22SE02IE059 Computer Organization
Computer Organization and Architecture Tutorial
Basic Components:
CPU (Central Processing Unit):
Components: ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit), CU (Control
Unit), Registers.
Function: Executes instructions, performs calculations.
Memory:
Types: RAM (Random Access Memory), ROM (Read-
Only Memory).
Purpose: Stores data and instructions for CPU access.
I/O Devices: Examples: Keyboard, Mouse, Display.
22SE02IE059 Computer Organization
Role: Facilitate input and output operations.
von Neumann Architecture:
Unified Memory: Single memory space for data and
instructions.
Sequential Execution: Instructions executed one after another.
Number Systems and Data Representation:
Binary, Decimal, Octal, Hexadecimal:
Binary: Base-2, 0s and 1s.
Decimal: Base-10, 0-9 digits.
Octal: Base-8, 0-7 digits.
Hexadecimal: Base-16, 0-9 and A-F.
Two's Complement:
Representation: Method for representing signed integers.
Sign Bit: Leftmost bit indicates the sign.
Floating-Point Representation:
Scientific Notation: Represents real numbers as a fraction
and exponent.
Processor Architecture:
CPU Components and Functions:
ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit): Performs arithmetic and
logical operations.
CU (Control Unit): Manages data flow and instruction
execution.
22SE02IE059 Computer Organization
Registers: Fast storage for temporary data.
ISA (Instruction Set Architecture):
Defines Operations: Set of instructions CPU can execute.
Types: CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computing), RISC
(Reduced Instruction Set Computing).
Pipelining and its Advantages:
Stages: Breaks instruction execution into stages.
Advantages: Increased throughput and efficiency.
Memory Hierarchy:
Memory Types: RAM, ROM, Cache:
RAM (Random Access Memory): Volatile, fast access for
temporary storage.
ROM (Read-Only Memory): Non-volatile, stores firmware.
Cache: Small, fast memory close to the CPU.
Caches and Cache Memory Organization:
22SE02IE059 Computer Organization
Purpose: Stores frequently accessed data for quick
retrieval.
Levels: L1, L2, L3 (closer to CPU, larger but slower).
Virtual Memory and Paging:
Virtual Memory: Extends physical memory using disk
space.
Paging: Divides virtual memory into fixed-size blocks.
Input/Output Organization:
I/O Interfaces and Devices:
Interfaces: Connect CPU to external devices.
Devices: Input devices (keyboard, mouse) and output
devices (display, printer).
Polling vs. Interrupts:
Polling: CPU checks the status of devices regularly.
Interrupts: Devices send signals to CPU, interrupting
normal execution.
I/O Communication Methods:
Synchronous: Devices operate in sync with CPU clock.
Asynchronous: Devices operate independently.
System Buses:
Data Bus, Address Bus, and Control Bus:
Data Bus: Transfers data between CPU and memory.
Address Bus: Specifies the memory location.
Control Bus: Carries control signals.
22SE02IE059 Computer Organization
Bus Architecture and Protocols:
Determines: How components communicate.
Protocols: Rules governing data transfer.
Instruction Set Architecture (ISA):
CISC vs. RISC Architectures:
CISC: Complex instructions, variable length.
RISC: Reduced set of simple instructions, fixed length.
Characteristics of a Good ISA:
Simplicity: Easy to understand and implement.
Efficiency: Optimal use of resources.
Orthogonality: Minimizes redundancy and ambiguity.
Assembly Language Programming:
Introduction to Assembly Language:
Low-level Language: Closer to machine code.
Mnemonics: Symbolic representations of machine
instructions.
Writing Simple Assembly Programs:
Registers: Used for data storage.
Instructions: Mnemonics representing machine operations.
Parallel Processing:
Flynn's Taxonomy:
SISD: Single Instruction Single Data.
22SE02IE059 Computer Organization
SIMD: Single Instruction Multiple Data.
MISD: Multiple Instruction Single Data.
MIMD: Multiple Instruction Multiple Data.
Multiprocessor and Multicomputer Systems:
Multiprocessor: Multiple processors share the same
memory.
Multicomputer: Processors have their own memory,
communicate via a network.
Performance Enhancement Techniques:
Superscalar and VLIW Architectures:
Superscalar: Multiple execution units for parallel
processing.
VLIW (Very Long Instruction Word): Multiple instructions
per clock cycle.
Out-of-Order Execution:
Reordering Instructions: Executes instructions not in
sequential order for efficiency.
Branch Prediction:
Predicts Outcome: Speculatively executes instructions
based on likely branch outcomes.
Computer Organization and Security:
Hardware Security Features:
Encryption: Protects data from unauthorized access.
22SE02IE059 Computer Organization
Secure Boot: Ensures only authenticated code runs.
Secure Boot and Trusted Computing:
Secure Boot: Checks digital signatures before loading OS.
Trusted Computing: Ensures a system's integrity and
authenticity.
Recent Advancements:
Quantum Computing:
Qubits: Quantum bits can exist in multiple states
simultaneously.
Superposition and Entanglement: Key quantum principles.
Neuromorphic Computing:
Mimicking the Brain: Architecture inspired by the human
brain's neural networks.
Pattern Recognition: Focuses on learning and recognizing
patterns.
