™ C3 ECOSYSTEMS: QUESTIONS 1. Define ecology and ecosystems, ae + The term Ecology was coined by Carnst Haeckel in 1869 ‘+ Itis derived from the Greek Words Oikos- home + logos- study * Ecology deals with the study of organisms in their natural home interacting with their surroundings ‘© The surroundings or environment consists of other living organisms (biotic) and physical (abiotic) components. '* Anecosystem is 2 group of biotic communities of species interacting with one another and with their non-living environment exchanging energy and matter. Now © ecology is often defined as the study of ecosystem, Tansley (1935) ‘An ecosystem is an’ ed unit of interacting plants, animals and © “microorganisms wi al depends upon the maintenance and regulation of ~ their biotic and obiotie structures and functions: The ecosystem is thus, a unit ora system which is composed of a number of ines. he subunits, that are all directly or indirectly lin ‘each other. ‘They may be freeh langing energy fer from outside an open ecosystem or may be isolated from outside 2 closed ecosystem. . / 2. What are the biotic and abiotic components of an ecosystem ? a 1 i ‘The plants, animals and microorganisms present in an ecosystem form the biotic ‘component ‘organisms have different nutritional behaviour and status in the ecosystems te accordingly known as Producers or Consumers, based on haw do they get their food. * {a) Producers: They are mainly the green plants, which can synthesize their food themselves by making use of carbondioxide present in the air and water in the presence of sunlight by invalying chlorophyll, the green pigment present in the leaves, through the process of photosynthesis. They are also known as photo autotrophs There are some microorganisms also which can produce organic matter to some extent through oxidation of certain chemicals in the absence of sunlight. They are known as chemosynthetic organisms or chemo-autotrophs. (b) Consumers: All organisms which get their organic food by feeding upon other organisms are called consumers, which are of the following types: i) Herbivores (plant eaters): They feed directly on producers and hence also known 8s primary consumers. e.g. rabbit, insect, man. Becca €aters): They feed on other censumers. If they feed on ' are called secondary consumers (@,g. frog) and if they feed on other nner Carnivores (Snake, big fish etc.) they are knownas tertiary Cernivores/consumers. wRA 8s 8MaAsir castoffs and partially ibs, earthworms etc. :down the complex organic ately into inorganic nutrients. ‘geographical factors, energy, nutrients ade intensity of solar flux, duration of sun hours, wre, annual rainfall, wind, latitude erate ane er ‘ecosystem. § uteients lke carbon, hur, level of toxic salts ‘tin the soil or water largely ® NS 5 e 1. Grazing food ch carnivores wf i ‘ 2. Detritus food chain: It aE f which the detritivores and decomposers consume. , ‘©The grazing food chain derives its energy basically rom plant energy while in the Getritus food chain it is obtained primarily from plant biomass, secondarily from microbial biomass and tertiarily from carnivores Food web is a network of food chains where different types of organisms are connected — at different trophic levels, so that there are a number of opti ions of eating and being eaten at each vel. Significance s and food webs; 1 Food hia webs play 2 very significant role in the ecos two INction: c woe ctions of enerey flow and nutrient cycling take place through Wes‘and other chemicals which are non ‘als are not decomposed by microorganisms and ic level to another. And, at each successive trophic ration. This phenomenon is known 3§ bs in ecosystems instead of simple linear food chains? er stability to the ecosystem. n a linear food chain, + or one species suffers then the species in the subsequent ,2 food web, on the other hand, there are 2 number of level, 0 if one species is affected, it does not affect 48 te | ixpiain why some of these pyramids ore upright while others an ecosystem, starting with ‘the apex ie knows 2s an upright or inverted.-The pyramid of biomass in a forest is i id of numbers, This is because the producers (trees) ‘alhuge biomass while the consumers. total biomass feeding on them declines at higher trophic levels, resulting in broad c ing top. ‘The pond ecosystem shows an inverted of biomass .The total biomass of producers {(phytoplanktons) is much less as compared to herbivores (zooplanktons, insects), Carnivores i Me {Small fish) and tertiary carnivores (big: veh ari takes an inverted shape with narrow base and broad apex, a. . Rope 5. Discuss the models of energy flow in an ecosystem. ‘The flow of energy through various trophic levels in an ecosystem can be explained with the help of various energy flow models. 4 (a) Universal energy f low model: Energy flow through an ecosystem was explained by E.P, Odum as the universal energy flow model Asthe flow of energy takes place, there is a gradual loss of energy at every level, thereby resulting in less energy available at next trophic level . . os oss of energy is mainly the energy not utilizes (NU). This isthe energy lost in locomotion, excretion etc. or itis the energy lost in respiration (R) which is for maintenance. The rest of the energy is used for reduction (P). inel energy flow model any . a ‘of energy takes place in a unidirectional manner th nel ofereen plants or producersto herbivores and ¢3jive «There is gradual decline in energy level duc to loss of energy at each success ‘trophic level in a grazing food chain, ft Mer {@) Double channel or ¥-shaped energy flow model The two channel or Y-shaped model of energy flow shows the passage of enersy through the two food chains, which are separated in time and space « innature, both grazing food chain and detritus food chain operate in the same ecosystem. However, sometimes itis the grazing food chain which predomi ett ae de ‘ecosystem where primary production in the open sea is limited and a major portion of it is eaten by herbivorous marine animals, ‘Therefore, very little primary production is left to be passed on to the dead or detritus compartment. © Onthe other hand, in a forest ecosystem the huge quantity of biomass produced cannot be all consumed by herbivores. Rather, 2 large proportion of the live biomass enters into detritus (dead) compartment in the form of litter. Hence the detritus food chain is more important there. 6. What are biogeochemical cycles ? Explain with the help of a diagram the nitrogen cycle. '* Nutrients like carbon, nitrogen, sulphur, oxygen, hydrogen, phosphorus etc. move in circular paths ‘through biotic and abiotic components and are therefore known as jogeochemical cycles. i ¢ Nitrogen is present in the atmosphere as. Ne in large amount (78%) and itis fixed either by the physical process of lightening or biologically by some bacteria and/or cyanobacteria (blue green algae) ‘© The nitrogen is taken up by plants and used in metabolism for biosynthesis of amino. ‘ acids, proteins, vitamins etc, and passes through the food chain, * After death of the plants and animals, the organic nitrogen in dead tissues is decomposed by several groups: ‘onifying and nitrifying bacteria which convert them into ammonia, nitrites and nitrates, which are again used by plants. ‘© Some bacteria convert nitrates, into molecular nitrogen or N2 which is released back jnto the atmosphere and the cycle goes on. Diagram (from book)” 7. Define primary production and secondary production. Why are tropical wet forests and estuaries most productive ? Primary productivity of an ecasystem is defined a5 the rate at which radiant energy 's converted into organic substances by photosynthesis iS oF chemo- primary producers, Re Sssecondary production. y the next trophic level is thus di Primary production of 2n ecosystem Of Water and nutrients and u ‘ePends Pon the solar radiations, e availabili content on the type of the plants and their chlor . rophyll+ Productivity of tropical forests and estuaries are the highest. This is because topical forests have abundant rainfal, warm temperature congenial for growth, abundant sunlight and a rich diversity of species. Estuaries get natural energy subsidies in the form of wave currents that bring along with them nutrients required for production B What is homeostasis ? What are feedback mechanisms ? ‘© Homeostasis is the inherent property of all living systems to resist change ‘system ean show this tolerance or resistance only within a maximum and ‘minimum range, which is its range of tolerance known as homeostatic plateau Within this range, if any stress tries to cause a deviation, then the system has its own ‘mechanisms to counteract these deviations which are known as negative feedback ‘mechanisms. negative feedback mechanisms are deviation counteracting "mechanisms which try to bring the system back to its ideal concitions ‘But, ifthe stress is too high and beyond the range of homeostatic plateau, then ‘another type of mechanisms known as positive feedback mechanisms start ‘operating. These are the deviation accelerating mechanisms, positive feedback mechanisms add to the stress conditions and tend to take the system away from the ‘optimal conditions. 55 the process of ecological succession “Ecological succession is defined as an orderly process of changes in the community structure arc function with time mediated through modifications in the physical environment and __yltimately culminating in a stabilized ecosystem known as climax. “The whole sequence of communities which are transitory are known as Seral stages or seres ‘whereas the community establishing first ofall in the area is called a pioneer community. ‘The process of succession takes place in a systematic order of sequential steps as follows: i) Nudation: It is the development of a bare area without any life form. The bare arca may be caused due to landslides, voleanic eruption etc. (topographic factor), or due to drought, glaciers, frost etc. (Climatic factor), or due to overgrazing, disease ‘outbreak, agricultural/ industrial activities (biotic factors). i) Invasion: it is the successful establishment of one or more species on a bare area through dispersal or migration, followed by ecesis or establishment. Dispersal of the seeds, spores ete. is brought about by wind, water, insects or birds. Then the seeds germinate and grow on the land. As growth and reproduction start, these pioneer “species increase in number and form groups or aggregations, (iii) Competition and coaction: As the number of individuals grows there is competition, both inter-specific (between different species) an¢ intra-specific (within the same species), for space, water and nutrition. They influence each other in a number of ways, known as coaction fiv) Reaction: The living organisms grow, use water and nutrients from the substratum, me Be iy ie 2 strong influence on the environment which is modified to a is Is known as reaction, The modifications are very often such that they become unsuitable for th n me new L ie existing species IF Sor Misc then th 18 species and favour species, oa. reaction leads to several seral communities =. ae succession ultimately culminates in @ more or less stable ity called cl ‘ oi; 4 climax which is in equilibrium with the environment. The climaxmutually community is characterized by maximum biomass and symbiotic (mutvallY beneficial) linkages between organisms and are maintained auite efficiently Per of available energy. sghort notes an (a) tropical rain forests (b) Savannas (c) Arctic unit i Tundra. write Tropical Rain Forests: . or ‘are evergreen broadleat forests found near the equator ‘ eh are characterized by high temperature, high humidity and high rainfall, all of which favour the growth of trees. 4.All through the year the climate remains more or less uniform. 4.They are the richest in biodiversity. ‘5 Different forms of life occupy specialized areas (nic! ‘ofthe ecosystem depending upon their needs for food, sunli {Gin the'tree trunks some woody climbers are found ta grow which are known as Llanas 7.There are some other plants like Orchids which are epiphytes ie. they are attached to the trunks or branches of big trees and they take up water and nutrients falling from above. {The understorey trees usually receive very dim sunlight. ‘They usually develop dark green leaves with high chlorophyll content so that they can use the diffused sunlight for photosynthesis. 410-The shrub layer receives even less sunlight and the ground layer commonly known as forest floor receives almost no sunlight and isa dark layer. Termites, fungi, mushrooms etc. ‘grow on the ground layer. The Silent Valley in Kerala is the only tropical rain forest lying in India which is the natural habitat for a wide variety of species. hres) within different layers and spaces ht, water, nutrient etc. “Tropical grasstands: ‘1 They occur near the borders of tropical rain forests in regions of high average temperature: ‘and low to moderate rainfll i 2.In Africa, these are typically known asSeveoes, which have tall grasses with scattered shrubs and stunted trees. ty) 3.The Savannas have a wide diversity of animals including zebras, giraffes, gazelle, antelopes ‘etc. 4.During dry season, fires are quite common. Termite mounds are very common here The termites gather the detritus (dead organic matter) containing a lot of cellulose and build pa mound. , 5. Tropical savannas have a highly efficient system of photosynthesis. pace assimilated by them in the form of carbohydrates is in the perennating 5, rhizomes, runners etc. which are present underground, ce burning of these grasstands can relese huge quantities of carbon dioxide, er green house gas, responsible for global warming, . Polar grasslands (Arctic Tundra): They are found in arctic polar region where severe cold and st Eo snow create too harsh a climate for trees to grow. Summers the sun-shines almost round th, row the summer the anim ceo trong, frigid winds along with e clo cs ck and hence several small annual plants include arctic wolf, weasel, arctic fox, reindeer etc é i: 4 4.Athick layer of ice rer as y 5 In summer, the tundra sho mosquitoes, different type ‘the soil surface throughout the year and is known ‘appearance of shallow lakes, bogs ete. where ae ts and migratory birds appear. ( 11. What are the different zones in al Lakes are usually big freshwater bodies: water. They have a shallow water zone called Littoral zone, an open-water sone where effective penetration of solar light takes place, called Lirnnetic zone and a deep bottom area Where light penetration is negligible, known 25 profundal zone. ar 42, What do you mean by the following : (a) Thermoclne (b) Oigotrophic Lakes (c) Merormicic Lakes. f {o)epiimnion = Warm, lighter, circulating surface layer Hypolimnion : Cold, soit non-circulating tottom layer. In between the two layersis thermocline, the region of sharp droR in temperature. (b)Oligotrophic lakes which have low nutrient concentrations. {Meromictic lakes that are ich in salts and are permanentiy stratified eg, lake Nevada 42. Discuss the major features of a stream (river) that differ from that of a lake, 5 These are freshwater aqualic ecosystems where water current Is 2/0 controlling factor, ‘oxygen and nutrient in the water is more uniform ‘and Jand-water exchange is more extensive. 1s Although stream organisms have to face more extremes ‘of temperature and action of ‘currents as compared to pond of lake organisms, but they do not have to face oxygen deficiency under natural conditions. Thisis because the streams are shallow, have a large surtace exposed to air and constant ‘motion which churns the water and provides abundant oxygen. «Their dissolved oxygen level is higher than that Of ponds even though the green plant | Shot by SANKALIPTA 14 biscuss zonation in an ocean. What Foe is played by oceansin terms of providing resources and regulating climate ? ‘These are gigantic reservoirs of water covering more than 70% of our earth s surface. ‘Oceans are the major sinks of carbon dioxide and play an important role in regulating many biogeochemical eycies and hydrological cycle, thereby regulating the a dlimate ‘The oceans have two major life zones: Coastal zone with relatively warm, nutrient ri Fry, nutrient rich shall 1 nd am oth rivcry eculatdey low water. Due tohigh nuients anc arnple 4DART Yos IN) As}eace oleic) ele