2A-MEMBRANES AND

TRANSPORT
1-CELL MEMBRANES
 1 CELL MEMBRANES
MEMBRANES IN CELLS
There are many membranes within cells
E.g. surround organelles like the nucleus and mitochondria
The most obvious membrane is the cell surface membrane
(outer cell membrane)
which forms the boundary of the cell. Anything that leaves or
enters the cell must pass through this membrane.
All membranes act as barriers, controlling what passes
through them and allowing the fluids either side of them to
have different compositions.
This makes it possible to have the right conditions for a
particular reaction in one part of a cell and different
conditions to suit other elsewhere in the cell
 Phospholipid Membrane Structure
Membranes are vital structures found in all cells
The cell surface membrane creates an enclosed space separating
the internal cell environment from the external environment,
and intracellular membranes form compartments within the cell
such as the nucleus, mitochondria, and endoplasmic reticulum
Membranes do not only separate different areas but also
control the exchange of substances from one side of a membrane
to the other, as well as acting as an interface for communication
Membranes are partially permeable
Substances can cross membranes by diffusion and active transport
Membranes contain receptor proteins, e.g. for binding to hormones,
and antigens
 THE PHOSPHOLIPID BILAYER
The lipids in the membrane are called polar lipids
lipid molecules with one end joined to a polar group

phosphate group forming the polar part of the molecule

The polar phosphate part is hydrophilic (water-loving)
and dissolves easily in water.
The fatty acid chains of a phospholipid
are neutral and insoluble in water.
The lipid tails are hydrophobic (water-hating)
and insoluble in water.
molecules tightly packed in water form either a monolayer,
with the hydrophilic heads in the water and the
hydrophobic lipid tails in the air, or clusters called micelles.
In a micelle, all the hydrophilic heads point outwards and
all the hydrophobic tails are hidden inside
 THE PHOSPHOLIPID BILAYER
A monolayer may develop at a surface between air and
water
does not happen often in living cells where there are
water-based solutions on either side of membranes.
water on each side the phospholipid molecules form a
bilayer
The hydrophilic heads pointing into the water
The hydrophobic tails are protected in the middle
The fatty acid chains are non-polar, allowing non-polar
molecules like carbon dioxide to pass straight through the
phospholipid bilayer.
Polar substances , like water, have to move through channel
proteins , since they aren’t soluble in the fatty acid tails.
 Structure of membranes
The phospholipid bilayers that make up cell membranes
contain non-lipid components Proteins are involved with cell transport and communication
The proteins can either be intrinsic or extrinsic
Intrinsic proteins can also be referred to as integral
Extrinsic proteins can also be referred to as peripheral
Intrinsic proteins are embedded in the membrane with their precise arrangement determined by their
hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions
Extrinsic proteins are found on the outer or inner surface of the membrane
Cholesterol can be found between the phospholipids, where it regulates membrane fluidity
Cholesterol increases the fluidity of the membrane at low temperatures, stopping it from becoming too rigid
This occurs because cholesterol stops the phospholipid tails packing too closely together

Interaction between cholesterol and phospholipid tails also stabilizes the cell membrane at higher temperatures by stopping the
membrane from becoming too fluid

Cholesterol molecules bind to the hydrophobic tails of phospholipids, stabilizing them and causing
phospholipids to pack more closely together
Cholesterol increases the mechanical strength and stability of membranes; without it membranes would break down and cells
would burst
Glycolipids and glycoproteins are present on the surface of the cell, where they aid cell-to-cell communication
Glycoproteins are proteins with carbohydrate attached, while glycolipids are lipids with carbohydrate attached
The glycolipids and glycoproteins bind with substances at the cell’s surface, e.g. hormones
Some glycolipids and glycoproteins act as cell markers or antigens for cell-to-cell recognition
E.g. the ABO blood group antigens are glycolipids and glycoproteins that differ slightly in their carbohydrate
chains
Structure of membranes
Structure of membranes
Structure of membranes
Structure of membranes
THE FLUID MOSAIC MODEL OF THE CELL
MEMBRANE
THE FLUID MOSAIC MODEL OF THE CELL
MEMBRANE
The phospholipid bilayer with its additional
components is often described as a 'fluid
mosaic'
The scattered pattern produced by the
components within the phospholipid bilayer looks
somewhat like a mosaic when viewed from above
The mosaic of phospholipids and proteins can move
around within the bilayer by diffusion, hence the mosaic is
said to be 'fluid'
The phospholipids mainly move sideways, within their
own layer
The many different types of proteins interspersed
throughout the bilayer move about within it, although
some may be fixed in position
Note that the fluid mosaic model is one model of
membrane structure; other models have been
considered and rejected as knowledge of
membrane structure has advanced
The membrane is partially permeable
Small, non-polar molecules can pass through the gaps
between the phospholipids
Large, polar molecules must pass through specialized
membrane proteins called channel
proteins and carrier proteins
 Task

1. Which kinds of molecule are in the structure of a membrane and how do

their properties affect the properties of the membrane itself?
Phospholipids make up the main bilayer of the membrane, separating an
aqueous layer on one side from an aqueous layer on the other, by a
hydrophobic region that makes diffusion difficult for substances that are not
lipid-soluble or very small.
Large proteins that sit within or across the membrane act as controls or gates
for the passage of ionic and larger molecules across the membrane.
Glycoproteins on the outside of the membrane are part of the cell recognition
system
 Task
2. Explain why a membrane may be more fluid when it contains
more unsaturated fatty acids

Unsaturated fatty acids contain at least one double bond in the carbon
chain. The nature of any lipid is based on the balance of unsaturated
and saturated fatty acids – saturated fatty acids make compounds more
solid, and unsaturated fatty acids are more flexible molecules and make
substances more fluid or even liquid. So, a membrane containing a lot
of unsaturated fatty acids will be more fluid than one containing a lot of
saturated fatty acids and cholesterol
 2-CELL TRANSPORT AND DIFFUSION
The concentration of substances on either side of a membrane can be very
different.
The properties of the membrane affect the transport of substances into and out
of the cell, but the properties of the molecules to be transported also have
an effect.
The size of a molecule is important and so is its solubility in lipids and water
The presence or absence of charge on a molecule also affects how it is transported
-e.g. some substances simply pass through the membrane in the process of
diffusion
Those that dissolve very easily in lipids. Other very small molecules, such as the
gases oxygen and carbon dioxide, also pass freely in and out of cells through the
membrane.
Some large molecules, such as steroid hormones, are not transported through
the membrane. Many charged particles, such as sodium ions, need specific
carriers and pores to get from one side to the other.
The movement of particles across membranes is vital in living organisms for
everything from cellular respiration to rapid movements of all or part of an
organism
 THE MAIN TYPES OF TRANSPORT ACROSS
MEMBRANES
Substances are transported into, out of and around cells by a variety of different mechanisms.
Passive transport takes place when there are concentration, pressure or electrochemical gradients, and it involves no energy from the cell.
Active transport involves moving substances into or out of the cell by using adenosine triphosphate (ATP) which is produced during respiration
PASSIVE TRANSPORT MECHANISMS
(1) Diffusion-

The movement of particles in a liquid or gas down a concentration gradient.

They move from an area where they are at a relatively high concentration to an area where they are at a relatively low concentration by random
movements.
Cell membranes are no barrier to the diffusion of small particles such as the gases oxygen and carbon dioxide
(2) Facilitated diffusion – takes place through carrier proteins or protein channels. The protein-lined pores of the cell membrane make facilitated diffusion possible.
(3) Osmosis – a specialized form of diffusion that involves the movement of solvent molecules (in cells, this is free water molecules) down a water potential gradient through a
partially permeable membrane.
The partially permeable nature of the cell membrane means solutes (dissolved substances) can be accumulated either side of the membrane and this results in the movement of
water by osmosis across
ACTIVE TRANSPORT MECHANISMS
Active transport is the movement of substances across the membrane of cells using ATP as an immediate source of energy.
Active transport always involves a carrier protein which carries molecules or ions through the membrane using energy supplied by the breakdown of ATP.
There are two other mechanisms for moving substances into and out of cells. These also use energy from ATP.
They are:

Endocytosis – the movement of large molecules into cells through vesicle formation. The fluid nature of the cell membrane makes it possible to form vesicles.
Exocytosis – the movement of large molecules out of cells through fusion of vesicles to the membrane.
 DIFFUSION
Diffusion is a type of transport that can occur across a cell membrane
Note that diffusion can also happen within a cellular compartment; the
presence of a membrane is not essential
It can be defined as the net movement of a substance from a region of its higher
concentration to a region of its lower concentration
Net movement refers to the overall direction of movement; in reality
molecules in a liquid or gas move in all directions, but most molecules
move from a high to a low concentration
The molecules of a liquid or a gas move randomly due to the
kinetic energy of the molecules or ions
The molecules or ions move down a concentration gradient
Diffusion is a passive process meaning that it does not require energy in order
to occur
Diffusion can be described as passive transport
Diffusion will continue until the concentration of a substance on each
side of a membrane has become equal; this is known as equilibrium
Some molecules are able to diffuse directly between the phospholipids of
a membrane; this can be described as simple diffusion
Molecules that can move by simple diffusion tend to be small and non-
polar
Small molecules can fit between the phospholipids
Non-polar molecules are able to interact with the non-polar tails of
the phospholipids
The rate at which a substance diffuses across a membrane depends
on several factors
Concentration gradient
Temperature
Surface area
Diffusion
 FACILITATED DIFFUSION
Some substances cannot diffuse directly through
the phospholipid bilayer of cell membranes, e.g.
Large, polar molecules such as glucose and amino
acids
Ions such as sodium ions (Na+) and chloride
ions (Cl-)
These substances can only cross the phospholipid
bilayer with the help of transport proteins; this
form of diffusion is known as facilitated diffusion
There are two types of transport protein that
enable facilitated diffusion
Channel proteins
Carrier proteins
They are highly specific, meaning that they only
allow one type of molecule or ion to pass through
 FACILITATED DIFFUSION
Channel proteins
Channel proteins are pores that extend through the membrane from
one side to the other
They allow charged substances, e.g. ions, to diffuse through the cell
membrane
The diffusion of these ions does not occur freely; most channel
proteins are ‘gated’, meaning that part of the channel protein on the
inside surface of the membrane can move in order to close or open
the pore
This allows the channel protein to control the exchange of ions

Carrier proteins
Unlike channel proteins which have a fixed shape, carrier proteins can
switch between two shapes
This causes the binding site of the carrier protein to be open to one
side of the membrane first, and then open to the other side of the
membrane when the carrier protein switches shape
The direction of movement of molecules diffusing across the
membrane depends on their relative concentration on each side of the
membrane
Net diffusion of molecules or ions into or out of a cell via carrier
FACILITATED DIFFUSION
Passive Transports
 Exam Tip

Remember that the movement of molecules from

high concentration to low concentration
is diffusion. If this movement requires the aid of a
protein, for example because the molecule is
charged and cannot pass directly through the
phospholipid bilayer, this is facilitated diffusion.
 Task
1. Explain why transport systems are needed across membranes

The properties of the membrane and the properties of the substances entering
or leaving a cell (such as their size, their solubility in water or lipids and their
charge), mean that many substances cannot cross cell membranes by simple
diffusion. Concentration gradients across cell membranes can also prevent
movement by simple diffusion. Any substances that cannot cross a cell
membrane by diffusion need a specific transport system, whether carrier
molecules or specific pores, to get from one side of the membrane to the other
 Task
2. Describe the conditions needed for the passive transport of
molecules into a cell.

The molecules need to be able to cross the membrane, and there needs
to be a concentration gradient for those molecules from one side of the
membrane to the other
 Task

3. Water and ions often enter the cell through protein pores but they
cannot pass through the lipid layer in the same way that oxygen and
carbon dioxide do. Why not?

Water can’t pass across the hydrophobic region in the middle of the
membrane, and ions are not lipid-soluble.
 Task

4. Explain the differences between simple diffusion and facilitated

diffusion

Simple diffusion is through the lipid part of the membrane, so can

happen at any part of the membrane. Facilitated diffusion can only
happen where there are suitable carriers in the membrane.
 3-OSMOSIS: A SPECIAL CASE OF DIFFUSION
Water can move in and out of cells across the cell surface membrane by a process called osmosis
Osmosis is the net movement of water molecules from a region of higher water potential to a region of lower water
potential through a partially permeable membrane
Water potential is a measure of the number of free water molecules present in a solution; higher water potential =
more free water molecules
All cells are surrounded by a cell surface membrane which is partially permeable
Water molecules will move from an area of more free water molecules to an area of fewer free water molecules
Water molecules are considered 'free' when they are not surrounding substances in a solution; when a
substance dissolves it becomes surrounded by water molecules; such water molecules are no
longer free and cannot move through a membrane readily
During osmosis water is moving down its concentration gradient, so it is a specialized form of diffusion
Cell membranes are partially permeable, allowing small molecules like water through but not larger
molecules such as solutes
Although water molecules are polar, they can still pass through the bilayer because of their small size.
 MODELLING OSMOSIS IN CELLS
Make a model cell using an artificial membrane that is permeable to
water molecules and impermeable to others such as sucrose.
 OSMOTIC CONCENTRATIONS
During osmotic experiments, cells are often immersed in solutions of different
osmotic concentration
The osmotic concentration of a solution is a measure of only those dissolved
substances that have an osmotic effect
This is important in living things because many of the large molecules found in
the cytoplasm of a cell do not affect the movement of water into or out of the
cell and so we ignore them when calculating osmotic concentration.
• In an isotonic solution, the osmotic concentration of the solutes in the solution
is the same as that in the cells.
• In a hypotonic solution, the osmotic concentration of solutes in the solution is
lower than that in the cytoplasm of the cells
In a hypertonic solution, the osmotic concentration of solutes in the solution is
higher than that in the cytoplasm.
 OSMOSIS IN PLANTS AND ANIMAL CELLS
Osmosis is important because it constantly affects
the cells of living organisms
Cell cytoplasm consists of water and dissolved substances,
meaning that it has a water potential of its own
Cells lose or take on water depending on the water potential
of their surroundings in comparison to their cytoplasm
(Hypertonic)When cells are placed in pure water, which
has the highest possible water potential, water moves into
the cells by osmosis and the cells swell
In animal cells this could lead to cell bursting
In plant cells the cell wall prevents bursting
(Hypotonic)When cells are placed into a solution that has a
lower water potential than their cytoplasm, e.g. a
concentrated glucose solution, water moves out of the cells by
osmosis and the cells shrink
In animal cells the entire cell shrivels
In plant cells the vacuole and cytoplasm shrink but the cell
wall maintains the overall shape of the cell
 OSMOSIS IN PLANTS AND ANIMAL
CELLS
 TASK

1. Write a definition of osmosis using the term water potential and

give two examples of where osmosis is important in living
organisms.
 TASK

2. In an experiment, human cheek cells were placed in three solutions: an

isotonic solution, a hypertonic solution and a hypotonic solution. Describe
what you would expect to happen in each case. Explain your answers in terms
of water potential and osmosis
Isotonic: there would be no change to the cells because as many water molecules
would diffuse into the cells from the solution as in the opposite direction.
Hypotonic: the cytoplasm of the cells is more concentrated than the solution outside
the cells, so more water molecules would diffuse into the cells than out of them, and
the cells would swell up and possibly burst.
Hypertonic: the cytoplasm of the cells is more dilute than the solution outside the
cells, so more water molecules will diffuse out of the cells than into them, so the cells
would shrink.
 TASK

3. Without osmosis, plants as we know them would not survive.

True or false? Discuss.
 Exam Tip

Remember that the movement of molecules

from high concentration to low concentration
is diffusion. If this movement requires the aid of
a protein, for example because the molecule is
charged and cannot pass directly through the
phospholipid bilayer, this is facilitated diffusion.
 4-ACTIVE TRANSPORT
Active transport is the movement of molecules
and ions through a cell membrane from a region of
lower concentration to a region of higher concentration
Active transport requires energy in the
form of ATP from respiration to move
substances against their concentration
gradient; hence this is an active process
Active transport requires carrier proteins
Each carrier protein is specific to a
particular type of molecule or ion
Energy is required to allow the carrier
protein to change shape; this transfers the
molecules or ions across the cell membrane
The energy required is provided by
ATP (adenosine triphosphate) produced
during respiration
The ATP is hydrolyzed to release energy
 ACTIVE TRANSPORT
The energy needed for active transport is
provided by molecules of adenosine
triphosphate (ATP)
Cells that carry out a lot of active transport
generally have many mitochondria to supply
the ATP they need
The active transport carrier system in the
membrane involves the enzyme ATPase
This enzyme catalyzes the hydrolysis of ATP
by breaking one bond and forming two
more (ADP and PI)
This provides the energy needed to move
carrier systems in the membrane or to release
the transported substances and return the
system to normal
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
 ACTIVE TRANSPORT

Active transport moves substances across a membrane from low to high concentration. Note
that ATP is required for carrier proteins to change shape
 EXAM HINT
Remember that active transport moves
substances against the concentration
gradient and requires energy from ATP
(metabolic energy) to do it. You must be able
to discuss the role of ATP in changing the
shape of the carrier protein to answer
questions on this topic well
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
 ACTIVE TRANSPORT

Examples of active transport include

Reabsorption of useful molecules and ions into the
blood after filtration into the kidney tubules
Absorption of some products of digestion from the
digestive tract into the blood
Loading sugar from the photo synthesizing cells of
leaves into the phloem tissue for transport around
the plant
Loading inorganic ions from the soil into root hair cells
 Exam Tip

Be careful not to get carrier proteins

and channel proteins confused when
answering questions on active
transport. Active transport
requires carrier
proteins (transmembrane transport
proteins that undergo conformational
change) not channel proteins.
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
 Endocytosis & Exocytosis
Endocytosis
Some molecules are too large to
travel via membrane proteins, e.g.
Proteins
Lipids
Some carbohydrates
In such cases a cell can surround a
substance with a section of the cell surface
membrane
The membrane engulfs the
substance and pinches off inside
the cell to form a temporary
vacuole with the ingested
substance contained inside
This is endocytosis
Phagocytosis is an example of
endocytosis
Endocytosis is an active process and
requires a source of energy
Endocytosis & Exocytosis
 Exocytosis

Some substances produced by

the cell need to be secreted,
such as hormones, some
enzymes, and lipids
Vesicles containing the
substance pinch off from sacs of
the Golgi apparatus
These vesicles are moved
toward the cell surface and
fuse with the cell surface
membrane to be released
outside the cell
This is exocytosis
Exocytosis is an active
process and requires a source
of energy
 TASK

1. Explain the importance of active transport in cells.

Active transport makes it possible to take in substances across the cell

membrane against a concentration gradient, when diffusion would be
impossible. It can also move substances that could not otherwise pass
through the membrane.
 TASK

2. Discuss the role of ATP in active transport in the cell

ATP provides the energy needed for active transport. The carrier
protein may need ATP to move a substance through the membrane, or
to return to the original position. The enzyme ATPase is associated with
active transport sites in the cell membrane
 TASK

3. Suggest how endocytosis and exocytosis provide evidence for the

fluid mosaic model of membranes

Endocytosis and exocytosis involve the breaking and fusing of parts of

the cell membrane. This is only possible because the membrane is fluid
 5-THE NEED FOR GAS EXCHANGE
SURFACES
Properties of Gas Exchange Surfaces
All organisms need to exchange gases with their environment, e.g.
Aerobic respiration requires oxygen and produces carbon dioxide
as a waste product
Photosynthesis requires carbon dioxide and produces oxygen as a
waste product
The process of gas exchange occurs by diffusion
The surface over which this gas exchange takes place is
known as an exchange surface; exchange surfaces have
specific properties that enable efficient exchange to take
place
 Surface area to volume ratio
The surface area of an organism
refers to the total area of the organism
that is exposed to the external environment
The volume refers to the total internal
volume of the organism, or total amount
of space inside the organism
The surface area of an organism in
relation to its volume is referred to
as an organism's surface area : volume
ratio (SA:V ratio)
As the overall size of the organism
increases, the surface area becomes
smaller in comparison to the
organism's volume, and the
organism's surface area : volume
ratio decreases
This is because volume increases much
more rapidly than surface area as size increases
 Single celled and multi cellular organisms
Single-celled organisms have a high SA:V ratio which allows the exchange of substances to occur by simple
Single-celled organisms have a high SA:V ratio which allows the exchange of substances to occur by
diffusion
simple diffusion
The large surface area allows for maximum absorption of nutrients and gases and removal of waste
products
The large surface area allows for maximum absorption of nutrients and gases and removal
The smallproducts
of waste volume within the cell means the diffusion distance to all organelles is short
The smallincrease
As organisms volume within
in size theirthe cell
SA:V means
ratio the diffusion distance to all organelles is short
decreases
AsThere is lessincrease
organisms surface area fortheir
in size the absorption of nutrients and gases and removal of waste products in
SA:V ratio decreases
relation to the volume, and therefore requirements, of the organism
There is less surface area for the absorption of nutrients and gases and removal of waste
The greater volume results in a longer diffusion distance to the cells and tissues of the organism
products in relation to the volume, and therefore requirements, of the organism
The greater volume results in a longer diffusion distance to the cells and tissues of the
organism
Large multicellular organisms have evolved adaptations to facilitate the exchange of substances with
Large
theirmulticellular
environment organisms have evolved adaptations to facilitate the exchange of substances with their
environment
The gas exchange systems of multicellular organisms are adapted to increase the surface
The gas exchange systems of multicellular organisms are adapted to increase the surface area
area available
available for the for the exchange
exchange of gasesof gases e.g.
e.g.
increase
Alveoliincrease
Alveoli thethe surface
surface areaarea of mammalian
of mammalian lungslungs
Fishgills
Fish gillshave
have structures
structures called
called lamellae
lamellae which
which provide
provide a very
a very largelarge
surfacesurface
area area
Leaveshave
Leaves have a aspongy
spongy mesophyll
mesophyll layerlayer within
within which
which a large
a large area area ofcell
of leaf leafsurface
cell surface is
is exposed to
exposed
the air to the air
Notethat
Note thatthe
theproblem
problemof of internal
internal diffusion
diffusion distance
distance is a is a separate,
separate, though
though connected,
connected, issue by
issue solved
Diffusion pathway
The diffusion pathway, or distance, across an exchange surface is very short
The surface often contains only one layer of epithelial cells
The cells can also be flattened in shape to further reduce the distance across
them
This means that substances have a very short diffusion pathway
Concentration gradient
This is the difference in concentration of the exchange substances on either side of the
exchange surface, e.g. between the air inside the alveoli and the blood
A greater difference in concentration means a greater rate of diffusion as the gas
molecules move across the exchange surface
The continued movement of exchange substances away from the exchange surface
mean that a concentration gradient is maintained
This is achieved by e.g.
The alveoli have a good blood supply; this constantly removes oxygen from the
capillary side of the exchange surface and supplies carbon dioxide
The ventilation system in mammals ensures constant inhalation and exhalation;
this supplies oxygen and removes carbon dioxide from the alveoli side of the
exchange surface
Exam Tip
 Exam Tip

Be careful when discussing surface area;

the phrases 'surface area' and 'surface
area : volume ratio' cannot be used
interchangeably. Larger organisms have a
larger surface area than smaller ones (an
elephant clearly has a larger surface
area than a bacterial cell), but it is the
surface area : volume ratio that gets
smaller as body size increases
 Fick's Law of Diffusion

Fick's Law relates the rate of diffusion to the concentration

gradient, the diffusion distance and the surface area
This relationship can be represented by the following equation,
where ∝ means "proportional to“
Proportionality means the rate of diffusion will double if
The surface area or concentration difference doubles
The diffusion pathway halves

Fick's Law can be written as an equation which can be used to

calculate the rate of diffusion
Rate = P x A x (C1 - C2) T)
Where
P = A permeability constant that is a quantitative measure of
the rate at which a particular molecule can cross a particular
membrane
A = surface area
C1 - C2 = the difference in concentration between two areas
T = thickness of the exchange surface
 Worked Example
A sample of alveolar epithelium tissue from a mammal is 1.5 m thick and has a surface
area of 3 m2. The concentration of oxygen in the alveolus is 1.8 x 10-16 mol m-3 and the
concentration of oxygen in the blood is 7.5 x 10-17 mol m-3. The permeability constant for
oxygen across alveolar epithelium is 0.012 molecule s-1.

Calculate the rate of diffusion across the section of alveolar epithelium.

 TASK

1. Explain why large animals cannot take in all the substances they
need from outside the body through their skin

Large animals need a lot of oxygen and produce a lot of carbon dioxide.
The surface area: volume ratio of a large animal is relatively small and so
they cannot absorb everything they need from their surroundings and
pass it to every cell by diffusion fast enough to survive. This is why
specialized exchange surfaces are needed.
 TASK
2. Here are three facts about gas exchange in humans.
• Oxygen enters the body and carbon dioxide leaves it through the lungs.
• The lungs are made of thousands of tiny air sacs with very thin walls surrounded by blood vessels which
also have very thin walls.
• The surface area of the lungs is approximately 50m2.
Explain how this helps the two gases to diffuse quickly into and out of the blood
The lungs provide a specialized exchange surface for oxygen, which is needed by the body, and carbon dioxide
which must be removed from the body. They are ventilated which brings in air rich in oxygen and removes air with
a relatively high carbon dioxide concentration, helping to maintain a steep concentration gradient to speed up
diffusion.
The lungs are made up of alveoli which have several adaptations for rapid, efficient diffusion of gases e.g., short
diffusion distances and rich blood supply to maintain steep concentration gradients.
Surface area is very large, allowing enough oxygen to diffuse in and carbon dioxide to diffuse out to supply the
needs of the cells.