CHAPTER 8: FLACTUATING LOADS ON POWER PLANTS

8.1 Introduction

The load required by the consumer does not remain constant with time.(hour,
day or month) and it fluctuates according to this requirements.

The energy from power plant is sent to substations which are located at the ends
of the primary distribution system. The energy from the substations is carried through
the feeders to the distribution transformers. Each transformer is connected to the
systems of one or more customers by short low voltage line.

Each customer has a connected load which is the sum of all equipment’s located
is the costumers house. The design of transformers, feeders, substation is fully
dependent on the connected loads to the customers.

8.2 Terms and Definitions

1-Connected Load (C.L)

The connected load is the sum of ratings in KW of the equipment’s installed in

the customer’s premises. The total load connected load in the consumer’s premises

= 60 + 500 + 60 + 60 + 100 + 500 + 100 + 60 = 𝟏𝟒𝟒𝟎 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠

Supply

100
W
60 W 100 W Ironing
Bulb 60 W Heater
500 W
500W

Fan 60 W

1
 2-Maximum Demand (M.D)

It is the maximum load which a consumer uses at any time. It can be less than or
equal to connected load. If all the devices fitted in consumer’s house run to their fullest
extent simultaneously then the maximum demand will be equal to connected load. But
generally the actual maximum demand is less than the connected load because all the
devices never run at full load at the same time. Maximum demand of a power plant is
the maximum load on the power station in a given period.

3-Demand Factor (D.F)

It is defined as the ratio of maximum demand (M.D) to connected load (C.L).

𝑀. 𝐷
𝐷. 𝐹 = ≤1
𝐶. 𝐿

4-Load Curve

It is graphical representation between load and time in hours. It shows variation

of load on the power station. When it is plotted for 24 hours of a day it is called daily
load curve and if the time considered is of one year (8760 hours) then it is called annual
load curve. The area under the curve represents the energy generated in the period
considered. The peak load indicated by the load curve represents the maximum demand
in the power station.

Load curves give full information about the incoming load and help to decide the
installed capacity of the power station and to decide the economical sizes of various
generating units. They also help to estimate the generating cost and to decide the
operating schedule of the power stations; Figure 8.1 shows a load curve.

2
 Fig. 8.1

The energy generated in the period considered is given by the following

expression
𝜏

𝐸 = ∫ 𝐿 𝑑𝜏 𝐾𝑤ℎ
0

The problem in designing the power plant is dependent on the way adopted to
use the energy. Moreover the cost of energy production is dependent on the way
adopted12to use energy. For example,
6 AM 𝑑𝜏 customer A and12 B consume 6thePMsame amount of
12
energy but the way of consumption is different as shown in Figure 8.2.

Customer B
Customer A

𝐸𝐴
𝐸𝐵

12 6 AM 12 6 PM 12 12 6 AM 12 6 PM 12

Fig. 8.2
3
 The customer B has a peak load is as greater than the customer A therefore the
generating capacity of the plant required to supply the load of B is greater than that of
A. the plant designed for B is not only bigger in size but it also runs under load condition
for a majority of the period. Therefore the cost of energy supplied to b may be greater
than the cost of energy supplied to A even the total energy consumed by both
consumers is same.

5-Average Load (A.L)

The average load is calculated dividing the area under the load curve by the time
period considered to draw the load curve.

𝐸 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
𝐴. 𝐿 = =
𝜏 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
6-Load Factor (L.F)

It is defined as the ratio of average load to maximum demand. Load factors and
demand factors are always less than unity. Load factor plays an important part in the
cost of generation per unit. The higher the load factor the lesser will be the cost of
generation per unit for the same maximum demand.

𝐴. 𝐿 𝐸
𝐿. 𝐹 = = <1
𝑀. 𝐷 𝜏 × 𝑀. 𝐷
7-Plant Capacity Factor (P.C.F)

It is defined as the ratio od actual energy produced (E) in kilowatt hours (Kwh) to
the maximum possible energy that could have been produced during the same period.

𝐸 𝐴. 𝐿
𝑃. 𝐶. 𝐹 = =
𝐶×𝜏 𝐶
Where:

𝐸 = 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 (𝐾𝑤ℎ)

𝐶 = 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 (𝐾𝑤)
𝜏 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑

8-Plant Use Factor (P.U.F)

It is defined as the ratio of energy produced in given time to the maximum

possible energy that could have been produced during the actual number of hours the
plant was in operation.

4
 𝐸
𝑃. 𝑈. 𝐹 =
𝐶 × 𝜏1

Where: 𝜏1 = 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.

9-Diversity Factor (D.F)

It is defined as the ratio of sum of individual maximum demand to the

simultaneous maximum demand of a system. Usually the maximum demands of various
consumers do not occur at the same time and simultaneous maximum demand is less
than their total maximum demand. Diversity factor is more than unity

𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑠

𝐷. 𝐹 =
𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠𝑙𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑

10-Load Duration Curve

Load duration curve represents re-arrangement of all the load elements of

chronological load curve in the order of descending magnitude. This curve is derived
from the load curve. Consider a typical daily load curve (figure 8.3a) for a power station.
It is observed that maximum load on power station is 32kw from 2 to 6 P.M. This is
plotted in figure 8.3b. Similarly other loads of the load curve are plotted in descending
order in the same figure. This is called load duration curve.

Figure 8.3 a

5
 35

30

25
Load (KW)

20

15

10

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time hours

Figure 8.3 b

The area under the load duration curve and the corresponding load curve is
equal and represents, total energy delivered by the generation station. Load duration
curve gives a clear analysis of generating power economically. Proper selection of base
load power plant and peak load power plants becomes easier.

8.3-Economic Load sharing between Base load a Peak load power plants

The power plants used to supply the load of the base portion of load curve are
called base load power plants. They are of large capacity and run throughout the year.

The plants which supply the load on the top portion of load curve are called peak
load plants. They are of smaller capacity and run for short period in the year.

Consider a system having load duration curve shown in figure 8.4. The load to be
supplied by a base load power plant and peak load power plant.

6
 Fig. 8.4

Let:

𝐶1 = 𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡

𝐶2 = 𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝐶1 = 𝑅1 𝐿 + 𝑃1 𝐸
𝐶2 = 𝑅2 𝐿 + 𝑃2 𝐸

Let 𝑀 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚

𝐸 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝑀1 = 𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡
𝐸1 = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑀2 = 𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡
𝑀2 = 𝑀 − 𝑀1
𝐸2 = 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐸2 = 𝐸 − 𝐸1
𝐶1 = 𝑅1 𝑀1 + 𝑃1 𝐸1
𝐶2 = 𝑅2 𝑀2 + 𝑃2 𝐸2 = 𝑅2 (𝑀 − 𝑀1 ) + 𝑃2 (𝐸 − 𝐸1 )
𝐶 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
𝐶 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 = 𝑅1 𝑀1 + 𝑃1 𝐸1 + 𝑅2 (𝑀 − 𝑀1 ) + 𝑃2 (𝐸 − 𝐸1 )

7
 Now for minimum cost 𝑑𝐶⁄𝑑𝑀 = 0
1

𝑑𝐶 𝑑𝐸1 𝑑𝐸1
= 𝑅1 + 𝑃1 − 𝑅2 − 𝑃2 =0
𝑑𝑀1 𝑑𝑀1 𝑑𝑀1

𝑑𝐸1 𝑅1 −𝑅2
This gives =
𝑑𝑀1 𝑃2 −𝑃1

𝐸1 the number of units generated by the base load station is represented by area
under straight line AB Figure 8.4

Therefore 𝑑𝐸1 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷

= 𝑑𝑀1 × 𝐴𝐵

𝑑𝐸1 𝑅1 − 𝑅2
𝐴𝐵 = =
𝑑𝑀1 𝑃2 − 𝑃1
𝑅1 −𝑅2
This indicates that for economic load sharing the peak load should run for 𝑃2 −𝑃1
hours in one year.

8.4-Plant Performance and Operation Characteristics

Boilers, turbines, generators etc. of a power station should work efficiently.

Some curves are plotted to observe their performance. The various curves used are as
follows:

I-Input-output curve: Performance of a power plant is most precisely described

by the input-output curve which is a graphical representation between net energy
output (L) and input (I). The input is generally expressed as k cal/hr and load or output is
expressed in megawatts.

Figure 8.5a shows input-output curve. In order to keep the apparatus functioning
at zero load a certain input (I0) is required to meet frictional and heat losses.

8
 Figure 8.5

II-Efficiency Curve

The ratio of output of power station to input is called efficiency. The efficiency
curve is obtained by plotting efficiency against output. It is shown in figure 8.5b

III-Heat rate curve

The ratio of input to output is known as heat rate (HR)

𝐼
𝐻𝑅 = 𝐿

Heat rate curve is obtained by plotting values of heat rate against corresponding
value of output. Figure 8.5c shows the heat rate curve.

IV-Incremental Rate Curve

Incremental rate (IR) is defined as:

𝑑𝐼
𝐼𝑅 =
𝑑𝐿

9
 Incremental rate curve is obtained by plotting values of IR against corresponding
values of output. Figure 8.5d shows the incremental rate curve. This curve express
additional energy required to produce an added unit of output at the given load.

8.5-Economic Load Sharing

The total load to be supplied by power station should be economically

distributed among the various generating units installed at the power station. Consider
a power station having to generating units A and B. Figure 8.6(a) shows the input and
output curves of power generating unit A and B which supply in parallel a common load.
For economical loading the combined input of units A and B should be plotted against
load on unit A for a constant total load. Let a total load of 4MW is to be supplied by
units A and B.

𝐿𝐶 = 4𝑀𝑊
𝐿𝐶 = 𝐿𝐴 + 𝐿𝐵

Where

𝐿𝐶 = 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡

𝐿𝐴 = 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝐴

𝐿𝐵 = 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝐵

Figure 8.6

10
 Let the unit (B) supplies load of 4MW and unit A supplies zero load.

Now corresponding to zero load on unit A and 4 MW on unit B the values of

input to unit A (𝐼𝐴 ) and input to unit B(𝐼𝐵 ) can be determined respectively from figure
8.6a and thus value of (𝐼𝐴 +𝐼𝐵 ) can be plotted against zero load on unit A. Again let 2MW
is supplied by unit A and 2 MW is supplied by unit B (so that total load remains 4 MW)
then values of 𝐼𝐴 and 𝐼𝐵 can be determined corresponding to 2 MW load on each unit
and value of (𝐼𝐴 +𝐼𝐵 ) can be plotted against 2MW load on unit A as shown in figure
8.6(b). In this way curve for a total load of 4MW can be plotted corresponding to
different output of unit A.

Similarly curves for total load of 8 MW, 21 MW etc. can be plotted. In these
curves there is at least a point where combined input is minimum for a given total load.
Corresponding to this point of minimum, the load on unit B will be difference of total
load and load on unit A.

This method is not easily applicable for power stations where more than two
power generating units supply the load.

Consider two units A and B sharing a total load 𝐿𝐶 . Let,

𝐼𝐶 = 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
= 𝐼𝐴 + 𝐼𝐵 … … … … … … (𝑖)
= 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝐴 + 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝐵
𝐿𝐶 = 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
= 𝐿𝐴 + 𝐿𝐵
= 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝐴 + 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝐵

Differentiating equation (i) , we get

𝑑𝐼𝐶 𝑑𝐼𝐴 𝑑𝐼𝐵

= + =0 [𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐼𝐶 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡]
𝑑𝐿𝐴 𝑑𝐿𝐴 𝑑𝐿𝐴

Therefore,

𝑑𝐼𝐴 𝑑𝐼𝐵
=− … … … … … … (1)
𝑑𝐿𝐴 𝑑𝐿𝐴

But

𝑑𝐼𝐵 𝑑𝐼𝐴 𝑑𝐿𝐵

= × … … … … … … (2)
𝑑𝐿𝐴 𝑑𝐿𝐵 𝑑𝐿𝐴

11
 Now

𝐿𝐶 = 𝐿𝐴 + 𝐿𝐵

𝑑𝐿𝐶 𝑑𝐿𝐴 𝑑𝐿𝐵

= +
𝑑𝐿𝐴 𝑑𝐿𝐴 𝑑𝐿𝐴

But 𝐿𝐶 is constant

𝑑𝐿𝐶
=0
𝑑𝐿𝐴

𝑑𝐿𝐴 𝑑𝐿𝐵
− =
𝑑𝐿𝐴 𝑑𝐿𝐴

𝑑𝐿𝐵
−1 = … … … … … … (3)
𝑑𝐿𝐴

Substituting in (2) we get

𝑑𝐼𝐵 𝑑𝐼𝐵
=− … … … … … … (4)
𝑑𝐿𝐴 𝑑𝐿𝐵

From (1) and (4)

𝑑𝐼𝐴 𝑑𝐼𝐵
=
𝑑𝐿𝐴 𝑑𝐿𝐴

Therefore, to achieve best economy in load sharing, the slopes of the input-
output curves for each unit must be equal at 𝐿𝐴 and 𝐿𝐵 (Figure 8.7). In other words the
incremental rates are equal (i.e.𝐼𝑅𝐴 = 𝐼𝑅𝐵 ).
Input I

𝐿𝐴 𝐿𝐵 Load
12
8.6-Condition for maximum efficiency

The load at which efficiency will be maximum, the heat rate will be minimum at
that load as efficiency is inverse of heat rate.

𝐿
Efficiency,𝜂 =
𝐼
Heat rate, 𝐻𝑅 = 𝐿𝐼
Therefore for minimum value of heat rate

𝑑(𝐻𝑅)
=0
𝑑𝐿
𝐼
𝑑 (𝐿 )
=0
𝑑𝐿
𝐿𝑑𝐼 − 𝐼𝑑𝐿
=0
𝐼2
𝐿𝑑𝐼 = 𝐼𝑑𝐿

𝐼 𝑑𝐼
= 𝑖. 𝑒 𝐻𝑅 = 𝐼𝑅
𝐿 𝑑𝐿
This shows that efficiency will be maximum at a load where heat rate is equal to
incremental heat rate.

Example 8.1: A power station supplies the following loads to the consumers:

Time in h 0-6 6-10 10-12 12-16 16-20 20-22 22-24

Load in MW 20 50 60 40 80 70 40

Find out: (a) Load factor of the plant

(b) What is the load factor of a stand by equipment of 20 MW capacity if it
takes up all loads above 60 MW.

Solution: The daily load curve is drawn for the given load as shown in the figure:

13
 90
80
70
60
Load (MW)
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time in hours

Daily Load Curve

Energy generated = area under curve

𝐸 = 20 × 6 + 50 × 4 + 60 × 2 + 40 × 4 + 80 × 4 + 70 × 2 + 40 × 2
= 1140 𝑀𝑊ℎ𝑟𝑠

𝐸
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 =
𝜏
1140
𝐴. 𝐿 = = 47.5 𝑀𝑊
24
𝐴. 𝐿 47.5
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐿. 𝐹 = = = 0.594
𝑀. 𝐷 80
b) if the load above 60 MW is supplied by a stand by unit of 20 MW capacity. The energy
generated

= 20 × 4 + 10 × 2 = 100 𝑀𝑊ℎ𝑟𝑠

Time during which stand-by unit remains in operation

= 6 ℎ𝑟𝑠 ( 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒)

100
𝐴. 𝐿 = = 16.7 𝑀𝑊
6
𝐴. 𝐿 16.7
𝐿. 𝐹 = = = 0.835
𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 20

14
Example 8.2: The peak load on a power station is 30 MW. The loads having maximum
demands of 15 MW, 10 MW, 5 MW and 7 MW are connected to the power station. The
capacity of the power station is 40 MW and annual load factor is 50 %. Find out: (a)
Average load on the power plant (b) Energy supplied per year (c) Demand factor (d)
Diversity factor.

Solution:
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐴.𝐿
(a) Load factor = = 𝑃.𝐿
𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝐴. 𝐿 = 𝑃. 𝐿 × 𝐿. 𝐹 = 30 × 0.5 = 15 𝑀𝑊
(b) Energy supplied per year =𝐴. 𝐿 × 𝜏
𝐸 = 15 × 8760 = 131.4 × 103 𝑀𝑊ℎ𝑟𝑠
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 30
(c) 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = = = 0.81
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 15+10+5+7
𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑥.𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑠 15+10+5+7
(d) 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = = = 1.23
𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑠𝑙𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑥.𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑠 30

Example 8.3: A power plant supplies the loads as tabulated below:

Time 6-8 8-9 9-12 12-2 2-6 6-8 8-9 9-11 11PM- 5AM-
hours AM AM AM PM PM PM PM PM 5AM 6AM
Load 1200 2000 3000 1500 2500 1800 2000 100 500 800
(KW)
(a) Draw the load curve and find out the load factor on the basis of 24 hrs.
(b) Choose the proper number and size of generator unit to supply this load.
(c) Find the reserve capacity of the plant and plant capacity factor.
(d) Find out the operation schedule of the units selected.
(e) Calculate the plant use factor.
Solution:

(a) The load curve is drawn as shown in the figure:

15
 Load Curve
Total power generated during 24 hrs.,
𝐸 = 1200 × 2 + 2000 × 1 + 3000 × 3 + 1500 × 2 + 2500 × 4 + 1800 × 2 +
2000 × 1 + 1000 × 2 + 500 × 6 + 800 × 1 = 37800 𝐾𝑊ℎ

𝐸 37800
𝐿. 𝐹 = = = 0.525
𝑀. 𝐷 × 𝜏 3000 × 24

(b) It is obvious from the load curve that the number of sets required are 5 number:
One set of 1200 KW
One set of 800 KW
Two sets of 500 KW
One set of 300 KW

(c) The reserve capacity required is always equal to the largest size of the generator
unit used in the station. In this case, the reserve capacity= 1200 KW
Total installed capacity of the station
=1200+800+500×2+300+1200(reserve)
=4500 KW
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 24 ℎ𝑟𝑠 37800
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = = = 0.35
𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 24 4500 × 24
(d) The operating schedule is given below:
(e)
Operating Schedule
Time period Sets running Remark

16
 6 AM-8 AM One set of As load is only 1200 KW during this period
1200 the generator at 6 AM is started
8 AM-9 AM One set of Set of 800 KW started at 8 AM and 1200 KW
1200 set is already running
one set of 800
9 AM-12 NOON One set of As 1000 KW is increased at 9 AM, therefore
1200 both sets of 500 kw started at 9 AM
one set of 800
two sets of
500
12 NOON-2 PM One set of One set of 800 KW and two sets of 500 KW
1200 capacity are stopped at 12 NOON and 300
one set of 300 KW generator is started at 12 NOON
2 PM-6 PM One set of The generator of 300 KW capacity is stopped
1200 and the generators of 800 and 500 KW
One set of 800 capacity are started at 2 PM as the total
One set of 500 required load during 2 PM to 6 PM is 2500
KW
6 PM-8 PM One set of The generator of 500 KW capacity is stopped
1200 at 6 PM as the total is 1800 i.e. that is 800
One set of 800 KW capacity runs under load conditions
8 PM- 9PM One set of During this period both generators operate
1200 at full load conditions
One set of 800
9 PM-11 PM One set of The generator of 800 KW capacity is stopped
1200 at 9 PM as the net load required is 1000 KW.
During this period the generator of 1200 KW
runs under load conditions.
11 PM-5 AM One set of 500 The generator of 1200 capacity is stopped
and generator of 500 KW capacity is started
at 11 PM as the required load is 500 KW
5 AM-6 AM One set of 500 The generator of 300 KW capacity is started
One set of 300 at 5AM as the total load required is 800 KW
6 AM One set of The generator of 500 KW capacity and 300
1200 KW capacity are stopped at 6 AM and a
generator of 1200 KW capacity is started as
the load required at 6 AM is 1200 KW

(f) The actual energy generated within 24 hrs. =37800 KWh

The energy that could have been generated by the capacity of the plant actually
running for the schedule time

17
 = ∑ 𝐶𝜏1 = 1200 × 17 + 800 × 11 + 500 × 3 + 500 × 7 + 300 × 3
= 38600𝐾𝑊ℎ
𝐸 37800
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑈𝑠𝑒 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑃. 𝑈. 𝐹 = = = 0.98
∑ 𝐶𝜏1 38600

Example 8.4:

For a power station, the yearly duration curve is a straight decreasing line from 30,000
to 4,000 KW. To meet the load, three generators are installed. The capacity of two
generators is 15,000 KW each, and the third is rated at 5,000 KW.

Determine (𝑎) Load factor

(𝑏) Capacity factor

(𝑐) Maximum demand

Solution:

As shown in the figure below, the load curve is a decreasing straight line from 30,000 to
4,000 KW.

18
 30000

Load

4000

0 8760
𝝉

𝐴. 𝐿
𝐿 .𝐹 =
𝑀. 𝐷

1
𝐸 = 4,000 × 8760 + 8750 × 26,000 = 8760 × 17,000 𝐾𝑊ℎ
2

𝐸 8760 × 17,000
𝐴.𝐿 = = = 17,000 𝐾𝑊
𝜏 8760

𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 30,000 𝐾𝑊

17,000
𝐿 .𝐹 = = 0.57
30,000

𝐸
𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝐶 × 𝜏

𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 15,000 + 15,000 + 5,000 = 35,000 𝐾𝑊

17,000 × 8760
𝐶 . 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = = 0.49
35,000 × 8760

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Example 8.5:

An input-output curve of a 10 MW station is expressed as follows:

𝐼 = 106 ( 10 + 8𝐿 + 0.4 𝐿2 )

Where 𝐼 in K.cal and 𝐿 in MW

(𝑎) Without plotting any curve, find the load at which the maximum efficiency occurs.

(𝑏) Find the increase input required to increase station output from 3 to 5 MW by
means of the input-output curve, and by incremental rate curve.

Solution:

(𝑎)

𝐼 = 106 (10 + 8𝐿 + 0.4 𝐿2 )

𝐼 10
= 106 ( + 8 + 0.4 𝐿)
𝐿 𝐿

𝐿 1
𝜂= = (1)
𝐼 10
106 ( 𝐿 + 8 + 0.4 𝐿)

Now for maximum value of efficiency

𝑑𝜂
=0
𝑑𝐿

Differentiating (1), we get

10
𝑑𝜂 − 106 (− + 0.4)
= 𝐿2 =0
2
𝑑𝐿 10
[106 (𝐿 + 8 + 0.4 𝐿)]

10
− 106 ( − + 0.4 ) = 0
𝐿2

𝐿 = 5 𝑀𝑊 at which 𝜂 is maximum

20
(𝑏) When load 𝐿 = 3 𝑀𝑊

Input 𝐼3 = 106 ( 10 + 8 × 3 + 0.4 × 32 )

= 37.6 × 106 𝐾. 𝑐𝑎𝑙⁄ℎ𝑟

When load 𝐿 = 5 𝑀𝑊

Input 𝐼5 = 106 ( 10 + 8 × 5 + 0.4 × 52 )

= 60 × 106 𝐾. 𝑐𝑎𝑙⁄ℎ𝑟

Increase in input required 𝐼5 − 𝐼3 = (60 − 37.6)106

= 22.4 × 106 𝐾. 𝑐𝑎𝑙⁄ℎ𝑟

For incremental rate curve:

When load varies from 3 to 5 MW, the incremental rate may be considered straight
line, and the average height of area under the curve between 3 MW and 5 MW would
be at:

3+5
= 4 𝑀𝑊
2

𝐼 = 106 ( 10 + 8𝐿 + 0.4 𝐿2 )

𝑑𝐼
𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐼𝑅 = = ( 8 + 0.8 𝐿 )106
𝑑𝐿

𝐼𝑅 = ( 8 + 0.8 × 4 )106 = 11.2 × 106 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 4 𝑀𝑊

𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 11.2 × 2 × 106

= 22.4 × 106 𝐾. 𝐶𝑎𝑙/ℎ𝑟

21