B cos  1.2.3  11

This can be said in the following way:

The product of the length of B and the signed projection of A onto the directed line of the
vector B forms the dot product A B . It is evident from (1.2.3-11) that, when neither A nor B is
0, A B = 0 if and only if cos  0 , or if and only if A is perpendicular to B. Nonzero vectors
in three-dimensional Euclidean space are occasionally described solely geometrically as
directed line segments. The ordered pair of points P, Q determines a directed line segment from
P to Q and is referred to as a vector, indicated by PQ, if P and Q are distinct points.

PQ and RS are referred to as equal (or, occasionally, equivalent) vectors if R, S is another

ordered pair of points such that PQ and RS have the same length and direction. This indicates

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that RS and PQ can be brought into coincidence by translating the entire space such that R is
moved in a straight line to P and S is moved in a similar manner to Q. When a vector in physics
is thought to remain unchanged after any translation of the space, it is frequently referred to as
a free vector.

When presenting vectors in, we assume that every vector has its initial point at the origin. This
technique of thinking about vectors is when we call a Euclidean vector space. As stated earlier,
since we find it convenient to refer to a vector A as either a vector or a point, it is not essential
to construct a separate notation for the point that serves as the tip of A.

ORTHOGONAL UNIT VECTORS IN

Assume that an origin of O is selected for a fixed rectangular coordinate system. Working with
right-handed coordinate systems is customary, especially when working with practical
applications, and we will typically follow this practice. Let i, j, and k now each be vectors of
unit length pointing in the direction of the positive x, y, and z axes.

It is obvious that we can express A in the following manner if A is any vector.

A  A1i  A2 j  A3k

where A1, A2, A3 are A's constituents.

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We refer to the fundamental orthonormal triad connected to this specific coordinate system as
i, j, k. The words “orthogonal” and “normal” are combined to form the word “orthonormal.”
The vectors i, j, k constitutes an orthogonal set since they are perpendicular to one another. If
a vector has a unit length, it is said to be normalized or normal. The relations of the triad i, j, k
expresses its orthonormal nature.

i i  j j  k k 1 ,
i j  j k  k i  0.

1.2.4 Cross products in

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Another method of multiplying vectors exists in , in which the result of two vectors is
another vector. The cross product, sometimes referred to as the vector product, is represented
by the symbol A  B .

Definition. Given two vectors A and B lying on the same plane, the cross product of the two
vectors is defined to be 0 if either A or B is 0: 0  B = A  0  0 .

Otherwise, letting  to be the angle between A and B, we define A  B to be the vector of

magnitude A  B  A B sin 

whose line is perpendicular to the plane of A and B, and whose

direction is such that A, B, and A  B form a right-handed system.
The vectors A and B do not establish a plane if they are on the same
line. However, in this instance, A  B equals 0. In such a case sin   0
, however and so A  B = 0 . Note that the area of the parallelogram
whose adjacent sides are A and B is equal to the magnitude of A  B .

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The following fundamental algebraic concepts govern the cross product:

A  B    B  A   1.2.4  1

 cA   B  c  A  B   1.2.4  2 

A   B + C    A  B    A  C   1.2.4  3

The anticommutative nature of multiplication is demonstrated by (1.2.4-1), given that B, A,

and   A  B  constitute a right-handed system. The definition of the cross product makes the

law (1.2.4-2) also obvious. The rule

A   cB   c  A  B   1.2.4  4 

can be deduced from (1.2.4-1) and (1.2.4-2).

A second distributive law

 A + B  C  A  C + B  C  1.2.4  5

follows at once from (1.2.4-1) and (1.2.4-3).

We can get formulas for the components of A  B in terms of the components of the vectors A
and B using the distributive law. We have

 A  B    A1i  A2 j + A3k    B1i  B2 j + B3k   1.2.4  6 

By repeatedly referencing the distributive law, using (1.2.4-2), and (1.2.4-3) yields a total of
nine terms. The following multiplication table, which may be calculated straight from the
definitions, helps to simplify the result.

ii  0 i j = k i  k = j
j  i  k j j  0 j k  i
k i  j k  j  i k k  0

By noting that if we write C = A  B , then it is easy to remember this formula.

A2 A3 A A1 A A1
C1  , C2  3 , C3  `
B2 B3 B3 B1 B` B1

These two-row determinants serve as cofactors for the first-row components of a three-row
determinant with rows A1, A2, A3, and B1, B2, B3, respectively, as its second and third rows.
Consequently, we occasionally write as a memory device.

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 i j k
A  B  A` A1 A3
B1 B2 B3

1.2.5 Triple Product (Scalar and vector Triple Product)

In geometry and algebra, the triple product is a product of three 3-dimensional vectors, usually
Euclidean vectors. The name "triple product" is used for two different products, the scalar-
valued scalar triple product and, less often, the vector-valued vector triple product.

The scalar triple product (also called the mixed product, box product, or triple scalar product)
is defined as the dot product of one of the vectors with the cross product of the other two.

Product of three vectors may or may not have a meaning. For example, ( has no

meaning as as is a scalar and dot product is defined only for vectors. Similarly,

has no meaning. The products of the type and

are meaningful and called triple products.

1.3 THE GRADIENT OF A SCALAR POINT FUNCTION

1.3.1 Definition

A scalar point function f may be thought of by imagining each point P at which f is defined as
carrying a label with the value f(P) of the function at that point. When a scalar function is
represented in this way, it is often called a scalar field. Let f be a scalar field defined throughout
some region , and suppose that f is differentiable in . We are going to define the concept of
the gradient of the field. The gradient of a scalar point function is a vector point function. It is
convenient to use a rectangular co-ordinate system in the process of defining the
gradient. However, we must take care to be certain that the definition gives us a
result which is independent of the choice of the particular rectangular coordinate system.

Suppose, now, that we have a function of three variables — say, the temperature
T  x, y,z  in a room. (Start out in one corner, and set up a system of axes; then for each point

 x, y,z  in the room, T gives the temperature at that spot.) We want to generalize the notion of
“derivative” to functions like T, which depend not on one but on three variables.

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Now a derivative is supposed to tell us how fast the function varies, if we move a little distance.
But this time the situation is more complicated, because it depends on what direction we move:
If we go straight up, then the temperature will probably increase fairly rapidly, but if we move
horizontally, it may not change much at all. In fact, the question “How fast does T vary?” has
an infinite number of answers, one for each direction we might choose to explore.

Fortunately, the problem is not as bad as it looks. A theorem on partial derivatives states that

T T T
dT  dx  dy  dz  1.3.1  1
x y x

This tells us how T changes when we alter all three variables by the infinitesimal amounts
dx, dy , dz. Notice that we do not require an infinite number of derivatives—three will suffice:
the partial derivatives along each of the three coordinate directions.

Equation 1.3.1-1 is reminiscent of a dot product:

 T T T 
dT   i j k   dxi  dyj  dzk 
 x y z 
  T   dl   1.3.1  2 

T T T
T  i j k  1.3.1  3
Where, x y z

Is the gradient of T. T is a vector quantity, with three components. This vector field, or vector
point function, is what we shall call the gradient of the given scalar function T. Furthermore,
we will show later in this section that (1.3.1-3) actually does define a vector.

The notation T is suggested by the differential operator  (read nabla) defined by

  
 i  j  k.  1.3.1  4 
x y z

Gradients are useful in several ways, notably in giving the rate of change of f  x, y, z  in any

direction in space, in obtaining surface normal vectors, and in deriving vector fields from scalar
fields, as we are going to show in this section.

1.3.2 Geometrical Interpretation of the Gradient

Like any vector, the gradient has magnitude and direction. To determine its geometrical
meaning, let's rewrite the dot product

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  T T T 
dT   i j k   dxi  dyj  dzk 
 x y z 
   T   dl 

In abstract form: dT  T dl  T dl cos  ,

Where  is the angle between T and dl . Now, if we fix the magnitude dl and search around

in various directions (that is, vary  ), the maximum change in T evidently occurs when   0
(for then cos  1 ). That is, for a fixed distance dl , dT is greatest when one moves in the same

direction as T .

Thus:

The gradient T points in the direction of maximum increase of the function T.

Moreover, the magnitude T gives the slope (rate of increase) along this maximal direction.

Imagine standing on a hillside. Look all around and find the direction of steepest ascent. That
is the direction of the gradient. Now measure the slope in that direction (rise over run).
That is the magnitude of the gradient. (Here the function we’re talking about is the height of
the hill, and the coordinates it on are positions - latitude and longitude, say. This function
depends on only two variables, not three, but the geometrical meaning of the gradient is easier
to grasp in two dimensions.) Notice from Eq. 1.37 that the direction of maximum descent is
opposite to the direction of maximum ascent, while at right angles (   90 ) the slope is zero
(the gradient is perpendicular to the contour lines). You can conceive of surfaces that do not
have these properties but they always have “kinks” in them and correspond to nondifferentiable
functions.

What does it signify if the gradient disappears? If T  0 at  x, y, z  , then dT  0 for minimal

displacements around the point  x, y, z  . The function T  x, y, z  then has a stationary point at

this location. It could be a saddle point (pass), a maximum (a summit), a minimum (a valley),
or a “shoulder.” In particular, if we wish to find the extrema of a function of three variables,
set its gradient to zero. This is identical to the scenario with functions of one variable, where a
vanishing derivative denotes a maximum, a minimum, or an inflection.

15
1.3.3 Directional Derivative

From calculus, we know that the partial derivatives in Eq. 1.3.1−4 give the rate of change of
f  x, y, z  in the directions of the three coordinate axes. It seems natural to extend this and ask

for the rate of change of in an arbitrary direction in space. This leads to the following concept

DEFINITION

df
The following formula determines the directional derivative Db f or of a function
ds
f  x, y, z  at a point P along a vector b:

df f Q   f  P 
Db f   lim 1.3.3  1
ds s 0 s

Here, s denotes the distance between P and Q, and Q is a variable point on the line straight L

in the direction of b. additionally, s  0 if Q is in the direction of b (refer Figure), s  0 if Q

is in the direction of -b, and s  0 if Q is equal to P.

The next concept is to employ unit vectors for b and Cartesian x, y, and z coordinates. The line
L is then given by

r  s   x  s  i  y  s  j  z  s  k  p0  sb 1.3.3  2 
df
Where p0 the position vector of P. is Db f  is the derivative of the function
ds
f  x  s  , y  s  , z  s   with respect to the arc length s of L as is shown by Equation (1.3.3-1). As

a result, using the chain rule and assuming that f has continuous partial derivatives, we get

df f f f
Db f   x  y  z 1.3.3  3
ds x y z

Where primes represent derivatives with respect to s (taken at s  0 ). Now, differentiating

(1.3.3-2) gives r  xi  yj  z k  b , such that (1.3.3-3) is simply the inner product of grad f
and b; that is,

16
 df  f f f 
Db f    i  j  k    xi  yj  zk 
ds  x y z 

df
Db f   grad f b 1.3.3  4 
ds

1.3.4 Direction of Maximum Increase

Here is a finer mathematical point about the consistency of our theory: grad T in (1.3.1-3)
appears to be a vector because it has three components! But, because it is defined in terms of
components based on Cartesian coordinates, we must show that grad T has a length and
T T T
direction independent of the choice of those coordinates. In comparison, i j k
x y z
appears to be a vector but lacks a length and direction independent of the Cartesian coordinates
used.

In addition, the direction makes the gradient extremely useful: grad T points in the direction of
the greatest increase in T.

THEOREM

Let f  P   f  x, y, z  be a scalar function in space with continuous first partial derivatives in

some domain B in space. Then grad f exists in B and is a vector, which means that its length
and direction are independent of the Cartesian coordinates used. If grad f  P   0 at some point

P, it has the greatest rise off at P.

PROOF Using (1.3.3−4) and the definition of inner product we have

df
Db f   b grad f cos   grad f cos  1.3.3  5 
ds

Where  is the angle between b and grad f. f is now a scalar function. As a result, its value at
a point P depends on P but not on the specific choice of coordinates. The same is true for the
arc length s of the line L, and hence Db f . For cos   1,   0, (1.3.3−5) shows that Db f is

maximum and then Db f  grad f . As a result, the length and direction of grad f are

independent of the coordinates used. Since   0 if and only if b has the direction of grad f, the
latter is the direction of maximum increase off at P, provided grad f  0 at P.

17
1.4 DIVERGENCE OF A VECTOR POINT FUNCTION

1.4.1 Definition

The gradient can be used to create a vector field from a scalar field (Sec. 1.3.1). By using the
divergence, we may obtain a scalar field from a vector field.

We begin by considering a differentiable vector function v  x, y, z  , where x, y, z are Cartesian

coordinates, and the components of v be v1 , v2 , v3 . Then the function

v1 v2 v3

div v    1.4.1  1
x y z

is referred to as the divergence of v or the divergence of the vector field defined by v. Another
common notation for the divergence of v is  v ,

    
div v   v   i  j  k   v1i  v2 j  v3k 
 x y z 
v v v
 1 2 3 1.4.1  2 
x y z

For example, if

v  2 x 2 zi  3 yj  xyz 3k ,

then

    
div v   v   i  j  k   2 x 2 zi  3 yj  xyz 3k 
 x y z 
  
  2 x 2 z    3 y    xyz 3 
x y z
 4 xz  3  3xyz 2

1.4.2 Physical Interpretation

The word divergence is appropriate, because  v is a measure of how far the vector v spreads
out (diverges) from the location in question. For instance, consider the vector function in Fig.
as has a high (positive) divergence (if the arrows headed in, it would be a large negative
divergence). The function in Fig. b has zero divergence. Fig. c exhibits a positive divergence
once more.

18
1.4.3 Properties of Divergence of a Vector Point Function

The product rule for differentiating tells us that div(fve) where f is a scalar field consists of two
parts: in one the derivatives act on v and in the other on f.

div  f v   fdiv  v   v  div  f 

div  f g   f 2 g  f g

1.5 EXAMPLES

Example 1

Find the angle between two vectors 2𝑖 + 3𝑗 + 𝑘, 5𝑖 − 2𝑗 + 3𝑘

Solution

We obtain the magnitude of two vectors:

|2𝑖 + 3𝑗 + 𝑘| = √22 + 32 + 12 = √14

|5𝑖 − 2𝑗 + 3𝑘| = √52 + (−2)2 + 32 = √38
Now computing the inner product, we have:
(2𝑖 + 3𝑗 + 𝑘). (5𝑖 − 2𝑗 + 3𝑘) = 10 − 6 + 3 = 7
Now, angle between them:
7 7
cos 𝜃 = =
√14 × √38 2√133
7
𝜃 = cos−1 = 72.30
2√133
Example 2

Find the vector product of 𝑎 = 3𝑖 − 3𝑗 + 𝑘, 𝑏 = 4𝑖 + 9𝑗 + 2𝑘

19
Solution

The cross product is given as:

Example 3

Calculate the area of the parallelogram formed by the vectors 𝑎 = 3𝑖 − 3𝑗 + 𝑘, 𝑏 = −12𝑖 +

12𝑗 − 4𝑘

Solution

The cross product of both the vectors will give us the area of the parallelogram formed by these
vectors.

𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
𝑎×𝑏 =| 3 −3 1 | = 𝑖(−12 + 12) − 𝑗(−12 + 12) + 𝑘(36 − 36) = 0
−12 12 −4

The cross product turns out to be zero. The area formed by the parallelogram is zero.

If we carefully observe the vectors, we can see that 𝑏 = −4𝑎. It means that both the vectors
have same direction. And cross product of vectors along same direction results in zero vector.

Example 4

Find the volume of the parallelepiped formed by the vectors 𝑎 = −2𝑖 + 3𝑗 + 𝑘, 𝑏 = 4𝑗, 𝑐 =
−𝑖 + 3𝑗 + 3𝑘
Solution

The volume of the parallelepiped is equal to the scalar triple product of all the three vectors
given, i.e. volume is given as:

Hence the volume is the absolute value of the triple product, i.e 20 units.

20
Example 5

Find the gradient of the scalar point function given by 𝑓 = 6𝑥 2 − 7𝑦 − sin 𝑧

Solution

The gradient is given as:

𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
∇𝑓 = 𝑖+ 𝑗+ k
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑓
= 12𝑥
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑓
= −7
𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑓
= − cos 𝑧
𝜕𝑧
Thus the gradient is:
∇𝑓 = 12𝑥 𝑖 − 7 𝑗 − cos 𝑧 k
Example 6

Check if the vector field 𝑭 = 𝑥 2 𝑦 𝑖 + 𝑦 − 𝑥𝑦 2 𝑗 − 𝑧 𝑘 is magnetic

Solution

Divergence of vector is given as:

𝜕𝑭 𝜕𝑭 𝜕𝑭
∇. 𝑭 = + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑭
= 2𝑥𝑦
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑭
= 1 − 2𝑥𝑦
𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑭
= −1
𝜕𝑧
⇒ ∇. 𝑭 = 2𝑥𝑦 + 1 − 2𝑥𝑦 − 1 = 0
Thus the field is magnetic.

1.6 SUMMARY

 Vector can be said as a scalar with direction.

 Dot product of two vectors, also known as inner product results in a scalar

 Cross product of two vectors results in a vector orthogonal to the vectors

 Cross product of two vectors along the same direction results in a zero vector

21
  Gradient of scalar point function is directional derivative of the function. Gradient gives
the direction of maximum increase of the function, magnitude of gradient gives the rate
of increase along the maximal direction

 Gradient can be used to create a vector field from scalar. On contrary, divergence results
in a scalar from a vector field.

 Divergence is measure of how far vector diverges. A field is said to be magnetic, if its
divergence is zero.

1.7 UNIT END QUESTIONS

Multiple Choice Questions

1. Identify a vector quantity among the following:

a. Magnetic flux
b. Magnetic potential
c. Magnetic field intensity
d. Relative permeability

2. The value of the cross product (𝒂 + 𝒃) × (𝒂 − 𝒃) is:

a. 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2
b. 𝒂 × 𝒃
c. 𝒃 × 𝒂
d. 𝟐(𝒃 × 𝒂)

3. If 𝑨𝑩 × 𝑨𝑪 = 2𝑖 − 4𝑗 + 4𝑘. Then the area of Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 is:

a. 3 sq. units
b. 5 sq. units
c. 6 sq. units
d. 12 sq. units

4. If |𝒂 × 𝒃|𝟐 + |𝒂. 𝒃|𝟐 = 144 and |𝒂| = 4, then |𝒃| =?

a. 2
b. 3
c. 8
d. 20

22
 5. Divergence of 𝑥 2 𝑧 𝑖 + 𝑥𝑦 𝑗 − 𝑦𝑧 2 𝑘 at (1,-1,1) is:

a. 0
b. 3
c. 5
d. 6
Answers:
1. c, 2. d, 3. a, 4. b, 5. c

Short Questions

1. Find the unit vector in the direction of the sum of the vectors 𝑎 = 2𝑖 − 𝑗 + 2𝑘, 𝑏 =
−𝑖 + 𝑗 + 3𝑘

2. If the sum of two unit vectors is an unit vector, prove that the magnitude of their
difference is √3

3. Show that the vectors 𝑖 + 2𝑗 − 3𝑘, 2𝑖 − 𝑗 + 2𝑘, 3𝑖 + 𝑗 − 𝑘 are coplanar

4. Evaluate ∇. 𝑭 and 𝛁 × 𝑭 when 𝑭 = 𝑥𝑦 2 𝑖 − 𝑦𝑧 2 𝑗 + 𝑧𝑥 2 𝑘

4𝑦 2
5. Compute divergence of F= 𝑧 2 (𝑦 − 𝑥)𝑖 + 𝑗 + (𝑥 2 − 3𝑧)𝑘
𝑧3

Long Questions

𝜕2
1. 𝑎 = 𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 𝑖 − 2𝑥𝑧 3 𝑗 + 𝑥𝑧 2 𝑘, 𝑏 = 2𝑧 𝑖 + 𝑦𝑗 − 𝑥 2 𝑘. Find 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 (𝑎 × 𝑏) at (1,0,.2)

2. If 𝒂 = 2𝑦𝑧 𝑖 − 𝑥 2 𝑦 𝑗 + 𝑥𝑧 2 𝑘, 𝒃 = 𝑥 2 𝑖 + 𝑦𝑧 𝑗 − 𝑥𝑦 𝑘, 𝜙 = 2𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 3 . Find

i. (𝒂. 𝛁)𝜙

ii. 𝒂. ∇𝜙

iii. 𝒃 × ∇𝜙

3. 𝜙 = 2𝑥𝑧 − 𝑦 2 𝑧. Find

i. ∇𝜙

ii. ∇2 𝜙

iii. ∇ × (∇𝜙)

4. If 𝜙 = 𝑥 3 𝑦 2 𝑧. Find

i. ∇𝜙

23
 ii. The rate of change of 𝜙 at (1,1,1) in the direction of i

5. If 𝐹 = −(4𝑦 − 1)𝑖 + 𝑥𝑦 2 𝑗 + (𝑥 − 3𝑦)𝑘. Find

i. Divergence of F

ii. Gradient of divergence of F

1.8 REFERENCES

 Advanced engineering mathematics, Kreyszig et al. - John Wiley & Sons – 2011

 Advanced calculus, Taylor & Mann - Wiley - 1983

 Introduction to electrodynamics, Griffiths - Pearson – 2014

 J Heading, ”Mathematical Methods in Science and Engineering”, 2nd ed., Ch.13,

(Arnold).

 G Stephenson, ”Mathematical Methods for Science Students”, 2nd ed., Ch.19,

(Longman).

 E Kreyszig, ”Advanced Engineering Mathematics”, 6th ed., Ch.6, (Wiley).

 K F Riley, M. P. Hobson and S. J. Bence, ”Mathematical Methods for the Physics and

Engineering” Chs.6, 8 and 9, (CUP).

 A J M Spencer, et. al. ”Engineering Mathematics”, Vol.1, Ch.6, (Van Nostrand
Reinhold).

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