104 Magbook ~ Indian History

Establishment of British Third Carnatic War (AD 1756-1763)

The final phase of the Anglo-French conflict started in AD
Paramountacy !
1756, when the 7 years war broke out in Europe. The
! After the disintegration of Mughal empire India was in a French Army under Count-de-Lally (French Governor-
politically and territorially fragmanted state. There was an General) captured Fort St David AD 1758.
opportunity for a new power to emerge and rule India.
! After the series of conflicts, the English Army under
Various native dynasties and European companies were in
General Eyre Coote decisively defeated the French forces
cut throat competition Britishers gradually defeated all
at Wandiwash a fort in the Carnatic state on 22nd January,
powers and established its paramountacy.
1760.
Anglo-French Conflict ! English captured Pondicherry headhunters of French
! The British and French were not only the rivals in India; settlement Mahe and Jinji. The war came to an end with the
rather they were at constant war with each other in Europe termination of hostilities in Europe.
and some other fronts outside the Indian borders. ! The Treaty of Parison AD 1763 brought 7 years war to an
Therefore certain events, that took place outside India, also end. According to this treaty, Pondicherry and some other
affected the course of struggle between these two in India. French settlements were returned to the French.
! In all, three wars were fought between the English and the
French in India. These wars are popularly known as British Occupation of Bengal
Carnatic wars, because the area of conflict was the ! East Indian Company’s ambition of becoming a political
Mughal Subah of Carnatic which had become more or power and Nawab of Bengal’s ambition of consolidating
less independent. his power over Bengal brought two powers in direct
! In 1720s, Saadutullah Khan (who was the Governor of conflict with each other.
Carnatic and nominally under the control of the Nizam of ! Conflict between Nawab Siraj-ud-Daulah and the East
Hyderabad) laid the foundation of the autonomous State India Company intensified due to a number of reasons,
of Carnatic with its capital at Arcot. which are as follows:
! He was succeeded by Dost Ali and Safdar Ali. In 1743, — The illegal use of Dastaks, which were export trade permits
the Nizam of Hyderabad intervened and appointed issued by the Mughal Dynasty in the year 1717. The British
Anwar-ud-din as the Nawab of Carnatic, who was used these permits as the excuse to avoid taxes to Bengal
murdered by Chanda Sahib in 1749, with the help of Nawab.
French. — British interfered with Nawab’s court and supported one of
Siraj-ud-Daulah’s aunt Ghaseti Begum, who was in opposition
First Carnatic War (AD 1746-1748) to the Nawab. Ghaseti’s treasurer’s son had escaped and took
! Under the influence, Austrian war of succession, both shelter in Fort William, but Siraj demanded for his return. Mir
English and French companies come in conflict in India. Jafar Ali Khan, who was grand-uncle of Siraj and
Commander-in-Chief of Nawab’s army, was in the conspiracy
The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (AD 1748) brought Austrian
with Ghaseti Begum. Eventually, Mir Jafar joined the British
war of succession to an end.
side through the secret mediators.
! According to this treaty, the English got back Madras and — Fort William became the safe shelter for the British and they
the French got the Louisburg region in North America. added additional fortification and assembled permission of
Nawab.
Second Carnatic War (AD 1749–1754)
— The policy of the British officials was to help the merchants
! The conflict began with the issue of disputed succession such as Jagat Seth of Murshidabad to consolidate their own
to the thrones of Hyderabad and Carnatic. base.
! The two companies supported rival candidates for the — Disloyalty of Mir Jafar and Rai Durlabh to the Nawab of the
Nawabship of Carnatic. Bengal.
! The French supported Chanda Sahib and the English
wanted to install Mohammed Ali as the Nawab. In the war Black Hole Tragedy
that followed the French were defeated and Chanda Sahib After the first conflict between Nawab and Company, English
was beheaded. prisoners at Calcutta, which included some women and children,
! The Peace Treaty concluded between English and French
were lodged in a prison room of the fort. The number of
prisoners were 146.
and Mohammed Ali was recognised as the Nawab of
Out of these 146 white prisoners kept in the room, on 20th June,
Carnatic.
only 23 survived till the next morning, when the prison room was
! The French disaster in the Second Carnatic war sealed the opened, the rest died due to excessive heat. The East India
fate of Dupleix and Godeau replaced Dupleix as the Company’s authorities used the episode as a propaganda device
Governor General of the French possession in India to defame the Nawab and won support of the British public
AD 1754. opinion for the war against Nawab.
Magbook ~ Emergence of European Powers in India 105

Nawabs of Bengal Anglo-Mysore Conflict

Mir Jafar ! Mysore was earlier the part of Vijayanagara empire.
! Mir Jafar was the first Nawab of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa ! However, after the decline of the Vijayanagara empire in
under the British rule in India. He succeeded 1565, Wodeyar dynasty founded its rule.
Siraj-ud-Daulah. He is remembered in India by the name ! The process of the usurpation of royal authority of the
of Gaddar-e-Hind. Wodeyar ruler Chikka Krishnaraja I started during
! By the process of cheating Siraj-ud-Daulah and AD 1731-34 when two brothers, Devaraja and Nanjaraja
surrendered the Nawab’s army against Robert Clive in the controlled real power in the state and became the de-facto
battlefield he became the Nawab of Bengal. His rule is rulers.
regarded as the initiation of the rule of British in India.
First Anglo-Mysore War (AD 1767-1769)
! British retaliated by compelling Mir Jafar to renounce the
! The rise of Haider Ali was seen as a source of danger to
throne in favour of Mir Qasim, because he wanted help of
the British power in India.
Dutch to set free from English.
! Haider’s ambition to drive the British away from the
Mir Qasim Carnatic and finally from India, the British realisation of
! He was the oldest Nawab among the successors of the threat posed to them by Haider led to the formation of
Alivardi Khan. He transferred his capital from Tripartite Alliance against him by British, the Nizam and
Murshidabad to Munger. It is because that he wanted to the Marathas.
be at a safe distance from Calcutta and interference of the ! He played a diplomatic game, bought the Marathas,
company. allured the Nizam with territorial gains and together with
! He also sought to recognise and modernise his army on the latter launched an attack on British.
the European pattern. He also made plans for the ! In the war, Haider registered brilliant victories over the
expansion of his territory Northward at the expense of the British and finally appeared at the gates of Madras.
Nepalese. ! The panic stricken Madras Government was forced them
Battle of Buxar to sign a humiliating treaty (Treaty of Madras) on 4th April,
1767. The treaty provided for: a mutual restitution of each
! The reluctance of Mir Qasim to share the power with
others territories except for Karur and its district, which
company led to the conflict between him and Clive.
were to be retained by the Mysore ruler.
Finally, Mir Qasim formed an alliance with Shuja-ud-
Daula and Shah Alam II and their combined forces were ! All the captured employees of the Madras Government
defeated by English under the leadership of Hector Munro were to be released by Haider Ali.
at the Battle of Buxar. ! The Raja of Tanjore was to be treated as a friend and ally
! It was a watershed event in modern Indian history as the of Haider.
treaty which ensured in Allahabad also known as Factory ! The trade privileges of Bombay Presidency and English
of Allahabad gave the English Company Diwani Rights of factories were to be restored.
Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.
Second Anglo-Mysore War (AD 1780-1784)
Treaty of Allahabad ! The cause of Second Anglo-Mysore War was the mutual
! The Treaty of Allahabad was concluded by Clive with distrust and refusal of English to fulfil the terms of the
Shuja-ud-Daula and the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II, defensive treaty with Haider when he was attacked by the
according to which, the British got the right of free trade Marathas in 1771. Further, Haider found French more
in Awadh and they were allowed to keep a British Army at helpful in meeting his military demands for gun, saltpetre
the expense of the Nawab of Awadh. and lead than the English and therefore established a
! Shah Alam II got the districts of Kore and Allahabad and was close alliance with them.
also given an annual pension of ` 26 lakh. In return of his ! The outbreak of the American War of independence and
favour, Shah Alam gave the Diwani of Bengal, Bihar and French alliance with the American colonists made Warren
Orissa to the British. Hastings extremely suspicious of Haider Ali’s relation with
! The company, by another treaty, also agreed to pay a sum the French.
of ` 53 lakh per annum in lieu of the right of Nizamat to ! Under these conditions, the English attempt to capture
the mirror Nawab. Thus, the company acquired both the Mahe, (a French port on the Malabar coast), which Haider
Diwani as well as Nizamat rights over Bengal, Bihar and considered to be under its protection, was a direct
Orissa. challenge to Haider Ali.
106 Magbook ~ Indian History

! Thus, Haider formed a joint front with the Nizam and the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (AD 1798-1799)
Marathas on July 1780, attacked Carnatic and captured ! To enlist the support of France against the English in
Arcot, defeating an English Army under Colonel Baillie. India, Tipu enlisted himself as a member of Jacobin Club.
! Meanwhile the English detached the Marathas and Nizam Tipu also planted a Tree of Liberty at Srirangapatna. He
from the side of Haider on November 1781, in the Battle sent embassies to Arabia, Zaman Shah of Afghanistan,
at Porto Novo, Haider was defeated by Sir Eyre Coote. constantinople, the directory at Versailles and the French
! In the following year, Haider inflicted a humiliating defeat in the Isle de France or Mauritius France seized Mauritius
on the English army under Colonel Braithwaite, while the in AD 1715 and later renamed it Isle de France.
war was in progress, Haider Ali died. ! Realising the hostile intentions of Tipu, Lord Wellesley, the
new Governor-General of India, was determined to remove
Third Anglo-Mysore War (AD 1789-1792)
this threat once for all.
! The growing power of Mysore and the success of Tipu in
! The war against Tipu began in 1799 and he was defeated,
strengthening his position by undertaking various internal
first by Stuart at Sedaseer (5th March) and then by
reforms made the British, the Marathas and the Nizam
General Harris at Malvelley (27th March).
apprehensive.
! Then, the English captured Srirangapatna on 4th May,
! Lord Cornwallis worked on the anti-Tipu suspicion of the
1799 and Tipu died defending his capital.
Nizam and the Marathas and arranged a Triple Alliance
(AD 1790) with them against Tipu. Anglo-Maratha Conflict
! Convinced of a possible war with the English Tipu sought ! The sudden growth in the company’s cotton trade after AD
the help of the Turks by sending an embassy to 1784 to China from Gujarat through Bombay motivated the
Constantinople in AD 1784 and again in AD 1785 and the British authorities to play a more interventionist role in the
French king in AD 1787. Meanwhile, the Tipu’s Deccan region. This ambition of English brought them in
differences arose with the Raja of Travancore because the direct conflict with Maratha power.
Raja purchased Jai kottai and Cranganore from the Dutch
in Cochin state. First Anglo-Maratha War (AD 1775-1782)
! Tipu considered the Cochin state as his tributary state and ! The war began with the Treaty of Surat on AD 1775 and
thus, considered the act of the Travancore Raja as ended with the Treaty of Salbai on AD 1782.
violation of his sovereign rights and therefore, attacked ! The political ambition of the company to extend their
Travancore in April, 1790. The English seeing an influence towards the Maratha territory and the internal
opportunity, sided with the Raja of Travancore and conflict among the Maratha leaders played a significant
declared the war against Tipu. role in this war.
! Tipu defeated Major General Medows in 1790, after which Second Anglo-Maratha War (AD 1803 -1805)
Cornwallis himself assumed the command of the
! Wellesley who came to India as Governor-General in
English Army.
1798, believed that the only possible way to safeguard
! Cornwallis approached Srirangapatna with the help of India against the French danger was to establish a strong
Marathas and Nizam’s troops. Tipu offered a tough fight, military control upon the Indian princes. In this context,
but finding it impossible to prolong the struggle, signed he pursued his aggressive policy of interference in the
the Treaty of Srirangapatna on March 1792. internal affairs of the Marathas with the desire to impose
subsidiary alliance on them.
Treaty of Srirangapatnam ! Though, the Peshwa accepted the subsidiary alliance of
The treaty resulted in the surrender of nearly half of the British, but the other Maratha chiefs showed
Mysorean territory to the victorious allies (the British, the resentment against it. They considered the subsidiary
Marathas and the Nizam). Tipu was to cede half of his treaty as humiliating and a threat upon their independent
territories, which were to be shared among the three political existence and thus, declared war against the
allies. British.
In addition, Tipu was to make immediate payment of ` 1.6 ! The internal conflicts among the Maratha chiefs and the
crore out of the total indemnity agreed upon (` 3.6 crore) attack upon Peshwa, Baji Rao II by Holkar, led to the
while the remainder (` 2 crore) was to be given in three signing of subsidiary Treaty at Bassein on AD 1802 by the
installments. Peshwa with the British.
Tipu was also to order the release of all prisoners of war. ! Bhonsle signed Treaty of Deogaon on 17th December,
Pending fulfilment of these terms, two of his sons were to 1803 and Scindia signed Treaty of Surji-Anjangaon on
be detained as (British) hostages. 30th December, 1803.
Magbook ~ Emergence of European Powers in India 107

! In AD 1804, Yashwant Rao Holkar made an attempt to form a ! Since, the Lahore Durbar was unable to pay the
coalition of Indian rulers to fight against the British. His attempt war indemnity, it agreed to transfer to the
however proved to be unsuccessful and after being defeated he company the hill countries situated between the
was forced to concluded with Sir George Barlow the Treaty of river Beas and Indus, including the province of
Rajpurghat on 25th December, 1805. Kashmir. Gulab Singh, who was instrumental in
! Thus, the war finally resulted in the establishment of British these negotiations, was given Kashmir by the
influence on the Maratha empire. company.

Third Anglo-Maratha War (AD 1817-1818) Second Anglo-Sikh War (AD 1848-1849)
! The third and the final phase of the struggle began with the ! The Sikhs felt humiliation with the settlement of
coming of Lord Hastings as Governor-General in 1813, who Punjab after the First Sikh war. The Sikhs did not
reassumed the Aggressive Policy of Wellesley and was determined like the interference of the English resident in the
to proclaim the British Paramountacy in India. internal affairs of Punjab. The British, on their part
! The Maratha Confederacy was dissolved and the Peshwa, Baji were anxious to occupy Punjab.
Rao II, was dethroned and pensioned off at Bithur near Kanpur. ! Dalhousie, the new Governor-General, was a
! With Holkar a subsidiary treaty known as the Treaty of Mandsaur strong imperialist. He was simple looking for a
was signed. pretext for the annexation of Punjab, which was
provided by the rebellion of Mulraj (AD 1848),
! To satisfy the Maratha pride, Pratap Singh, a descendent of
Governor of Multan, against the company.
Shivaji was made the ruler of a small kingdom of Satara founded
out of the Peshwa’s lands.
! The English forces attacked Punjab (AD 1848)
and as the result of this Sikhs were badly
Anglo-Sikh Conflict defeated.
! After the defeat of Bengal, Mysore and Marathas the only major ! Punjab was annexed to the British dominion in
Indian power that still retained its independence was Punjab March AD 1849. Raja Dalip Singh, the minor son
under Ranjit Singh, who came to power in AD 1792. of Ranjit Singh and his mother, Rani Jindan, who
! He organised an alliance of Sikh Misls West of the Sutlej in 1798, acted as his regent, were sent away to London on
was successful in repelling the invasion of the Afghan ruler fixed annual pensions.
Zaman Shah. This success made him a powerful ruler and in
1801, these Misls accepted him as the Maharaja of Punjab. Conflict with Neighbouring
! Ranjit Singh was soon able to extend his power to the vast States
territories including Peshawar, Multan, Kashmir, Kangra and other
Anglo-Nepal Relations
hill states.
! In AD 1792, Colonel Kilpatrick was sent on a
! The death of Ranjit Singh was followed by political instability in
commercial mission to Kathmandu and captain
Punjab. The line of weak successors followed—Kharak Singh; Nao
Knox was posted as British resident in Kathmandu
Nihal Singh; Sher Singh and Dalip Singh, which led the Sikh
from AD 1802-04.
empire to its downfall. The Sikh elements in the Army known as
Khalsa became supreme and began to interfere in the affairs of Anglo-Nepal War (AD 1814-16)
the state. ! The main reason behind the war was the frequent
! There were group rivalries and Khalsa took the role of king raids by the Gorkhas in British territory and in
makers. This provided to the British a chance to interfere in the May, AD 1814 the Gorkhas attacked three police
affairs of Punjab and establish their control over the region. This stations of Butwal. Thus, Lord Hastings declared
was necessary for extending the British empire, in India, to its war against the Gorkhas. General Gardener won
natural frontiers towards the North-West. over Almora while General Ochterlony defeated the
Gorkha leader Amar Singh Thapa and forced him
First Anglo-Sikh War (AD 1845-1846)
to surrender the fort of Malaun.
! During the reign of Dalip Singh, in First Anglo-Sikh War, the
! Treaty of Sugauli (1815) was signed but Gorkhas
English invaded Punjab occupied Lahore and dictated a peace
did not ratified it.
treaty known as the Treaty of Lahore on 9th March 1846, which
included the following: ! This led to second campaign against Gorkhas in
1816 and General Ochterlony defeated the
— The Sikhs to renounce all their claims to the territories lying to the
South of the river Sutlej. Gorkhas at the Battle of Makwanpur. Now, the
— A war indemnity of ` 1.5 crore was imposed on Lahore Durbar. The Treaty of Sagauli (1816) was accepted by the
Sikh Army was limited to 20000 infantry and 12000 cavalry. A British Gorkhas. The English acquired the hill stations of
resident was posted at Lahore. Shimla, Mussoorie, Nainital Almora, Ranikhet etc.
108 Magbook ~ Indian History

Anglo-Burmese Wars Second Anglo-Afghan War (1878-1880)

! English ambition of exploiting Burma commercially through the Causes
aquisition of political power brought them in conflict with Burma ! Sher Ali, the Afghan Chief reject the English
kingdom. missions sent by Lord Lytton under Sir Lewis
Pelly and Sir Neville Chamberlain but accepted
First Anglo-Burmese War (1824-1826) the Russian mission led by Stolietoff.
! Lord Amherst declared war against Burma and Maha Bandula, the Events During the War
Burmese general was defeated and killed in the Battle of
! English attacked from three sides-Khyber pass,
Donaben.
Kurram pass and Bolan pass. Sher Ali was
! Treaty of Yandaboo (1826) was signed by which a British resident defeated and died later on.
was stationed at Burmese capital.
Results
Second Anglo-Burmese War (AD 1852-1853) ! Yakub Khan signed the Treaty of Gandamak
! The main reason behind the conflict was the oppression of (1879) by which a British resident was posted at
English merchants settled in Burma by Burmese officials at Kabul and the districts of Kurram, Pisin and Sibi
Rangoon. were given to the English. But, very soon the
! Lord Dalhousie declared second war against Burma. Martaban, British Resident Major Cavagari was murdered.
Rangoon, Prome and Pegu was annexed. The war restarted and General Roberts occupied
Kabul. Abdur Rehman, was the new Amir of
Third Anglo-Burmese War (1885) Afghanistan.
! The Burmese King Thibaw allowed trade concessions to the
French and imposed fine on English company and arrested it Third Anglo-Afghan War (1919)
officials. On the command of Lord Dufferin, English army marched ! In 1919 Habibullah, the Amir of Afghanistan was
on Burma and occupied the capital city Mandalay. As a result, the murdered and his son Amanullah tried to declare
King of Burma was imprisoned and the whole of Burma was his dependence from British regency.
declared as the part of British empire. In 1935, Burma was ! He invaded the British territories on the
separated from India Freedom Movement of Burma reached a new instigation of the German agent but was
height and under leadership of Aung and Burma got defeated.
independence on 4th January, 1948. Treaty of Rawalpindi
Anglo-Afghan Wars ! It was signed according to which Amirs were now
free to pursue their policy within their territory
! English ambition of creating a buffer zone between English empire
and their annual subsidy was stopped.
and advancing Russian empire took them to Afghanistan in search
of political influence. Anglo-Tibet Relations
First Anglo-Afghan War (1839-1842) ! Tibet was an autonomous state situated beyond
the Himalayas in North.
Causes
! Dost Mohammad asked for English help in order to win Peshawar
! It always remained under the control of Buddhist
from Ranjit Singh. Lord Auckland rejected his proposal. Dost rulers who happened to be their spiritual leaders
Mohammad then accepted the Friendship of the French. Auckland also.
sent and English mission under Alexander burns which was in ! Warren Hastings was the first of sent a
turn, rejected by Afghan Chief. commercial mission under George Bogle to Toast
Lama in 1774-75.
Events During the War
! Tibetans invaded and repulsed from Sikkim in
! Auckland signed a Tripartite Treaty (1838) with Shah Shuja (Prince 1887, there after the boundary between India
of Afghanistan) and Ranjit Singh English Army crossed the (territories and Tibet was settled in 1890.
of Sind) Violating Treaty (1832) and occupied Kandhar, Ghazni and
! Lord Curzon sent mission under Colonel Young
Kabul.
Husband in 1905 and on the refusel of Tibetans
Results to meet him British Army and forced them to sign
! Shah Shuja was not accepted as chief by the Afghanis and was a treaty.
killed in 1842. Afghanis rose in rebellion and killed Englishmen ! Dalai Lama signed the Lhasa treaty on 7th
Burns, Charles, Sir William and Elphinstone. Thus, English were September, 1904. According to the treaty, the
forced to sign a humilating treaty and to recognise Dost British controlled trade centres which were
Mohammed as the Amir of Afghanistan. established.
Chapter eighteen
Tribal and Peasant
Uprisings
Tribal Uprising Important Uprisings in
The tribal movements Eastern India
! The laws introduced by the British
were isolated outbursts rulers were too sophisticated to
Faqir and Sanyasi Rebellion
against local (though suit the tribal customs and
conventions. Greedy ! As a result of continuous wars and famines,
more or less similar)
moneylenders, traders and combined with British exploitation of the land
grievances, which were and people, Bengal witnessed great economic
land-grabbers penetrated into
primarily economic in tribal areas and exploited the distress and political unrest in the 2nd half of
nature. The primary simple, illiterate people whom the 18th century.
targets were local vested law and administration did not ! A large number of uprooted and homeless
protest. people joined Hindu or Muslim groups of
interests; British official
! Increasing official control of forest religious mendicants, known as Sanyasis or
agencies were drawn Faqirs, who formed large communities and
zones for revenue purposes
into conflict, generally seriously disturbed tribal economy. earned their livelihood from beggary. Sanyasis
because grave questions They lost opportunities of shifting began taking forcible what they could no longer
cultivation. They lost customary get voluntarily.
of law and order were
rights of using forest land for ! By 1772, there was a great sanyasi rebellion
involved.
grazing and using forest timber as encompassing a wide belt from Rangpur to
fuel. They found themselves Dakha. Under their brave leader Majnu Shah
exposed to exploitation by forest Faqir, the Sanyasis defeated a company of
contractors. sepoys and killed the commander. The Sanyasi
! Their traditional religious life was rebellion continued till the end of the century.
disintegrated by the spread of Pagal Panthis Uprisings
Christianity by European
missionaries. The new religion also ! Pagal Panthi was a semi-religious sect. Its
affected their social customs and members came mostly from the primitive
habits of life. This happened tribes, Hajong and Garo.
particularly in Bihar and the ! The founder of this sect was a darvesh or a
Assam hills. mendicant called Karam Shah, whose son and
! The social, political, economic and successor Tipu, motivated by religious and
cultural life of Indians with the political aims, organised an uprising of the
help of enactment of law led to Garo and Hajong peasants.
discontentment amongst the ! Tipu openly took up their cause against the
Indians in general and peasants in oppression of the zamindars, who realised
particular. Absence of redressal of illegal cases from the peasants. He asked his
the same precipitated into followers not to pay rent above a specified
rebellion and movement. minimum.
Magbook ~ Tribal and Peasant Uprisings 111

! In January 1825, he led a mob of his armed brigands ! The rebels cut off the postal and railway communications
and attacked the houses of the Zamindars of Sherpur. between Bhagalpur and Rajmahal, proclaimed the end of
! The Pagal Panthi Uprising continued for about 10 years the company’s rule and commencement of the Santhal
(1825-35) and was finally suppressed after massive regime. They attacked the houses of moneylenders,
military operations against them. zamindars, white planters, railway engineers and British
officials.
Ahom Revolt (1828-1833) ! The open war with the British continued till February,
! Area Assam 1856, when the rebel leaders were finally captured and the
! Leader Gomdhar Konwar movement was put down with a great deal of repression.
! Causes The British had pledged to withdraw from Assam
Munda Uprising (1899 -1900)
after the First Burma War (1824-26), but they tried to
incorporate Ahom territories in the company’s dominion. ! The Ulgulan of Birsa Munda in the region South of Ranchi
in 1899-1900 is the best known tribal rebellion. Feudal,
! Finally, the company gave upper Assam to Maharaja
zamindari or individual tenures was the key to the agrarian
Purandar Singh Narendra and part of the kingdom was
disorders that climaxed in the religious-political Movement
restored to the Assamese king.
of Birsa. In March, 1879, Mundas under the leadership
Kol Mutiny (1831-32) claimed that Chota Nagpur belonged to them.
! Area Ranchi, Singhbhum, Hazaribagh, Palamu, Western ! The Mundas envisaged an ideal and just society which
parts of Manbhum. would be free from internal as well as European exploiters,
! Leader Buddhu Bhagat women also participated in the movement.
! Causes Transfer of land from Kol headmen (Mundas) to ! Birsa Munda was the son of a share-cropper who had
outsiders like Sikh and Muslim farmers. received some education from the missionaries and then
came under Vaishnava influence. His initial popularity was
! Military operations were undertaken to settle the mutiny. based on medicinal and healing powers, by which Birsa
Khasi Uprising (1829-1833) claimed to make his followers invulnerable.
! Area Tribal area of Garo, Khasi and Jaintia hills in
! The rebels were defeated in a fight and Birsa died in jail.
present Meghalaya. There was some belated relief in the Chota Nagpur
Tenancy Act of 1908, with recognisation to joint farming
! Leader Tirath Singh
rights and ban on both begari or forced labour.
! Tribes Khasi, Garo, Kham Pti, Singh pos involved.
! Causes The British wanted to built a road connecting Some Other Important Uprisings
Brahmaputra valley with Sylhet. This led to infiltration of Chaur Uprising (1766-1772, 1795, 1816)
foreign population in the area.
! Area Midnapore district. (Bengal)
! English military force suppressed the revolt by 1833.
! Causes Famine, enhanced land revenue and economic
Santhal Rebellion (1855-1856) distress. HO Rising The HO and Munda tribesman of Chota
! The Santhal Rebellion of 1855-56, was marked by some Nagpur district took arms against the company in 1820-22
of the worst features of elemental tribal passions and and again, in 1831, till the final settlement was made in
open denunciation of British rule. The rebellion, covering 1837.
the districts of Birbhum, Singhbhum, Bankura,
Ramosi Revolt (1822, 1825-1826)
Hazaribagh, Bhagalpur and Munger in Orissa (Odisha)
and Bihar was precipitated mainly by economic causes.
! In 1822, the Ramosis revolted in Satara under
Chittur Singh to oppose heavy land revenue assessment
! The moneylenders and colonial administrators both
and revenue collection methods. Famine and scarcity
exploited them. The Diku (outsider) merchants charged
drove them to a rebellion in 1825-26, this time under
interest on loans, ranging from 50 to 500% exploited and
Umaji. The Ramosis’ uprising which continued for 3 years,
cheated the tribals in many other ways, often grabbing
was finally ended when people were given land grants and
their lands.
admitted in the ranks of the hill police.
! The tribals turned against the British Government under
the leadership of two Santhal brothers, Siddhu and Khond Uprising (1837- 56)
Kanhu, more than ten thousand Santhals assembled in ! The Khonds lived in vast hill tracts stretching from Tamil
June, 1855 when a divine order was issued asking the Nadu to Bengal and covering central provinces. Their
Santhals to get out of the control of their oppressors and uprisings from 1837 to 1856, were directed against the
take possession of the country and set-up a government British. the movement was led by Chakra Bisoi in the name
of their own. of the Young Raja.
112 Magbook ~ Indian History

! The main issue was the attempt by the government to Rampa Rebellion
suppress human sacrifice (Mariah), introduction of new ! A unique example of tribal militancy came from the
taxes by the British and the influx of Zamindars and Rampa region North of Godavari which had witnessed
Sahukars into their areas, which was causing the tribals various uprisings in the 19th century.
untold misery. ! Their grievances were against moneylenders and forest
! Chakra Bisoi disappeared in 1855, after which the laws. The movement was led by an outsider, Alluri
movement petered out. Another important leader of revolt Sitarama Raju, claiming astrological and healing powers,
was Radhakrishna Dandasena. who has become a folk hero in Andhra Pradesh.
Naikada Revolt ! He was inspired by the Non-Cooperation Movement and
! The Naikada forest tribes in Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat, admired Gandhi, though he considered violence
launched revolts against British officers and Hindus with necessary to win tribal goals. The revolt came to an end
religious fevour and attacked police stations in 1868, in a after the execution of Raju in May, 1924.
bid to establish a Dharma Raj under their charismatic
leaders. Movements by the Deposed
Kharwar Uprising Rulers and Zamindars
! The crushing of the Santhal rebellion was followed by the ! These movements were caused by the Aggressive Policy
Kharwar uprising of the 1870’s which preached monotheism of Annexation by the British and the subsequent
and internal reform at first, but had begun to turn into a disturbances in the economy of the regions.
campaign against revenue settlement operations just before
it was suppressed.
First Polygar War (1799)
! Leaders Kattabomma Nayak, Subramania Pillai and
Soundra Pandian Nayak.
Koya Rebellion
It occurred in 1879-80, in the Eastern Godavari tract of present Polygar Rebellions (Kurnool, 1799-1805)
day Andhra Pradesh and also affected some district in Orissa. ! Polygars were the offshoots of the Nayankara system
The rebellion was led by Tomma Sora and reflected problems prevalent in the Vijayanagara administration. The conflict
faced by tribals, like erosion of customary rights over forests, was on the question of the collection of taxes, rather,
police exactions, exploitation by money lenders and new who should collect it, the traditional classes or the
excise regulations restricting domestic production of paddy. company officials.
Sora was shot dead by the police and the movement Second Polygar War (1800-1801)
collapsed, but only with the use of six regiments of the ! Also known as the South Indian Rebellion, the rebellion
Madras infantry. In 1886, another uprising took place here.
broke out when polygar armies under Gopala Nayak,
The rebels, led by Raja Anantayyar, formed themselves into a
Kerala Varma and Krishnappa Nayak bombed the
Ram Sandhu (Ram’s Army) and appealed to the Maharaja of
British barracks in Coimbatore in 1800. The
Jeypore to help them in throwing out the British.
suppression was followed by signing of the Carnatic
Treaty, 1801, where by the British assumed direct
Bhil Uprising control over Tamil Nadu and the Polygar system was
! In Southern Rajasthan, the Bhils were stirred to action by a replaced by the Zamindari settlement.
Reform Movement under Govind Guru, who was a bonded
Velu Thampi (1765-1809)
labourer. By 1913, it developed into a bid to set-up a Bhil
Raj. The British were able to suppress them only after ! The Diwan of Travancore (Kerala), Velu Thampi revolted
considerable resistance. in 1808-09 after the British tried to take away his
Diwanship and forced the state to conform with the
The Kittur Rebellion conditions of the Subsidiary Alliance system. He was the
! The British prevented the adopted son of the Chief of Kittur only head of a state to be hanged during the British
(in Karnataka) from assuming power by taking over the rule.
administration. What resulted was the Kittur uprisings of
1924-29 led by chennamma, the widow of the chief. The Ganjam Revolt (1835)
rebels declared Kittur an independent state before being ! Rebellion led by Gumsur Zamindar, Dhananjaya Bhanja
crushed by the British. erupted in 1835, in Ganjam district of Orissa (Odisha).
Magbook ~ Tribal and Peasant Uprisings 113

The Mysore Rebellion (1840-1841) The Gadkari Revolt (1844)

! A revolt was organised by Dhondji Wagh after Tipu Sultan’s death ! Gadkaris were the hereditary servants of the
in Mysore, with the battlefield against the British, the revolt Marathas who became most displeased with the
subsided. British regime for its Arbitrary System of Land
Sawantwadi Revolt (1844) Revenue Collection. Many Gadkaris were forced
to give up their service and mamlatdars were
! The revolt in 1844, was led by a Maratha chief, Phond Sawant of
asked to oversee the lands. So, the Gadkaris
Sawantwadi with the support of other sardars. The rebels captured
rebelled in 1844 in Kolhapur. They cost the
forts in fighting the British, but were finally forced to seek refuge in
British much of material loss before they were
Goa. The rebellion came to an end with the capture of the rebels.
finally subdued.

Peasant Movements
Movement Location Leader Cause

Pagal Panthis (1825-35) Bengal Karam Shah, Tipu Shah " Against hike rent in Bengal.
(Hajong and Garo tribes)
Indigo Revolt (1860) Nadia district of Digambar Biswas, Bishnu " Peasants were forced to grow lndigo in their
Bengal Bishwas, Harish Chandra field by European factory owners.
Mukherjee (editor of " Dinbandhu Mitra had written about this revolt
newspaper Hindu Patriot) in his play Neel Darpan (translated into English
by Madhusudan Datta).
Poona Sarvajanik Sabha (1870) Pune By MGRanade " To popularise the peasants legal right.
Pabna Agrarian Uprising Pabna district of Shah Chandra Roy, Shambhu " Against oppression of peasants by Zamindar.
(1873) Bengal Patel " Bengal Tenancy Act, 1885 passed.
Ramosi Uprising (1877-87) Parts of Andhra Vasudev Balwant Phadke " It was against the British failure to take up an
Pradesh, anti-famine measure.
Maharashtra
Bijolia Movement (1905, 1913, Rajasthan Sitaram Das, Vijay Pathhik " The movement arose due to imposition of 86
1916, 1927) Singh different type of cases on peasants.
Champaran Satyagraha (1917) Bihar Gandhiji, Dr Rajendra Prasad, " Against the Tinkathia System imposed by the
Raj Kumar Shukla European Indigo planters.
Kheda Satyagraha (1918) Gujarat Gandhiji and Vallabhbhai " Against ignored appeal for remission revenue in
Patel case of crop failure.
Uttar Pradesh Kisan Sabha Uttar Pradesh Indra Narayan Dwivedi, " To organise a stronger peasant movement in
(1918) Madan Mohan Malaviya Uttar Pradesh.
Awadh Kisan Sabha (1920) Oudh Jawaharlal Nehru, Baba " To organise peasants.
Rama Chandra
Moplah Rebellion (1921) Malabar region, Sayyed Ali, Sayyid Fazl " Against the oppression and exploitation of
Kerala Muslim Moplah peasants by Hindu Zamindars
(Jemnis) and British Government.
Eka Movement (1921) Awadh Madari Parsi " Higher extraction of rent.
Andhra Ryots Association (1928) Andhra Pradesh NG Ranga " Abolition of Zamindari.
All India Kisan Sabha (1936) — Swami Sahajananda " Protection of peasants from economic
exploitation.
Tebhaga Movement (1946) Bengal Communists " Against zamindars and moneylenders.
Telangana Movement (1951) Hyderabad — " Against moneylenders and officials of Nizam of
Hyderabad.
Chapter nineteen
Governor-Generals and
Viceroys
Supreme Court was established at Calcutta
Governor-Generals !
in 1774. Impey was appointed as the first
of Bengal Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. He also
established Calcutta Madarsa or Aliya
Role of Warren Hastings Madarsa in 1781 for study of Islamic law.
Governor-Generals and (1772-1785) ! The Rohilla War (1774) and annexation of
Rohilkhand by the Nawab of Oudh with
Viceroys is indurable in ! He became Governor of Bengal in
help of the British.
the course of Modern 1772 and became Governor-General
of Bengal in 1773 through the ! Trail of Nand Kumar and his judicial murder
Indian History. Infact, the Regulating Act of 1773. (1775).
rise and growth of India ! Termination of dual administration in ! Chait Singh affair (1778) Chait Singh was
as a nation would be Bengal (1772). the Raja of Banaras.
traced in the vision and ! Introduced the Quinquennial ! He was the only Governor-General against
settlement of land revenue in 1772 whom impeachment proceeding were
works of these
by the method of farming out estates proceeded.
individuals. Though their
to the highest bidder. ! Quinquennial settlement abandoned in
works and contributions 1777 and annual settlement of land
! Creation of Board of Revenue
are directed to serve (1772). Created Diwani and Faujdari revenue on the basis of open auction to the
their mother nation, yet Adalat at the district level and highest bidder was started.
their role in making of Sadar Diwani and Nizamat Adalat. ! Foundation of Asiatic Society of Bengal by
Codified Hindu and Muslim law Hastings and Sir William Jones (1784). He
Modern Indian can’t be
known as Father of Judicial Reforms was conservator of Asiatic Society and
undermined. in India. helped in translation of (Abhigyan
! To remove the possible clash Shakuntalam) book by Kalidas and (Gita
between the Supreme Court and Govinda) book of Jaideva into English.
Sadar Diwani Adalat, he appointed
Elijah Impey, the Chief Justice of Lord Cornwallis (1786-1793)
Supreme Court, as Superintendent of ! Europeanisation of administrative services,
Sadar Diwani Adalat. introduction of civil services and reforms to
! Stopped annual allowances of ` 26 purify and improve administration.
lakh to Mughal Emperor Shah Alam Cornwallis is called the Father of Civil
II. Took away Allahabad and Kara Service in India.
from him and sold it to the Nawab of ! The Police system was introduced.
Awadh. Sovereignty of law and all the official will be
! Regulating Act 1773, appointed him responsible to the courts.
the first Governor-General alongwith ! Introduction of the permanent revenue
four councellors—Clavering, Francis, settlement or the Zamindari system in
Monson and Barwell. Bengal and Bihar (1793).
116 Magbook ~ Indian History

! Reform of the judiciary (1793) setting-up courts at different Sir George Barlow (Officiation)
levels and separation of revenue administration from judicial
administration. (1805-1807)
! The District Faujdari Adalats presided over by Indian judges ! Vellore Mutiny (1806), 2nd Anglo-Maratha War
abolished and in their place four circuit courts were established, ended. Slave trade abolished in the British Empire
presided over by the European covenanted servants. in 1807.

Lord Minto I (1807-1813)

Cornwallis Code
! Treaty of Amritsar with Ranjit Singh (1809),
Cornwallis Code was introduced in 1793 with following features. It was
based on the concept of separation of powers. The Collector was the Rebellion in Travancore (Kerala).
head of the revenue administration and divested him of all the judicial
and magisterial powers. District judge was appointed as the head of
Lord Hastings (1813-1823)
the judiciary at the district level. A gradation of civil courts was set-up. ! Anglo-Nepal War (1814-1816) The Gorkhas
The distinction between revenue and civil cases abolished. accepted the Treaty of Sagauli in March 1816. Due
to his success in this war, he was made Marquess
Sir John Shore (1793-1798) of Hastings (1816).
! Third Maratha War (1817-1818) Maratha power
! As the President of the board of revenue he played an important
was finally crushed. Abolition of Peshwaship and
role in the introduction of the Permanent Settlement (1793).
annexation of all his territories and creation of
! Charter Act of 1793 came into force.
Bombay Presidency (1818).
! Battle of Kharda took place between the Nizam and the
! Introduction of the Ryotwari Settlement in Madras
Marathas (1795).
Presidency by Governor Thomas Munro (1820).
! A regulation prohibiting female infanticide was passed in 1795.
! Bengal Tenancy Act, 1822.
Lord Wellesley (1798-1805) ! First coffee plantation was done in 1823 at Fort
Gloster (Bengal). Similarly, first tea plantation was
! Called Himself as Tiger of Bengal. Vigorously applied the policy
discovered in Assam with the help of Andrew
of Subsidiary Alliance to achieve British Paramontacy in India.
Charlton and Robert Bruce.
(Dupleix was first to start the subsidiary alliance).
! Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1799). The war resulted in the defeat Lord Amherst (1823-1828)
and death of Tipu and the annexation of many parts of Mysore.
! The First Burmese War (1824-1826)
! Wellesley passes a regulation for controlling the press. Christian
! Barrackpore Mutiny (1824)
missionaries established a printing press at Serampore.
Foundation of Fort Williams College. Sir John Gilchrist was ! Capture of Bharatpur (1826)
appointed as head of Hindustani Language Department.
! Wellesley took the administration of Tanjore (25th October, Governor-Generals of India
1799), Surat (March 1800) and Carnatic (31st July, 1801).
Lord William Bentinck (1828-1835)
! Subsidiary Treaty of Bassein (1802) and the Second
Anglo-Maratha War (1803-05). It resulted in the defeat of the
! Suppression of child sacrifices and infanticide,
Sindhia, the Bhonsle and the Holkar. although it had been declared illegal by the Bengal
Regulation XXI of 1795 and Regulation III of 1804.
! Formation of the Madras Presidency after the annexation of the
kingdoms of Tanjore and Carnatic. Under his energetic ! In 1829-1837, suppression of Thugi system.
leadership Lord Lake captured Delhi and Agra in 1803 and took William Sleeman captured more than 1500 thugs in
the emperor under the company’s protection. Meerut.
! In 1829, Sati system was abolished and Khasis
Subsidiary Alliances
revolted. Charter Act of 1833.
Year Ruler ! Deposition of Raja of Mysore and annexation of his
1798 Nizam of Hyderabad territories (1831). Annexation of Cachar and Jaintia
1799 Mysore Tanjore (1832). Annexation of Coorg (1834) .
1801 The Nawab of Oudh ! Educational reforms on the basis of Macaulay’s Minute
1801 The Peshwa (1835) and introduction of English as the official
1803 The Bhonsle Raja of Berar language and the medium of instruction in India.
1804 The Scindia ! He established the first Medical College in Calcutta.
Magbook ~ Governor-Generals and Viceroys 117

Sir Charles Metcalfe (Officiation) ! A new Post Office Act was passed in 1854, postage
stamps were issued for the first-time. In 1856, Oudh
(1835-1836) was annexed on the pretext of the misgovernment.
! Passed education resolution proposed by Macaulay. Abolition Bengal was placed under the charge of Lt Governor.
of press restrictions known as liberator of Indian Press. ! A separate Public Works Department (PWD) was
established in every province. Work on the Grand
Lord Auckland (1836-1842) Trunk (GT) road was started. Ganges canal declared
! In 1839, Lord Auckland has started construction of Grand open (1854).
Trunk (GT) road from Calcutta to Delhi.
! Widow Re-marriage Act of 1856. In 1855-56, Santhal
! Deposition and deportation of the Raja of Satara. insurrection took place.
! First Afghan War started (1836-1842). Disaster of British in ! First Engineering College, Thomson College for Civil
the war and recall of Auckland. Engineering was established at Roorkee.
! In 1838, Tripartite Treaty between Shah Shuja, Ranjit Singh
and the British.
Viceroys of India
Lord Ellenborough (1842-1844)
Lord Canning (1856-1862)
! Slavery abolished (1843).
! Conquest and annexation of Sind (1843) by Charles Napier. ! Establishment of universities in the Presidencies of
Calcutta, Madras and Bombay in 1857.
Lord Hardinge I (1844-1848) ! Outbreak of 1857 Mutiny.
! In 1845, the Danish possession sold to the English. ! Last Governor-General after 1858 Governor-General
! 1845-46 the First Anglo-Sikh War and the Treaty of Lahore came to be known as Viceroy.
(1846). ! Queen Victoria’s proclamation and the Government of
! Prohibition of female infanticide and suppression of the India Act of 1858. It ended the rule of East India
practice of human sacrifice among the Khonds of central Company. Transfer of control from East India Company
India. In 1846, the rebellion of Khonds took place . to crown.
! Enactment of Indian Penal Code.
Lord Dalhousie (1848-1856) ! Withdrawal of Doctrine of Lapse.
! Lord Dalhousie’s policy mainly focussed on seizure of ! In 1861, Indian Council Act and enactment of Code of
different regions of India. Criminal Procedure.
! Second Sikh War (1848-49) and annexation of Punjab ! Income tax was introduced with a uniform tariff of
(1849). 10% apart from convertible paper currency.
! Second Anglo-Burmese War and annexation of lower Burma ! In 1861, the enactment of the Indian High Courts Act.
or Pegu (1852). Dalhousie can be regarded as the father of
the Electric Telegraph in India. O’Shaughnessy was appointed Lord Elgin I (1862-1863)
the Superintendent of the Telegraph Department in 1852.
! Suppressed Wahabi Movement.
First telegraph line from Calcutta to Agra. Charter Act of
1853. ! Due to his sudden death in 1862. The administration
! In 1853, a new treaty was forced on the Nizam of Hyderabad was carried on by Sir Napier and Sir Denison from
compelling him to cede Berar to Company. 1862 to 1864.
! Railway minute of 1853. The first railway line connecting Sir John Lawrence (1864-1869)
Bombay and Thane was laid in 1853.
! War with Bhutan in 1865.
! In 1853, recruitment of the Covenanted Civil Service by
! Indo-European telegraph from Karachi, Persia and
competitive examination.
Turkey in 1865.
! Introduction of Doctrine of Lapse and annexation of Satara
! Masterly Inactivity Policy was followed i.e. policy of
(1848), Jaitpur (1849), Sambhalpur (1849), Baghat (1850),
non-intervention with Afghanistan.
Udaipur (1852), Jhansi (1853) and Nagpur (1854).
! Establishment of High Courts at Calcutta, Bombay and
! In the educational sphere an important development was
Madras in 1865.
Charles Wood, (President of the Board Control) dispatch of
! In 1868, the Punjab Tenancy Act, known as Saviour of
1854 and British assumption of the responsibility of educating
Punjab and annual grant of 6 lakh of rupees to Sher
the masses. Opening of Anglo-vernacular schools and
Government colleges. JED Bethune opened a girls school in Ali, Amir of Afghanistan and railway opened from
Calcutta in 1849. Ambala to Delhi.
118 Magbook ~ Indian History

Lord Mayo (1869-1872) Lord Dufferin (1884-1888)

! Beginning of the system of state railways. ! In 1885, two Acts passed (a) Bengal Tenancy Act and (b) Bengal
! Establishment of colleges for the education and Local Self-Government Act.
political training of the Indian princes. Rajkot ! Third Anglo-Burmese War (1885-86). King Thibow of Burma was
College in Kathiawar and the Mayo College at deposed to Ratnagiri fort (Maharashtra).
Ajmer. ! In 1886, Upper Burma was annexed and delimitation of Afghan
! Organisation of statistical survey of India under W Northern boundary took place.
Hunter (first census in 1871) and establishment ! Formation of Indian National Congress. Aitchison Committee was
of department of agriculture and commerce. constituted.
! Initiated the process of financial decentralisation
in India. In 1870, he took first-step in the Lord Lansdowne (1888-1894)
direction of separation of central and provincial ! In 1891, second Factory Act was passed.
finances and in 1872, a convict in the Andamans
assassinated Mayo. The only Viceroy to be
! In 1892, the Indian Council’s Act passed.
murdered in office. ! Division of the Civil Services into imperial, provincial and
subordinate.
Lord Northbrook (1872-1876) ! Appointment of Durand Commission in 1893. It defined the
! In 1872, Kuka Revolt took place in Punjab under boundary, known as Durand Line, between British India and
Bhagat Jawahar Mal. Visit of Prince of Wales Afghanistan.
(later Edward VII) in 1875. ! Age of Consent Bill (1891), which increased the marriageble age,
with efforts of social reformer Behramji Malabari.
Lord Lytton (1876-1880)
! The British Parliament passed the Royal Titles Lord Elgin II (1894-1898)
Act, 1876 investing Queen Victoria with the title ! In 1896, famine took place all over India. Lyall Commission was
of Kaiser-i-Hind or Queen Empress of India. appointed after famine.
Imperial Durbar at Delhi in 1877.
! Vernacular Press and Arms Act, 1878, Dramatic Lord Curzon (1899-1905)
Performances Act, 1876. These were the ! Calcutta Corporation Act, 1899.
repressive measures of Lytton against the rising ! The Indian Coinage and Paper Currency Act, 1899.
wave of Indian nationalism. ! Punjab Land Alienation Act, 1901.
! In 1878, appointment of the first Famine ! In 1901, a commission was appointed under the Chairmanship of
Commission under Sir Richard Strachey, the Sir Colin Scott Moncrieff to investigate into the whole question of
finance member of the Viceroy council. irrigation. The work on Jhelum canal was completed.
! Proposed the plan of Statutory Civil Services in ! A Famine Commission was appointed under the Chairmanship of
1878-79 and lowered the maximum age limit for Sir Antony MacDonnell.
civil services from 19 to 21 Years.
! Appointment of Police Commission (1902) under Sir Andrew
! Second Anglo-Afghan War in 1878-80 and fight of Frazer, to review the Police administration and suggest reforms.
Sher Ali.
! Appointed a commission under Sir Thomas Raleigh in 1902 to
Lord Ripon (1880-1884) suggest reforms regarding Universities. On its recommendation the
Indian Universities Act, 1904 was passed.
! Repealed the Vernacular Press Act, 1882. First
! Ancient Monument Preservation Act, 1904. Implemented the
Factory Act, 1881
Co-operative Credit Societies Act, 1904.
! Second census took place in 1881. The
! In 1904, Colonel Young husband expedition sent against Tibet.
population estimated at 254 million.
! Continued the process of Financial
! Partition of Bengal 1905 was declared.
Decentralisation. Division of the finances of the ! Imperial Agricultural Department was set-up. Establishment of an
centre in 1882. agriculture research institute at Pusa in Samastipur, Bihar.
! Introduction of Local Self-Government in 1882, ! A new department of commerce and industry was established.
called Father of Local Self-Government. ! Resigned from his office because of his controversy with Kitchner
! Appointed Hunter Commission in 1882 to review (August 1905). The controversy was popularly known as Curzon
the education. In 1883, Famine code formulated. Kitchner controversy over defence budget.
Magbook ~ Governor-Generals and Viceroys 119

Lord Minto II (1905-1910) Lord Reading (1921-1926)

! On 16th October 1906 Partition of Bengal came into force. It ! Moplah rebellion in Kerala (1921).
gave birth to Anti-Partition and Swadeshi Movement. ! Chauri Chaura incident (5th February, 1922) and the
! In October 1906 George Arundel Committee on political reforms withdrawal of NCM by Gandhi.
submitted its report. ! Repeal of Press Act of 1910 and the Rowlatt Act of
! In 1906 Lord Minto received the Muslim delegation headed by 1919.
Aga Khan. Foundation of Muslim League (1906). ! Resolution passed for the holding of simultaneous
! Surat Session and split in Congress (1907). examination for ICS in England and India from 1923.
! On 8th June, 1908, two acts passed (a) Explosives Substance ! In 1924, Lee Commission on civil services submitted
Act passed and (b) Newspaper (Incitement of Offences) Act, its report.
! Morley Minto reforms or the Indian Council Act of 1909. ! On June 1925, Indian Sandhurst (also known as
! In 1910, Press Act was passed. Skeen) Committee was appointed on the
employment of Indians in the army.
Lord Hardinge II (1910-1916) ! On 22nd August, 1925, VJ Patel elected the first
Indian President of the Legislative Assembly.
! Partition of Bengal annulled. Capital shifted to Delhi. Delhi
Darbar on 12th December, 1911.
Lord Irwin (1926-1931)
! On 23rd December, 1911 bomb thrown on Lord Hardinge.
! Popularly known as Christian Viceroy.
! In 1912, Islington Commission on Civil Services constituted.
! In 1926, Indian school of mines opened at Dhanbad.
! In 1914, Forest Research Institute and College opened at
! Appointment of the Simon Commission (November
Dehradun.
1927).
! In 1916, Sadler Committee on Universities appointed.
! Royal Commission on Agriculture was constituted in
Lord Chelmsford (1916-1921) 1927.
! Appointment of the Harcourt Butler Indian States
! Gandhi returned from South Africa. Foundation of Sabarmati
Commission in November 1927, to recommend the
Ashram (1916) with the help of Ambalal Sarabhai. Satyagraha
measures for the establishment of better relations
at Champaran (1917), Ahmedabad (1918) and Khaira (1918).
between the Indian States and the Central
! September, 1916, Home Rule League was formally inaugurated Government.
by Besant.
! Convening of the All India States People Conference
! Lucknow Session and the reunion of Congress (1916).
in December, 1927 by the states people.
! Lucknow Pact between the Congress and the League (1916).
! In 1929, Imperial Council of Agricultural Research
! Foundation of first Women’s University at Poona (1916) by set-up and Hartog Committee was appointed to give
Mahrishi Karve. its report on the growth of education in British India
! July 1917 Austen Chamberlain resigns and succeeded by and potentialities if its further progress.
Montague as Secretary of State for India. August declaration by ! 31st October, 1929, Lord Irwin announced that the
Montague (1917). Montford reforms or the Government of India goal of the British policy was the attainment of
Act of 1919. dominion status by India. This announcement also
! Sadler Commission on Education in 1917. known as Deepavali Declaration.
! Appointment of SP Sinha as the Lieutenant Governor of Bihar. ! 12th March, 1930, Gandhi started his Dandi March.
! On 10th November, Rowlatt (Sedition) Committee appointed ! First Round Table Conference (RTC) inaugurated by
and submitted its report in April 1918. George V and continued upto 19th January, 1931.
! Lahore High Court founded in 1919.
! Rowlatt Act (March 1919) and the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre Lord Willington (1931-1936)
(13th April, 1919). ! 1st December, 1931, Ramsay Mc donald (British PM)
! Formation of Khilafat Committee and the launching of Khilafat announces the decision to constitute NWFP into a
Movement (1919-20). Governor’s province and Sindh was made a separate
! In 1920, Aligarh Muslim University was founded . province.
! In 1921, Shore Committee appointed to prepare a scheme for ! Participation of Gandhi in the Second Round Table
the complete Indianisation of the officers in the Indian army. Conference.
120 Magbook ~ Indian History

! Ramsay McDonald announced Communal Award. Gandhi’s ! 15th March, 1946 Attlee announces the Cabinet
fast unto death in the Yerawada Prison. Mission; Cabinet Mission, under Pethick Lawrence,
! Third Round Table Conference took place during his region. Stafford Cripps and AV Alexander, arrives in Delhi on
! Foundation of Congress Socialist Party by Acharya 24th March, 1946.
Narendra Dev and Jai Prakash Narayan (1934). ! 6th August, 1946 Wavell invites Nehru to form an
! Government of India Act 1935. Interim Government.
! Separation of Burma from India (1935). ! 16th August, 1946 Muslim League begins the ‘Direct
! Formation of All India Kisan Sabha in (1936). Action Day’.
! Formation of interim government by the Congress
Lord Linlithgow (1936 -1944) (September 1946). League joined in October 1946.
! Formation of the Congress Ministries in majority of the ! 20th February, 1947 Attlee announces end of British rule
Provinces (1937). in India.
! October 1937, Gandhi formulated Wardha Educational
Scheme. Lord Mountbatten (1947-1948)
! Resignation of the Congress Ministries after the outbreak of ! Sworn in as Viceroy on 24th March, 1947.
World War II (1939). Resignation of the Congress Ministries ! 2nd June, 1947 Mountbatten plan was announced.
as the Deliverance Day. ! 3rd June, 1947 the plan to partition India announced.
! August offer by Viceroy (1940), Congress rejected August ! 4th June, 1947 Mountbatten announces transfer of
offer. power on 15th August.
! 7th August, 1942 Congress Session started in Bombay. ! 4th July, 1947 India Independence Bill was introduced
Passing of the Quit India Resolution (8th August, 1942) in the House of Commons.
and the launching of Quit India Movement started.
! 6th July, referendum took place in NWFP, Boycotted by
Abdul Ghaffar Khan.
Lord Wavell (1944-1947)
! On 15th August, 1947 Indian Independence.
! 25th June, 1945 Simla Conference to discuss Wavell plan
begins.
! Two Boundary Commission were set-up for Bengal and
Punjab under Cyrill Radclife.
! End of the World War II (1945).
! 28th January, 1946 Wavell announces Government’s C Rajagopalachari (1948 -1950)
intention to set-up an Executive Council of political leaders.
! The last Governor-General of free India.
! 18th February 1946 Mutiny of the Indian naval ratings in
Bombay. INA trials begins (1946).
! The only Indian Governor-General, remained in office till
January 1950.
Chapter twenty
Development of Modern
Education and Press
Development of General Committee of
Education Public Instructions,
1823
Modern education and ! The traditional schools of learning in India
! In 1823, a General Committee of
development of press suffered under the impact of colonial
Public Instruction was appointed to
expansion. For one, the political tumult under
and education side look after the development of
the British regime could hardly foster concern
evolved during the education in India.
on intellectual pursuits and secondly, the
British rule in India. public endowments to these schools were not ! The Orientalists dominated the
forthcoming any more. But later, plea to committee and advocated the
Modern education came
promote learning by the Indian officers of the promotion of oriental learning rather
with modern political, than the Anglican one.
company and others finally bore fruit.
social and economic ! The Calcutta Madarsa established by Warren ! However, different sections both in
thoughts and these Hastings in 1781 for the study of Muslim England and in India created
thoughts were law. mounting pressure on the company to
promote Western education.
propagated through the ! The Sanskrit College established by
nationalist press. Some Jonathan Duncan at Banaras in 1791 for the
Orientalist-Anglicist
study of Hindu law and philosophy.
half-hearted initiatives Controversy
! Fort William College established by Wellesley
were taken by British in AD 1800 for training of civil servants of
◆
The General Committee of Public
Government of India for Instruction consisted of 10 members.
the company in Indian languages and
Within the committee, there were
the development of customs (closed in AD 1802).
two groups, the orientalists who
education, but many advocated the policy of giving
1813 Act and the encouragement to oriental literature
full-hearted obstacles
Education and the Anglicist or the English party,
were placed in the way of The English missionary activists, such as
! which favoured the adoption of English
evolution of independent Charles Grant and William Wilberforce, as a medium of instruction.
press by same compelled the East India Company to give up ◆
As a member of the Executive Council
government. its policy of non-intervention in education. Macaulay wrote his famous Minute on
! For the first time, the British Parliament Educational Policy, dated 2nd February,
included in 1813 Charter, a clause under 1835 and placed it before the council.
which the Governor- General in council was Macaulay favoured the viewpoint of the
bound to keep a sum not less than ` 1 lakh Anglicist party. He said that a single
for education. However, the company used shelf of a good European library was
this fund for promoting Indian language and worth the whole native literature of
literature. India and Arabia. Macaulay aimed to
! Establishment of Calcutta College in 1817 create a class of persons who should be
with the efforts of Raja Ram Mohan Roy for Indian in blood and colour, but English in
imparting Western education. Three Sanskrit tastes, in opinions, in morals and in
colleges were set-up at Calcutta. intellect.
Magbook ~ Development of Modern Education and Press 123

Lord Macaulay’s Education Policy, Curzon’s Reforms

1835 ! Under Curzon (1899-1905), education was restricted
! In 1835, Lord Macaulay was appointed as a law member of by official control and educated persons were
the Governor- General Council. Soon, under the Macaulay motivated to express loyalty to the British rule. For
system of education (approved by Governor-General improving the working and prospects of Indian
Bentinck). universities, a commission was appointed in 1902. It
was headed by Sir Thomas Raleigh. The commission’s
! Persian was abolished as the court language and was
report led to the Indian Universities Act, which was
substituted by English.
passed in 1904.
! Printing of English books was made free and these were
available at a relatively low price. Provisions of Indian Universities Act, 1904
! The approved Macaulian system was an attempt to focus on ! More stress was given over research activities. The
educating the upper strata of society through English and number of fellows of a university and their period in
leaving it up to these people to promote vernacular languages office was reduced. Government can veto universities’
and literature. Western learning would also seep through to Senate Regulations. Strict regulation for affiliation of
the masses in this manner. private colleges. ` 5 lakh were to be sanctioned per
! Bethune School was founded by JED Bethune at Calcutta annum for 5 years, for improvement of higher
(1849). education.
! Agriculture Institute was established at Pusa (Bihar). ! The act lay down that the number of fellows of a
! Engineering Institute was established at Roorkee. university shall not be less than 50 or not more than
a 100.
Wood’s Dispatch, 1854
Sadler Commission (1917-1919)
! In 1854, Charles Wood prepared a dispatch on an
educational system for India which came to be called the ! The Sadler Commission was appointed to study the
Magna Carta of education in the country. problems of the Calcutta University though its
According to Wood's scheme: recommendations were applicable to other universities
as well.
—the government needed to spread Western education through
English medium for higher education. But, vernacular primary The commission’s suggestions included:
schools should be set-up in rural areas. —A 12-years school course.
—Its other recommendations were: —A 3-years degree course after the intermediate stage.
—A grants-in-aid system to encourage private enterprise’s —More flexibility in laying down university regulations.
involvement in education. —Centralised unitary residential teaching bodies with
—A department of public instruction in each of the five provinces. autonomy to replace traditional Indian universities.
—Universities in Calcutta, Bombay and Madras. —Facilities for teacher’s training and female education.
—Teacher’s training institutions. —Instituting university degrees and diplomas and applied
—Promotion of education for women. science and technology courses.
! Following the recommendations of the commission,
Hunter Commission (1882) from 1916 to 1921, seven universities were set-up.
The control of the Education Department was put in
! To evaluate the progress achieved under the Dispatch of
the hands of provincial ministries after the Montagu-
1854, a commission under William Wilson Hunter was set-up
Chelmsford Reforms (1919).
in 1882. The commission’s views, restricted to primary and
secondary education, emphasised:
—the state’s role in extending primary education.
Hartog Committee, 1929
—literary and practical learning for secondary level education. ! Recommended the policy of consolidation and
—that female education had been largely ignored. improvement of primary education. Recommended a
—a whole-hearted attempt to involve private enterprise in education. selective system of admission to universities and
! Many institutions were set-up to promote oriental and Indian diversified courses leading to industrial and
learning as well. Teaching-cum-examining universities sprang commercial careers. Universities should be improved.
up, an example being the Punjab University established in Wardha Scheme of Basic Education (1937), worked
1882. In 1887, the Allahabad University was founded. out by the Zakir Hussain Committee after Gandhiji
published a series of articles in the Harijan.
124 Magbook ~ Indian History

Wardha Scheme, 1937 Development of Press

! Gandhi proposed his Wardha Scheme for Basic Education that aimed at ! The evolution of the Indian media was
learning through activity and emphasised on vocational education. The fraught with developmental difficulties,
details, as prepared by the Zakir Hussain Committee, focused on illiteracy, colonial constraints and repression.
manual productive work. As the Congress ministries soon resigned, the Patriotic movements grew in proportion with
scheme could be taken up only after 1947. the colonial ruthlessness and a vehicle of
information dissemination became a tool for
Sargent Plan, 1944 freedom struggle. In the struggle for
! The Sargent Plan, worked out by the Central Advisory Board of freedom, journalists in the 20th century
Education in 1944, called for elementary and higher secondary schools, performed a dual role as professionals and
universal, free and compulsory education for children up to the 6-11 nationalists.
age group, and a 6 years school course for the 11-17 age group. ! The first attempts to publish newspapers in
! Though the plan aimed to reconstruct education in 40 years, it was later India were made by the disgruntled
restricted to 16 years. employees of the East India Company who
! Sir John Sargent was the educational advisor to the Government of sought to expose the malpractices of private
India. trade. The first newspaper in India entitled
Hickey’s Bengal Gazette or The Calcutta
Development After Independence General Advertiser was started by James
Augustus Hickey in 1780.
! After independence, the Radhakrishnan Commission was set-up in
November, 1948 to review university education. The main ! Soon other newspapers came into existence in
recommendations were as follows: Calcutta and Madras− the Calcutta Gazette, the
—12 years of pre-university studies. Bengal journal, the Oriental Magazine, the
—Higher educational set-up to impart general, liberal and occupational Madras Courier and the Indian Gazette.
education, increased focus on subjects such as agriculture, law and ! During the first half of 19th century, several
medicine, and improvement of engineering and technical institutes. newspapers were running in the country.
—University education must not be made compulsory for administrative Many of these like Bangadoot of Ram
services. Mohan Roy, Rastgoftar of Dadabhai Naoroji
—Subject-wise exams at different stages for acquiring the first degree. etc., advocated social reforms and thus,
—Uniform examination standards in all universities. helped to arouse national awakening.
—Raised pay scale for teachers. ! In 1857, Payam-e-Azadi was started in
—The establishment of a University Grants Commission. Hindi and Urdu, calling upon the people to
! For the national pattern of education and “general principles and fight against the British.
policies for development of education”. ! Again, the first Hindi daily, Samachar
! The Indian Government adopted a resolution in 1968 which was mostly Sudhavarashan and two newspapers in
based on the recommendations of the Kothari Commission appointed in Urdu and Persian respectively, Doorbeen
and Sultan-ul-Akhar, faced trial in 1857, for
1964. The resolution laid down.
having published a ‘firman’ by Bahadur
! The resolution also called for a three-language formula which would Shah Zafar, urging the people to drive the
involve regional languages as well. British out of India.
—Promotion of science and research, agriculture and industry- related studies; ! This was followed by the notorious Gagging
and increased emoluments for teachers and a better status for them. Act of Lord Canning, under which
—On the recommendation of Radhakrishnan Commission, the University Grants restrictions were imposed on the
Commission was constituted in 1953.
newspapers and periodicals.
! The first book published in India was by the
Development of Technical Education Jesuits of Goa in 1557. In 1684, the EIC
1794 Guindy College of Engineering (affiliated to Madras University) set-up a printing press in Bombay. However,
1835 Medical College at Calcutta, Agriculture College at Pune for about a century after this no newspaper
was published in the country because the
1847 The Engineering College at Roorkee
company’s servants in India wished to with
1856 The Calcutta College of Engineering hold the news of their malpractices and
1858 Overseers’ School at Poona developed into Poona abuses of private trading; from reaching
College of Engineering (affiliated to Bombay University) London.
Magbook ~ Development of Modern Education and Press 125

Press Laws and Regulations in Vernacular Press Act, 1878

! The purpose of the act was to facilitate better control
British India and to curb the Vernacular Press, which had become
! The earliest regulatory measures can be traced back to highly critical of the government policies since 1857
1799, when Lord Wellesley promulgated the Press and mobilised public opinion on a large scale against
Regulations, which had the effect of imposing pre-censorship the imperialist act of Lytton.
on an infant newspaper publishing industry. The onset of ! The worst feature of the act was that it discriminated
1835, saw the promulgation of the Press Act, by Charles between the English Press and the Vernacular Press
Metcalf undid with most of the repressive measures. He was and no right of appeal to a court of law was given.
also known as The liberator of Indian Press. ! In this context, the Amrita Bazaar Patrika turned
Censorship of the Press Act, 1799 overnight into an English newspaper to escape the
! Imposed by Lord Wellesley on the grounds of apprehension of restrictions of the act. Lord Ripon finally repealed it,
the French attack on India. The Censorship of Press Act 1799, in 1882.
imposed almost wartime restrictions on the press. The
Newspapers Act, (Incitement to Offences) 1908
regulations required.
! The period 1903–05 saw the rise of nationwide protests
! The newspaper to clearly print in every issue the name of the against the anti-nationalist activities of Lord Curzon.
printer, the editor and the proprietor.
! To curb the Swadeshi and Boycott movements and to
! The publisher to submit all material for pre-censorship to the repress the militant nationalist trends, restrictions were
Secretary to the Government. imposed on the press.
! The restrictions on press were relaxed to some extent under ! The act empowered the magistrates to confiscate
Lord Hastings. printing presses and other assets of newspapers, which
Licensing Regulations, 1823 published objectionable materials that offended
! Promulgated by John Adams Press Regulations of 1823, government’s interests.
proved more stringent than any that had been in force ! The editors and printers of the offending newspapers
earlier. enjoyed the right to appeal to the High Court within
15 days of the order of forfeiture of the press.
! The new regulations required the act was particularly aimed at
Indian language newspapers or those edited by Indians. Indian Press Act, 1910
! Every printer and publisher to obtain a license for starting a ! The act further strengthened the repressive hands of
press or using it. the government and is said to have revived the worst
! The penalty for printing and publishing any literature without features of Lytton’s Press Act of 1878.
the requisite license was ` 400 for each such publication or ! The act empowered the Local Government to demand
imprisonment in default thereof. Magistrates were authorised
security, at the time of registration from the printer or
to attach unlicensed presses.
the publisher of a newspaper and to forfeit it, if the
! As the consequence of the act Raja Ram Mohan Roy’s newspaper publishes any objectionable material.
Mirat-ul-Akabar had to stop publication.
! The printer of every newspaper was required to submit
! The Liberation of the Indian Press, 1835 Act, Metcalfe,
two copies of each issue to the local government.
Governor-General (1835-36) repeated the obnoxious 1823
ordinance and earned the epithet, liberator of the Indian Developments during First World War
Press. The New Press Act (1835) required a ! During the First World War, 1914-18, the Defence of
printer/publisher to give a precise account of premises of India was promulgated. The executive used these
publication and cease functioning, if required by a similar powers not only to repress the political agitations, but
declaration. The result of a iberal Press Policy was a rapid also to suppress the free public criticism.
growth of newspapers. ! In 1921, a Press Committee was appointed under the
Licensing Act, 1857 Chairmanship of Sir Tej Bahadur Sapru, then law
! The act imposed restrictions upon the press on the grounds member of the Viceroy’s Executive Council, to review
of emergency caused by the rebellion of 1857. the working of Press Laws. On the recommendations of
the committee, the Press Acts of 1908 and 1910, were
! The act prohibited the keeping or using of printing presses
repealed.
without a license from the government and the government
! With the nationalistic struggle intensifying in 30s
reserved the discretionary right to grant licensees or revoke
especially under the impact of the Civil Disobedience
them at any time. Movement launched by Mahatma Gandhi, the Press
! Metcalf’s Act was still applicable. The Press and Registration of Ordinance of 1930, was issued. This act, revived the
Books Act XXV of 1867 finally replaced it. provisions of the Press Act of 1910.
126 Magbook ~ Indian History

! It was followed by the Indian Press Emergency Powers Act ! Pre-censorship was in force. Amendments were made in
1930, to provide for the better control of the Press. The the Official Secrets Act and Press Emergency Act.
act invested immense powers in the hands of the
provincial governments, to suppress the propaganda for Developments after Independence
the Civil Disobedience Movement. ! Press (Objectionable Matters) Act, 1951 was passed
alongwith an Amendment to Article 19 (2) of the Indian
Developments during Second World War
Constitution.
! The government, under the Defence of India Act,
! This act empowered the government to demand and
assumed special powers during the Second World War
forfeit security for publication of ‘objectionable matter’.
(1939-45).

Important Newspapers, Journals and their Founders

Newspaper/Magazine Founder/Editor Newspaper/Magazine Founder/Editor
Bengal Gazette James Augustus Hickey (1780) Hindu Vir Raghavacharya and GS Aiyar
(India’s first newspaper) (1878)
Dighadarshan Marshman Maratha Kelkar and Tilak
Calcutta Journal JS Buckingham Kesari Agarkar, Tilak and Chiplunkar
Samvad-Kaumadi Ram Mohan Roy (1821) Bangavasi Joginder Nath Bose
Mirat-ul-Akabar (First Ram Mohan Roy (1822) Hindustan Madan Mohan Malaviya
newspaper in Persian) Modern Review Ramanand Chatterjee
Bangdoot Ram Mohan Roy Indian Review GN Nateshan
Brahmanical Magazine Ram Mohan Roy Swadeshamitram (Tamil) GS Aiyar
Rast Goftar (First Dadabhai Naoroji Sulabh Samachar Keshav Chandra Sen
newspaper in Gujarat)
Sanjibani Krishna Kumar Mitra
Vichar Lahari Krishnashastri Chiplunkar
Hindustan Standard Sachidanand Sinha
Hindu Patriot Grish Chandra Ghosh (Later Harish
Chandra Mukherjee) Yugantar Barindra Kumar Ghosh and
Bhupendra Nath Dutta
Som Prakash Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
Sandhya Brahmavandhav Upadhayaya
Indian Mirror Devendra Nath Tagore
Pratap Ganesh Shankara Vidyarthi
Bangalee Grish Chandra Ghosh (Taken over
by SN Bannerjee in 1879) Al-Hilal Abul Kalam Azad
Indu Prakash Gopal Hari Deshmukh Al-Bilag Abul Kalam Azad
‘Lokhitavadi’ New India Annie Besant
Native Opinion VN Mandalik Commonweal Annie Besant
Kavi Vachan Sudha Bharatendu Harish Chandra Young India Gandhi and Indulal Yagnik
Amrita Bazaar Patrika Motilal Ghosh, Shishir Kumar Indian Sociologist Shyamji K Verma
Ghosh
Bande Mataram Bhikaji Madam Cama
Sudha Vani Akshay Chandra Sarkar
Talwar Birendra Nath Chatopadhyaya
Bangadarshan Bankim Chandra Chatterjee
Free Hindustan Tarak Nath Das
Statesman Robert Knight
Hindustan Times KM Pannikar
Hindi Pradeep Bal Krishna Bhatta
Kranti Mirajkar, Jogelkar, Ghate
Chapter twenty-one
Revolt of 1857
Social and Religious Causes
The Great ! The British had abandoned its policy of
Revolution of 1857 non-interference in the socio-religious life
The Revolt of 1857 has ! The Revolt of 1857 was a product of the of the Indians. Abolition of Sati (1929),
character and policies of British colonial Hindu Widow Remarriage Act (1856)
been hailed as the
rule. The causes of revolt emerged from were such as direct interference of
watershed or the great colonial power into Hindu religious
all aspects−socio-cultural, economic and
divide in the colonial political. Moreover, it was not an isolated beliefs.
history of British India. rebellion rather a chain of rebellions ! Christian missionaries were allowed to
The Revolt of 1857 was were already taken place in different enter India and carry on with their
areas of their territory, prior to 1857. mission of proselytising by an act in
fundamentally different
1850.
from earlier rebellions Early Precedents ! The Religious Disabilities Act of 1850
by the soldiers, peasants modified the traditional Hindu Law.
! In 1806, the sepoys at Vellore mutinied,
and tribals of the but were crushed with terrible violence.
According to it, the change in religion
19th century. The scale would not debar a son from inheriting the
! In 1824, the 47th Regiment of Sepoys at
property of his father.
and spread of the Revolt Barrackpore refused to go to Burma by
of 1857 was larger, the sea-route. Economic Causes
sepoys at many centres ! In 1844, seven battalions revolted on the ! British rule led to breakdown of the
question of bhatta and salaries. village self-sufficiency, commercialisation
mutinied and this was
! There were mutinies in 1825 (Assam), of agriculture, which burdened the
accompanied by civil 1838 (Sholapur), 1844 (Sind) and peasantry, adoption of free trade
disturbances. The extent 1849-59 (Punjab) as well. imperialism from 1800,
of the revolt was mostly de-industrialisation and drain of wealth all
over North, Central and The Causes of Revolt of which led to overall decline of
economy.
parts of Western India. It Immediate Cause
was the most significant ! The issue of greased cartridges and Military Grievances
military grievances has been over ! The extension of British dominion in
movement of resistance
emphasised, as the factor for the Revolt India had adversely affected the service
against European of 1857. The grease was in some condition of the sepoys. They were
colonial rule. instances composed of beef and pig fat. required to serve in area away from their
The sepoys, Hindu as well as Muslim, homes without the payment of extra
were enraged. The use of the greased bhatta.
cartridges would endanger their religion. ! An important cause of military
However, the recent research has proved discontent was the General Service
that the cartridge was neither the only Enlistment Act, 1856, which made it
cause nor even the most important. In compulsory for the sepoys to cross the
fact, the multiple causes i.e. social, seas, whenever required. The Post
religious, political and economic worked Office Act of 1854, withdrew the free
together to produce the rebellion. postage facility for them.
Magbook ~ Revolt of 1857 129

Political Causes
! The last major extension of the British Indian territory took
The Course of Revolt
place during the time of Dalhousie. Dalhousie announced in March 1857
1849, that the successor of Bahadur Shah II would have to ! The revolt was sparked on 29th March, 1857. The 19th
leave the Red Fort.
infantry at Berhampur (Barrackpore), refused to use the
! The annexation of Baghat and Udaipur were however, newly introduced enfield rifle. The infantry was disbanded.
cancelled and they were restored to their ruling houses. Colonel Mitchell was its Commanding Officer.
! When Dalhousie wanted to apply the Doctrine of Lapse to ! Mangal Pandey, a sepoy of the 34th Native Infantry at
Karauli (Rajputana), it was overruled by the Court of Barrackpore attacked and fired at his British officers.
Directors. The mutiny was suppressed and the leader of the
Doctrine of Lapse mutiny, Mangal Pandey, was finally trial and executed.
! According to the policy of Doctrine of Lapse, introduced by April-May 1857
Lord Dalhousie, the adopted sons of the deceased kings
! 90 men of the 3rd Native Cavalry stationed at Meerut
were de-recognised as heirs to the throne, which
refused to use the greased cartridge. 85 of them were
subsequently led to the annexation of large number of
dismissed and sentenced to 10 years imprisonment on
kingdoms.
9th May.
Chronology of Dalhousie’s Annexation ! The next day, on 10th May, the entire Indian garrison
through Doctrine of Lapse revolted. On 11th May, 1857, a band of sepoys from
State Year of Annexation
Meerut, who had defied and killed the European officers
the previous day, marched to the Red Fort (Delhi).
Satara 1848
! Bahadur Shah II was proclaimed the Shahenshah-
Jaitpur (Uttar Pradesh) 1849
e-Hindustan. The sepoy then set out to capture and
Sambhalpur (Orissa) 1850
control the imperial city of Delhi.
Baghat 1850
Udaipur 1852 Areas Affected by the Revolt
Jhansi 1853 ! Very soon, the rebellion spread throughout Northern
Nagpur 1854 and Central India at Lucknow, Allahabad, Kanpur,
! Dalhousie annexed Awadh in 1856, on the ground of Bareilly, Banaras, in some parts of Bihar, Jhansi and
misrule. The annexation of Awadh was also represented by other places. However, the Southern India remained
Bengal Army, three-fifth of whom belonged to Awadh. Sir quiet. Mutinies took place at a few places in Punjab
James Outram, who had been the British resident in Awadh (Naushera and Hoti Mardan), but Sir John Lawrence
since 1854, was appointed as the first Chief Commissioner (Chief Commissioner of Punjab) easily put them down.
in 1856, but he was replaced by Sir Henry Lawrence. He
was the Chief Commissioner when revolt broke out. Other Important Events
! Dalhousie abolished the titles of the Nawab of Carnatic and At Jhansi, Rani Laxmibai, the widow queen of Raja Gangadhar
the Raja of Travancore and refused to grant the pension to Rao, the last Maratha ruler of Jhansi, led the rebellion.
the adopted son (Dhondu Pant, better known as Nana In Bihar Kunwar Singh, of Arrah, raised the banner of rebellion,
Sahib) of the last Peshwa, (Baji Rao II) after the latter’s which soon spread to many parts of Bihar, including Danapur,
death in 1851. ChotaNagpur, Ranchi, Palamu etc. The tribals of the region
! Canning announced in 1856, that the successors of also joined the rebellion. Kunwar Singh overthrew the British
Bahadur Shah were to be known only as princes and not as authority in Shahabad and established his own government.
kings. He marched to Kalpi to help Nana Sahib for a joint attack on
Kanpur.
Agrarian Causes
Prince Firoz Shah raised the banner of revolt at Mandsor
! The Summary Settlement of 1856, which was first (Madhya Pradesh) and kept the British forces engaged in
introduced in the North-Western provinces, was extended to Central India. Driven out of central provinces, he campaigned in
Awadh. Ruhelkhand and Awadh. He also joined the forces of Tantia
! Heavy over-assessment of land revenue impoverished the Tope in Rajputana.
peasants. Khan Bahadur Khan raised the banner of revolt in Ruhelkhand
! The introduction of the institution of private property rights in with epicenter at Bareilly. He proclaimed himself the Nawab
land by which land became a commodity, which could be Nazim.
bought, sold, rented or leased.
130 Magbook ~ Indian History

Opinions About the Nature of the 1857 Revolt Different Leaders Associated with
the Revolt of 1857
Author Opinion / View
Wholly unpatriotic and selfish Sepoy Mutiny Places Leaders
Sir John Seeley
with no native leadership and no popular Barrackpore Mangal Pandey
support. Delhi Bahadur Shah II, Bakht Khan Hakim
LER Ries A war of fanatic religionists against Christians. Ahsanullah (Chief Advisor to Bahadur
Shah II)
TR Holmes A conflict between civilisations and barbarism.
Lucknow Begum Hazrat Mahal, Bijris Qadir,
Outram and Taylor A Hindu-Muslim conspiracy. Ahmadullah (Advisor of the ex-Nawab of
VD Savarkar Indian War of Independence. Awadh)
Kanpur Nana Sahib, Rao Sahib (nephew of
Bipin Chandra The entire movement lacked a unified and
Nana), Tantia Tope, Azimullah Khan
forward looking programme to be implemented
(Advisor of Nana Sahib)
after the capture of power.
Jhansi Rani Laxmibai
SN Sen What began as a fight for religion ended as a
War of Independence. Bihar Kunwar Singh, Amar Singh
(Jagdishpur)
Benjamin Disraeli Is it a military mutiny or is it a National revolt?
Allahabad and Maulvi Liyakat Ali
Dr RC Majumdar The so-called First National War of Banaras
Independence of 1857 is neither first, nor Faizabad Maulvi Ahmadullah (he declared the
National and nor War of Independence. revolt as Jihad against English)
Farrukhabad Tufzal Hasan Khan
Reasons for Failure of Revolt Bijnor Mohammed Khan
! The poor organisation and lack of coordination among the rebels Muradabad Abdul Ali Khan
were perhaps the most important cause of its failure. English Bareilly Khan Bahadur Khan
had better resources, modern weapons and materials of war. Mandsor Firoz Shah
! Telegraph services kept Commander-in-Chief informed about the Gwalior/Kanpur Tantia Tope
movement of rebels. Assam Kandapareshwar Singh, Manirama Datta
! Lack of unity among Indians, many ruling chiefs and big Orissa Surendra Shahi, Ujjwal Shahi
zamindars, actively helped British to suppress the revolt. Kullu Raja Pratap Singh
! The modern educated Indians also did not support the revolt. Rajasthan Jaidayal Singh and Hardayal Singh
! Neither the leaders nor sepoys were inspired by any high ideals Gorakhpur Gajadhar Singh
of patriotism and nationalism. Mathura Devi Singh, Kadam Singh

British Officials Associated with Revolt

Consequences of the Revolt
British Official Place
The Revolt of 1857, resulted in significant changes in administrative
General John Captured Delhi on 20th September, 1857
structure, policies of the government and the British attitudes. Lord
Nicholson (Nicholson died soon due to a mortal
Canning at a Durbar at Allahabad in the Queen’s Proclamation issued
wound received during the fighting).
on 1st November, 1858, declared that those who laid down arms by
Major Hudson Killed Bahadur Shah’s sons and
2nd January, 1859 would be pardoned except those directly involved in
grandsons in Delhi.
the murder of British subjects. Official services would be open to all
without any discrimination of race or creed. Sir Hugh Wheeler Defence against Nana Sahib’s forces till
26th June, 1857. British forces
To give expression to this pledge the India Civil Services Act of 1861 surrendered on 27th on the promise of
was passed, which provided for an annual competitive examination to safe conduct to Allahabad.
be held in London for recruitment to the Covenanted Civil Service. Due Recaptured Banaras and Allahabad in
General Neil
regard would be given to ancient usages and customs of India. June 1857. At Kanpur, he killed
The Queen’s Proclamation declared to stop any further extension of Indians as revenge against the killing of
territorial possessions and promised to respect the rights, dignity and English by Nana Sahib’s forces. Died at
honours of native princes. Lucknow while fighting against the
rebels.
The Government of India Act of 1858 was passed in the wake of the
Sir Colin Final recovery of Kanpur on
Revolt of 1857. The act also known as the Act of the Good 6th December, 1857. Final
Campbell
Government of India, abolished the East India Company and reoccupation of Lucknow on
transferred the powers of government, territories and revenues to the 21st March, 1858. Recapture of
British Crown. Bareilly on 5th May, 1858.
Magbook ~ Revolt of 1857 131

British Official Place ! It is not surprising that urban weavers were

Chief Commissioner of Awadh, who died during the especially enthusiastic in their support of the
Henry Lawrence
seizure of British residency by rebels at Lucknow on 2nd revolt, many even joining as armed volunteers.
July, 1857. Authors and Books of 1857 Revolt
Major General Defeated the rebels (Nana Sahib’s force) on 17th July,
Havelock 1857. Died at Lucknow in December 1857. Author Book
William Taylor Suppressed the revolt at Arrah in August 1857. Dr SN Sen Eighteen Fifty-Seven
and Eye John Kaye History of the Sepoy War in India
Hugh Rose Suppressed the revolt at Jhansi and recaptured Gwalior (later completed by Colonel GB
on 20th June, 1858. The whole of Central India and Malleson)
Bundelkhand was brought under British control by him. SB Chaudhary Civil Rebellion in the Indian
Colonel Oncell Captured Banaras. Mutinies 1857-59
BC Majumdar The Sepoy Mutiny and the Revolt of
Participation of Peasants, Zamindars and 1857
Weavers in the Revolt of 1857 AT Embree 1857 in India
! Excessive demands of revenue was the major cause of hardships Eric Stokes The Peasant and the Raj
of Indians in general peasants, and zamindars in particular.
HP Chattopadhyay The Sepoy Mutiny 1857
Peasant participation in the rebellion was provoked first by
over-taxation and secondly, by the fact that the sepoys themselves PC Joshi Rebellion 1857
came from the villages. Maulana Abul Eighteen Fifty-Seven
! Apart from this, the Free Trade Imperialist Policy meant that Kalam Azad
Indians, particularly spinners and weavers, were thrown out of VD Savarkar The Indian War of Independence
employment as more than a quarter of the total textile 1857
consumption of India was now met by imports from Britain. Ashok Mehta 1857 a Great Revolt
Chapter twenty-two
Social and Religious
Reform Movements
Rise of the Movements Major Issues of the
! Introduction of Western education and ideas Movements
The intellectual skill played an important role in bringing the ! Religious Sphere To revitalise religion
among the English knowledge of some advanced ideas of the in the li
educated middle class Western world and of modern science to India. ! 'ght of modern science and religion.
! From the late 18th century, a number of Indian As there was no aspect of Indian life,
prompted a group of
scholars began the study of ancient India’s which, religion didn’t influenced.
people to introspect philosophy, science, religion and literature. It ! Social Sphere Poor position of
about the helped the reformers in their work of religious women and evil of caste system.
backwardness of Indian and social reform. For their struggle against ! Political Sphere Generating political
social evils, superstitions and inhuman opinion of the people by vernacular
society and the way and
practices and customs, the reformers used the pamphlets, newspapers etc.
means to overcome authority of ancient texts.
that. The zeal to ! Thus, Indian religious and social reformers Brahmo Samaj
eradicate these social made use of their knowledge of Western ideas ! The Brahmo Samaj was the first
evils and superstitions as well as of ancient learning.
important organisation of religious
! Press acted as a medium of communication reform. It forbade ldol worship and
which had become part
and was used as an instrument for building an discarded meaningless rites and
of the religious belief of opinion, e.g. from Raja Ram Mohan Roy to rituals. The samaj also forbade its
19th century India, led Gandhiji, everyone used the medium of press. members from attacking any religion.
to a series of reform To propagate the monotheistic
movements. Characteristics of the doctrine of Hindu scriptures, Raja
Movements Ram Mohan Roy, founded the
! Base of social reforms was newly emerging Atmiya Sabha (1815-19). In 1828,
middle class and Western educated he established the Brahmo Sabha,
intellectuals. later the Brahmo Samaj. The Brahmo
Samaj believed that God is the cause
! These movements emerged in different periods
and source of all that exists; so that
of time in different parts of India, but having
nature, the Earth and heaven all, are
considerable similarities in their objectives.
his creations.
Religious reformation was a pre-condition for
social reformation.
! In the Brahmo conception of God,
there is no place for such doctrines
! There was cultural ideological struggle against
as incarnation and meditation. It
backward element of traditional culture. The
does not recognise any specially
movement could not reach to the masses of
privileged priestly class as mediators
peasantry and urban poor.
between God and man.
134 Magbook ~ Indian History

! In Brahmo Samaj, no sacrifice was permitted. The Brahmo ! He said ‘Go back to Vedas’, by this, he meant revival of
religion laid emphasis on the love of mankind, irrespective Vedic learning and Vedic purity of religion and not
of colour, race or creed and upon the service of humanity as revival of Vedic times. With this message, he went about
the highest rule of life. all over the country and in 1875 founded the Arya
! Raja Ram Mohan Roy gave enthusiastic assistance to David Samaj in Bombay. Dayanand preached and wrote in
Hare, who founded the famous Hindu College in Calcutta. Hindi.
Established a Vedanta College (1825), in which courses ! The Satyarth Prakash was his most important book. The
both in Indian and Western social and physical sciences use of Hindi made his ideas accessible to the common
were offered. people of Northern India. He wrote three books−
! Roy and his associates had to face the bitter enmity and Satyartha Prakash, Veda-Bhashya Bhumika and Veda
ridicule from the orthodox Hindus. The influence of Brahmo Bhashya.
Samaj, however, spread and branches of the samaj were ! The members of Arya Samaj were guided by ten
open in different parts of the country. Though, the Brahmo principles, of which the first one was studying the
samajists were never large in number, they represented the Vedas. The rest were tenets on virtue and morality.
new spirit of rationalism and reform. ! Dayanand framed for them a code of social conduct, in
! They attacked caste rigidity, started taking their food with which there was no room for caste distinctions and
the people of the so-called lower castes and those of other social inequality. The Arya samajists opposed child
religions, opposed restrictions about food and drink, worked marriages and encouraged remarriage of widows.
for improving the status of women in the society, devoted ! A network of schools and colleges for boys and girls was
their lives to the spread of education and condemned the established throughout Northern India to promote the
old Hindu opposition of sea voyages. spread of education.
! In 1886, Lala Hardayal instituted the Dayanand Anglo
Adi Brahmo Samaj and Vedic School of Lahore, which soon developed into a
Brahmo Samaj of India premier college of Punjab, set the pattern for such
institutions. Here, instruction was given through English
In 1866, there was a split in the Brahmo Samaj. Devendranath
and Hindi on modern lines.
Tagore founded Adi Brahmo Samaj and Brahmo Samaj of India
! Those among his disciples who wanted to maintain the
was founded under leadership of Keshab Chandra Sen.
original spirit of Dayanand, founded the Gurukul at
Keshab Chandra Sen and his group held views which were more
Haridwar. This was set-up on the pattern of ancient
radical than those of other Brahmo samajists. They proclaimed
ashrams.
freedom from the bondage of caste and customs and from the
! Dayanand, asserted the infallibility of Vedas. The
authority of scriptures. They advocated and performed intercaste
influence of Dayanand and Arya Samaj, however, in the
marriages and widow remarriages, opposed the custom of purdah
and condemned caste divisions. These radical view led to the split promotion of education, uplift of the position of woman
in 1866. Keshab Chandra Sen established Tab eracle of New and weakening the hold of the caste system was deeper
Dispensation and Indian Reform Association. than that of many other reform movements.

Shuddhi Movement
Arya Samaj ! Dayanand tried for reconversion of those Hindus who
had been converted to other religions, like Islam and
! Another influential movement of religious and social reform
Christianity. For this purpose, a purificatory ceremony
in Northern India was started by Dayanand Saraswati.
called shuddhi was organised by him.
! At the age of 14, he became a rebel by rejecting idol
worship. Soon after, he left home and led the life of
wandering scholar in search of knowledge. During this Ramakrishna Mission
period, he acquired mastery over Sanskrit language and ! Another important reformer of the latter half of the
literature. 19th century was Ramakrishna Paramahansa
! In AD 1863, Dayanand started preaching his doctrine– there is (1836-86), who was a priest in a temple at
only one God and he should be worshipped not in the form of Dakshineswar, near Calcutta.
images, but as a spirit. He held that the Vedas contained all ! After coming in contact with the leaders of other
the knowledge imparted to man by God and essentials of religions, he accepted the sanctity of all faiths.
modern science could also be traced there. ! Almost all religious reformers of his time, including
! He looked on the Vedas as India’s Rock and Ages. The true Keshab Chandra Sen and Dayanand, called on him for
original seed Hinduism. His motto was India for the Indians. religious discussions and guidance.
Magbook ~ Social and Religious Reform Movements 135
! The contemporary Indian intellectuals, whose faith in their
own culture had been shaken by the challenge from the Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
West, found reassurance from his teachings. The Sanskrit College in Calcutta, of which Ishwar
! In order to propagate the teachings of Ramakrishna and put Chandra was the Principal for a few years, conferred on
them into practice, Ramakrishna Mission was founded in him the title of Vidyasagar. He introduced the study of
1897 at Belur Math near Calcutta by his favourite disciple modern Western thought in the Sanskrit College and
Vivekananda. The mission stood for social service. ‘The best admitted students belonging to the so-called lower
way to serve God is to serve mankind’ was its motto. castes to study Sanskrit.
! Ramakrishna Mission, since its beginning, has grown into a He was attacked by the orthodox Hindus for his powerful
very powerful centre of numerous public activities. These support to the cause of widow remarriage as well as for
include organising relief during floods, famines and his efforts at promoting education of the girls.
epidemics, establishing hospitals and running educational When, in 1855, he was made special inspector of schools;
institutions. he opened 35 schools operated completely from his
! Vivekananda (1863-1902) (Original name— Narendranath pocket. He was closely associated with Bethune, who
Dutta) had a character altogether different from that of his had started the first school for girl’s education in Calcutta
master. He studied deeply Indian and Western philosophies, in 1849. The school was named Bethune School and he
became its Secretary.
but could not find peace of mind, until he met Ramakrishna.
He was, however, not content just with spirituality. The
question that constantly agitated him was the degenerated Prarthana Samaj
condition of his motherland. ! Beginning in Bengal, the religious and social reform
! After an all India tour, he found everywhere ‘‘poverty, loss of movements spread to other parts of India.
mental vigour and no hope for future.’’ He frankly stated, ‘‘It ! In 1867, the Prarthana Samaj of Bombay was founded
is we who are responsible for all our misery and all our with the aim of anti-caste and women upliftment.
degeneration’’. He urged his countrymen to work for their ! Two of its chief architect was Mahadev Gobind Ranade
own salvation. For this purpose, Vivekananda took upon
and Ramakrishna Bhandarkar. The leaders of the
himself the task of awakening his countrymen and
Prarthana Samaj were influenced by the Brahmo Samaj.
reminding them of their weaknesses.
Ranade believed that without social reforms, it was not
! He inspired them ‘‘to struggle unto life and death to bring possible to achieve any progress in the political and
about a new state of things—sympathy for the poor and economic fields.
bread to their hungry mouths, enlightenment to the people
! He was a great advocate of Hindu-Muslim unity and
at large’’. A band of workers devoted to this cause were declared that in this vast country, no progress is
trained through the Ramakrishna Mission. possible unless both Hindus and the Mohammedans
Parliament of Religions, 1893 join hands together.
! Vivekananda’s activities outside India helped in promoting
an understanding of Indian culture abroad. In 1893, he Gopal Hari Deshmukh
participated in the All World Religious Conference and Jyotiba Phule
(Parliament of Religions) at Chicago in the USA. His Two other great reformers in Western India were Gopal
address there made a deep impression on the people of Hari Deshmukh, popularly known as Lokhitwadi and
other countries and thus, helped to raise the prestige of Jyotirao Govindrao Phule, popularly known as
Indian culture in the eyes of the world. Jyotiba.
G H Deshmukh supported reorganisation of society on the
Young Bengal Movement principle of modernity, secularism and humanism.
! David Hare, an associate of Ram Mohan, founded Hindu Mahatma Phule dedicated himself to the cause of the
College for modern education. He was basically a watch— oppressed sections of society and of women’s upliftment.
maker. Derozio taught in Hindu College from 1826 to 1831. In 1848, he started a school for the girls of the so-called
Derozio took inspiration from French Revolution. Because of lower castes and educated his wife; so that she could
his radical ideas, he could not have strong base, even teach in that school. In 1873, he founded the Satyashodhak
though his ideas were much modern that of Roy’s. Samaj, which was open to everyone without any
! Because of radical ideas, Derozio was dismissed from distinction of caste and religion. Its aim was to work for
Hindu College. Derozio edited the paper Calcutta Gazette winning equal rights for the people of the oppressed
and India Gazette. Like Roy, he spread political castes. Jyotiba was given the title of Mahatma for his
consciousness through newspaper, pamphlets etc. work for the cause of the oppressed.
136 Magbook ~ Indian History

Theosophical Movement Temple Reform Movements

! The Theosophical society was founded by Westerners, who ! Many reformers in Southern India concerned
drew inspiration from Indian thought and culture. Madame themselves with the reform of certain practices
HP Blavatsky (1830-91) laid the foundation of the movement connected with Hindu temples. They advocated the
in the United States in 1875. Later Colonel MS Olcott (1832- ending of Devadasis, who were attached to the
1907) joined her in New York. temples. They also wanted that the wealth of the
! In 1882, they shifted their headquarters to India at Adyar, in temples, some of which were very rich, should not be
Madras. The members of this society believe that a special amassed by the priests, but that the public should
relationship can be established between a person’s soul and exercise control over it. In many temples, people of the
God by contemplation, prayer, revelation etc. so-called lower castes were not allowed to enter and
! The society accepts the Hindu beliefs in reincarnation, karma sometimes even some roads adjoining the temples
and draws inspiration from the philosophy of the Upanishads were barred to them.
and Samkhya, Yoga and Vedanta school of thought. It aims to ! The reformers launched powerful movements for
work for universal brotherhood of humanity without distinction temple entry and against other evil practices which
of race, creed, sex, caste or colour. had become associated with temples. Unfortunately,
! The society also seeks to investigate the unexplained laws of inspite of the work done by reformers, since the
nature and the powers latent in man. The Theosophical 19th century, even now there are instances in some
Movement gave a sense of pride to Indians by praising Indian parts of the country when some people are debarred
culture. entry into the temples on grounds of caste.
! In India, the movement became popular with the election of
Mrs Annie Besant as its President. Mrs Besant was well Muslim Reform Movements
acquainted with Indian thought and culture and her approach ! Among the Muslims, the first signs of awakening
was Vedantic as is very evident from her remarkable appeared in the early 19th century, under the
translation of the Bhagavad Gita. leadership of people like Syed Ahmed of Bareilly in
! Besant laid the foundation of the Central Hindu College in Uttar Pradesh and Shariatullah of Bengal. They held
Banaras, in 1898, where both the Hindu religion and the that because of the degeneration of Islam in India, it
Western scientific subjects were taught. The college became had fallen into the hands of British. They set
the nucleus for the formation of Banaras Hindu University in themselves to the task of purifying and strengthening
1916. Mrs Besant also did much for the cause of female Islam and purifying Islamic learning.
education. She also formed the Home Rule League on the ! The influence of Western ideas and modern education
pattern of Irish Home Rule Movement. spread among the Muslims, later than among some
! The Theosophical society provided a common denominator sections of Hindus.
for the various sects and fulfilled the urge of educated Hindu. ! Most of them kept themselves away from it because of
Its impact was limited to a small segment of the Westernised the attitude of the ulema, who were traditional
class. custodians of Islamic learning and the unwillingness of
the upper class Muslims to reconcile themselves to
SNDP Movement British rule.
! Shri Narayana Dharma Paripalana Yogam or SNDP ! The British had gradually robbed both these groups of
Movement (1902-03), a significant movement for the their influence and rendered them powerless. Deprived
emancipation of the oppressed sections of society was started of English education and its social and economic
by Sree Narayana Guru in Kerala. Narayana Guru was born in advantages, a middle class did not grow among the
1854 in an Ezhava family. The Ezhavas were considered Indian Muslims for a long time.
untouchables. Narayana Guru acquired Sanskrit education ! The ill feeling between the British and the Muslims
and devoted himself to the uplift of the Ezhavas and other greatly increased as a result of the Revolt of 1857, in
oppressed people. which, Muslims had actively participated. But later, few
! He started establishing temples in which Gods or their section of Muslims were used by Britishers against
images had no place. He founded his first temple by rising nationalism.
installing a stone from the nearby stream. Narayana Guru, in ! A few movements were also launched aiming at the
1903, founded the Shri Narayana Dharma Paripalana Yogam, spread of modern education and removing social
which became an important organisation for social reform. abuses, like purdah and polygamy. The Mohammedan
Narayana Guru considered differences based on caste and Literary Society of Calcutta founded in 1863 by
religion as meaningless and advocated what he called One Nawab Abdul Latif, was one of the earliest
caste, One Religion and One God for all. organisations to take steps in this direction.
Magbook ~ Social and Religious Reform Movements 137
Wahabi Movement Aligarh Movement
! The earliest organised Muslim response to Western ! The most important movement for the spread of modern
influences appeared in the form of the Wahabi Movement, education and social reform among Muslims was started
which was popularly known as Walliullah Movement. by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan (1817-98).
! It was essentially a revivalist movement and was inspired ! Syed Ahmed Khan was deeply concerned at the
by the teachings of Shah Walliullah. Shah Walliullah (1702 depressed position of the Muslims and raising them from
- 62) was the first Indian Muslim leader of the 18th their backwardness became his lifelong passion. He
century, who expressed concern at the degeneration which strove hard to remove the hostility of the British rulers
had set in among Indian Muslims. He tried to organise the towards the Muslims and to persuade the Muslims to
Indian Muslims around the two-fold ideals of this accept the religious and educational reforms.
movement. ! He appealed to the Muslims to return to the original
—Firstly, the desirability of creating harmony among the four Islamic principle of purity and simplicity.
schools of Muslims jurisprudence, which had divided the ! He advocated English education for the regeneration of
Indian Muslims. He sought to integrate the best elements of
Muslims in India. For this, Syed Ahmed Khan had to face
the four schools.
opposition from the orthodox section of Muslims.
—Secondly, the recognition of the role of individual conscience in
However, with courage and wisdom, he overcame these
religion. He held that in cases where the Quran and the Hadis
obstacles.
provide conflicting interpretations, the individual could make a
decision on the basis of his own judgement and conscience. ! In 1864, he founded the Translation society which was
! Initially, the movement was directed against the Sikhs in later renamed as Scientific society. The society was located
Punjab, but after the British annexation of Punjab (1849), at Aligarh. It published Urdu translations of English books
the movement was directed against the British. on scientific and other subjects and an English Urdu
The movement was suppressed by the superior military journal for spreading liberal ideas on social reform.
force of the British in the 1870s. ! His greatest achievement was the establishment of the
Mohammedan Anglo Oriental College at Aligarh in 1875.
Titu Mir’s Movement In course of time, this college became the most important
educational institution of Indian Muslims. It provided for
! Mir Nithar Ali, popularly known as Titu Mir, was a disciple
education in humanities and science through English
of Syed Ahmed of Rae Bareli, the founder of Wahabi
medium. The college received support from the leading
Movement. Titu Mir organised the Muslim peasants against
Muslims throughout India and the British showed much
the Hindu landlords and the British indigo planters.
interest, both officially and otherwise in its development.
! The movement was not as militant as the British records
! The Mohammedan Anglo Oriental (MAO) College, which
made it out to be only in the last year of Titu Mir’s life was
later on became the Aligarh Muslim University (AMU)
there a confrontation between him and the British police.
fostered a modern outlook among the generations of
He was killed in action in AD 1831.
students that studied there.
Though, Syed Ahmed Khan opposed the Indian National
Faraizi Movement !
Congress, he emphasised the unity between Hindus and
! The movement, also called the Faraizi Movement because Muslims.
of its emphasis on the Islamic faith, was founded by Haji ! In AMU, not only Muslims students, there were Hindu
Shariat-Allah. students also, moreover, it had Hindu professor also, one
! The movement was popular in East Bengal and aimed at of them teaching Sanskrit.
eradication of social innovations prevalent among the ! Syed Ahmed Khan opposed the activities of the Indian
Muslims of the region. Under the leadership of Haji’s National Congress. He believed, like many other leaders
son Dadu Mian, the movement became revolutionary from at that time, that Indians were not yet ready to govern
AD 1840 onwards. themselves and that their interest would be best served
! Dadu Mian gave the movement an organisational system by remaining loyal to the British rule.
from village to the provincial level with a Khalifa or ! He wanted more time for the Indian Muslims to organise
authorised deputy at every level. The Faraizi also organised and consolidate their position and thought that this could
paramilitary forces to fight the Hindu landlords and even be best done by maintaining good relations with the
the police. British rulers.
138 Magbook ~ Indian History

Ahmadiyya Movement The Ahrar Movement

! This movement was founded by Mirza Ghulam (Majlis-i-Ahrar-i-Islam)
Ahmed in 1889. The movement was based on liberal
principles. A number of nationalist Muslims of Punjab, mainly religious leaders,
called themselves Ahrars, who organised Majlis-i-Ahrar-i-Islam.
! It described itself as the standard bearer of
They were former members of the provincial branch of the All India
Mohammedan Renaissance and based itself, like the
Khilafat Committee. The first Ahrar conference convened on 31st
Brahmo Samaj, on the principle of universal religion
July, 1931 declared to achieve independence for the country, make
of all humanity, opposing Jihad (sacred war against better communal relations among different communities; establish
non-Muslims). The movement spread Western liberal an Islamic system in the country and uplift the Muslim masses to
education among the Indian Muslims. acquire their lost glory of the past.
Deoband Movement
! The Deoband Movement was organised by the
Sikh Reform Movements
orthodox section among the Muslim ulema. Nirankari Movement
! It was a revivalist movement whose twin objectives
! Founded in 1840s by Baba Dayal Das. He preached against
were as follows :
the practice of Hindu ceremonies that were being performed by
—To propagate among the Muslims, the pure teachings of
the Quran and the Hadis. Sikhs. He denounced idol worship and rejected rituals. He
—To keep alive the spirit of Jihad against the foreign emphasised the worship of God as nirankari (formless God) and
rulers. asked his disciples to obey the shabad (preaching) of the Guru
! The ulema under the leadership of Muhammad and to serve their parents and avoid bad habits. Eating meat,
Qasim Nanotavi (1832-80) and Rashid Ahmed consuming liquor were also forbidden.
Gangohi (1828- 1905) founded the school at
Deoband in Saharanpur, district of UP in 1866. The
Namdhari Movement
objective was to train religious leaders for the Muslim ! It was founded as an offshoot of Kuka Movement that was
community. founded by Balak Singh. In 1857, Balak Singh’s disciple Baba
! In the school, the instruction was imparted in original Ram Singh formally inaugurated Namdhari Movement.
Islamic religion. The aim was moral and religious
Singh Sabha
regeneration of the Muslim community. The school
! It was founded in 1875 at Amritsar under the guidance of
curriculum did not include English education and
Thakur Singh Sandhawalia and Giani Gian Singh. Two main
Western culture.
objectives were:
! Thus, in contrast to the Aligarh Movement, which
—To bring to Sikh community, the benefits of Western enlightenment
aimed at welfare of the Muslim community through through Western education.
Western education and support of the British
—To counter Hindu and Christian missionaries that were influencing
Government, the Deoband School preached Islamic the Sikh community at large and to revive the community by
faith. publishing historical text, religious books and to propagate
! Similarly, on the political front, the Deoband School knowledge. The Sabha opened Khalsa schools/colleges.
welcomed the formation of Indian National Congress
in 1885. In 1888, the Deoband ulema issued a Akali Movement
religious decree (fatwa) against Syed Ahmed Khan’s ! It was an offshoot of Singh Sabha Movement, mainly founded
organisations— The United Patriotic Association and with the objective of fighting the prevalent corruption amongst
the Mohammedan Anglo Oriental Association. the community, specially that of the Mahantas. Shiromani
! Shibli Numani, a supporter of Deoband School, Gurudwara Prabandhak Committee was elected in 1920. In
favoured the inclusion of English language and 1921, Akali launched a Non- Cooperation Satyagraha
European sciences in the system of education. He Movement against the Mahantas.
founded the Nadwatal Ulema and Darul Ulum in
Lucknow in 1894-96. He believed in the idealism of Other Reform Movements
Congress and cooperation between the Hindus and
Muslims of India to create a state in which both Dharma Sabha
could live peacefully. ! It was an orthodox society founded by Radhakant Deb
! Together, they started a journal Rast Goftar, for the (1794-1876) in 1830. They opposed the abolition of Sati, but
purpose and played an important role in the spread they played very active role in promoting Western education,
of education. even among girls.
Magbook ~ Social and Religious Reform Movements 139
Paramhansa Mandali The Deva Samaj
! Founded by Dadoba Pandurang and Bal Shastri ! This sect was founded in 1887 at Lahore by Shiv Narain
Jambhekar in 1849. Members took food cooked by low Agnihotri, who was earlier a follower of Brahmo Samaj. The
caste people. Believed in permitting widow remarriage teachings of the samaj were compiled in a book called Deva
and in education of women. Shastra, which emphasises on the supreme, being eternity of
soul, the supremacy of the Guru and emphasis on good
Rehnumai Mazdayasan Sabha action.
! The Rehnumai Mazdayasan Sabha was founded in 1851
for the “regeneration of the social conditions of the Parsis Aravippuram Movement
and the restoration of the Zoroastrian religion to its purest ! This movement was launched in 1888 by Shri Narain Guru,
form”. The movement had Naorofi Furdonji, Dadabhai a great socio-religious reformer of Kerala. He was opposed to
Naoroji, KR Cama and SS Bengalee as its leaders. the Brahmin priestly domination and was of the view that
even a person of the lower caste could consecrate an image
The Radhaswami Movement and act as a priest in the temple.
! This movement was founded in 1861 by a Banker of ! On the Shivaratri festival in 1888, Shri Narain Guru, in spite
Agra, Tulsi Ram, popularly known as Shiv Dayal Saheb of belonging to a lower caste, installed the idol of Shiva at
or Swamiji Maharaj. The Radhaswami believes in one Aravippuram, which was the beginning of this movement.
supreme. The sect recognises no temples, shrines or
sacred places. Works of faith and charity, the spirit of Poona Seva Sadan (1909)
service and prayer, are laid down as necessary duties. ! It was established by GK Devadhar and Ramabai Pande in
The sect admires company of pious people. Pune. Its objectives were economic uplift and employment of
women.
Deccan Education Society
! Founded by MG Ranade, VG Chibdonkar, GG Agarkar Niskam Karma Math (1910)
in Pune 1884. Objective was to contribute to the cause ! It was established by Dhondo Keshav Karve and objectives
of education and culture in Western India. The society were social reform, selfless service to mankind, educational
founded the Ferguson College.
progress in women. It was founded as India’s first women
Self Respect Movement university in Pune, 1916.
! It was a radical movement founded in Tamil Nadu in The Social Service League
1925 by EV Ramaswami Naicker popularly known as
! Narayan Malhar Joshi, one of the leading members of the
Periyar, who opposed Brahman domination and
servants of Indian Society, founded the Social Service League in
advocated simple marriages without Brahman priests
1911. The league opened a number of day and night schools
and rituals, forcible temple entry, burning of
libraries, dispensaries and started boy’s clubs and scouts corps.
Manusmriti etc.

The Bharat Dharma Mahamandala The Servants of Indian Society

! It was founded in 1915 by Gopal Krishna Gokhale to build a
! This was an All India Organisation of the orthodox
dedicated group of people for social service and reforms. In
educated Hindus, who rose in defence or orthordox
the field of famine relief, union organisation, cooperatives
Hinduism against the teachings of the Arya Samaj, the
and uplift of tribals and depressed, the society did a very
theosophists and the Ramakrishna Mission.
commendable work.
Lokahitawadi
! Started by Gopal Hari Deshmukh. Believed in
The Indian Women’s Association (1917)
reorganisation of Indian society on rational principles ! Started By Annie Besant in Madras, for the upliftment of
and modern, humanistic, secular values. women.

Indian National Social Conference Justice Party Movement (1915-1916)

! Founded by MG Ranade and Raghunath Rao in ! By TM Noor, P Tyagraj Chettiar and CN Mudaliar in Chennai
Bombay in 1887. Focus was to abolish polygamy (Tamil Nadu). Protest against the domination of Brahmin in
and Kulinism and promote intercaste marriages. government service, education and in the political field. The
The conference is also referred as social reform cell newspaper Justice, was their main organ for expressing
of INC. views and opinions.
140 Magbook ~ Indian History

Bahiskrit Hitkarini Sabha Abolition of Slavery

! It was founded by BR Ambedkar in 1929 in Bombay to propagate social ! Slavery was another institution which
equality among. Hindus and untouchables and demanded constitutional came under attack in British India.
safeguard for the depressed classes. Evangelical propaganda against slavery
led by Wilberforce helped in focusing
Harijan Sevak Sangh (1932) public attention in Britain on the evils of
! It was started by Mahatma Gandhi at Pune for the removal of slavery in India.
untouchability and social discrimination against untouchables. ! Though Britain abolished slave trade in
her dominions in 1820, the company in
British Initiatives for Social Reforms India acknowledged the legality of slavery
on the grounds that it was a traditional
Abolition of Female Infanticide practice with religious sanction.
! The practice of killing female infants immediately after birth was common ! However, later a clause was inserted in
among upper class Bengalis and Rajputs, who considered females to be the Charter Act of 1833 requiring the
an economic burden. Governor-General in Council to abolish
! The Bengal Regulations XXI of 1795 and III of 1804 declared infanticide slavery in India. Finally, the Act V of
illegal and equivalent to murder. Similarly, an act was passed in 1870 1843 declared slavery illegal in India and
which made it compulsory for parents to register the birth of all babies. all existing slaves were emancipated
The Act of 1870 also provided for verification of female children for some without any compensation to slave
years after birth, particularly in areas where the custom was resorted to in owners.
utmost privacy.
Widow Remarriage
Abolition of Sati ! The Brahmo Samaj had the issue of
! Enlightened Indian reformers led by Raja Ram Mohan Roy urged William widow remarriage high on its agenda and
Bentinck to take necessary steps and declare the practice of Sati illegal. The did much to popularise it. Later, the
loss of his sister in law by Sati had stirred Ram Mohan Roy to action and he efforts were made by Pandit Vishnu
had published a number of articles condemning the practice. Shastri, who founded the Widow
! Finally, Regulation XXII of December 1829 declared the practice of Sati or Remarriage Association in the 1850s.
of burying alive of widows illegal and punishable by the criminal courts as ! Another prominent worker in this field
culpable homicide. was Karsondas Mulji, who started the
! The Regulation of 1829 was applicable in the first place to Bengal presidency Satya Prakash in Gujarati in 1852 to
alone, but in 1830 was extended in slightly modified forms to Madras and advocate widow remarriage. But it was
Bombay presidencies. mainly due to the efforts of Pandit Ishwar
Chandra Vidyasagar (1829- 91), the
Suppression of Thugi principal of Sanskrit College, Calcutta,
! Another great reform to the credit of William Bentinck is the suppression that the Hindu widow’s Remarriage Act,
of thugs. The thugs, i.e. cheats were a sect of hereditary assassins and 1856, which legalised marriage of Widows
robbers, who lived by preying upon innocent and defenseless travellers. and declared issues from such marriages
as legitimate, was passed by the
! A more appropriate name for thugs was pansigar, derived from the scarf
government.
and noose used by the thugs to strangle their victims. The public opinion
solidly supported the government measures to suppress Thugi in 1830.
! Though the issue of widow remarriage got
the legal sanction by the act, it still
! These thugs belonged to both the Hindu and Muslim religions and needed the social acceptance. Thus, the
worshipped the Hindu Goddess like Kali, Durga or Bhawani, to whom they social reformers continued their task of
offered the heads of their victim as sacrifices. The thugs were hardened popularising the issue.
criminals and were particularly active in the entire area from Oudh to ! In Western India, Professor DK Karve took
Hyderabad and in Rajputana and Bundelkhand. up the cause of widow remarriage and in
! The thugs believed that Thugi was ordained means of livelihood for them Madras, Veerasalingam Pantulu made
and their victims were ordained to die at their hands. efforts in the same direction.
! The operations against thugs were put in charge of Colonel William ! Professor Karve started his career as a
Sleeman. Colonel Sleeman arrested as many as 1500 thugs and teacher in the girl’s college at Bombay
sentenced them to death or imprisonment for life. and in 1891, became a professor at
! Thugi on an organised scale ceased to exist after 1837. Fergusson College, Pune.
Magbook ~ Social and Religious Reform Movements 141
! Karve devoted his life to the cause of upliftment of
Hindu widows and became the Secretary of Widow Various Social Legislations
Remarriage Association. He himself married a Under British Rule
widow in 1893 and in 1899. He opened a widow’s
home in Poona to provide vocational training to the 1795 Abolition of infanticide by British Regulation.
high caste widows. He crowned his work by setting 1802 Abolition of infanticide by Lord Wellesley.
up an Indian Women’s University at Bombay
in 1916. 1811 Abolition of slavery under Regulation X by Bengal
Government.
! The right of widows to remarriage was also
advocated by BM Malabari, Justice Govind 1829 Abolition of Sati by Lord William Bentinck (under Regulation
Mahadeo Ranade and K Natarajan among others. XVII). Pioneering efforts in this direction were made by Raja
Ram Mohan Roy.
Prohibition of Child Marriage 1831-37 Abolition of Thugi by William Bentinck, operation by William
! Legislative action in prohibiting child marriage Sleemen.
came in 1872 when by the Native Marriage Act, 1843 Abolition of slavery by Lord Ellenborough.
the marriage of girls below the age of 14 and boys
below 18 years were forbidden. 1844-48 Lord Hardinge suppressed the practice of making human
sacrifice that had prevailed among the tribes of Gonds.
! The act was popularly known as Civil Marriage
Act. This act however had a limited impact. Later, 1856 Approval of widow remarriage by Hindu Widow’s
the relentless efforts of a Parsi reformer, BM Remarriage Act by the efforts of Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar.
Malabari, were rewarded by the enactment of the 1872 Banning of the child marriage by Native Marriage Act.
Age of Consent act, 1891 which forbade the
1891 Age of marriage for the girls was increased to 12 years by
marriage of girls below the age of 12.
Age of Consent Act, by the efforts of Behramji Malabari.
! The Sharda Act, 1929 further pushed up the
marriage age and provided for penal action in 1929 The age of marriage was increased to 18 years in the case
marriages of boys below 18 and girls less than 14 of boys and 14 years in the case of girls by the Child
years of age. Marriage Restrain Act, commonly known as Sharda Act.
! In free India, the Child Marriage Restrain 1931 Banning of child marriage by Infant Marriage Prevention Act.
(Amendment) Act, 1978 raised the age of 1937 Right to property given to women.
marriage for girls to 18 years and for boys to 21.
Chapter twenty-three
Growth of Nationalism
and Struggle for
Independence (1885-1919)

Discriminatory British economic and

Factors for the Rise of !

fiscal policies gave rise to economic

Nationalism nationalism in India. People came to
realise that colonial rule was the real
The rise and growth of ! Unification of administration, Modern
cause of India’s economic
Indian nationalism has Education System, Revolt of 1857 and other
backwardness.
factor grew the nationalism in Indian people.
been traditionally Following were the main causes of national ! Thus, the spirit of nationalism received
explained in terms of consciousness : a powerful stimulus in the process.
Indian response to the
stimulus generated by
Administrative Unification Spread of Western
Britishers through of India Education and Thought
! Modernisation was essential for the colonial ! English Language It was made the
creation of new scheme of administration and this medium of instruction in schools and
institutions, modernisation in one sense gave birth to colleges in 1835 and it became the
opportunities, resources Indian nationalism. language of the educated people
etc. Infact Indian ! Common subjection, common institutions of India.
nationalism grew partly and common laws began to shape India in a ! The introduction of Modern System of
common mould. Education afforded opportunities for
as a result of colonial
! The establishment of political unity fostered assimilation of modern Western ideas
policies and partly as the spirit of one mindedness. and made the Indians realise the evil
reaction to it. effects of foreign rule, which in turn
Economic Causes gave a new direction to Indian political
! The economic policies of the British thinking.
adversely affected the interests of almost all
sections of Indian society viz the peasants,
! The liberal and radical thought of
middle classes, workers, industrialists etc. European writers like Milton, Bentham,
The huge economic drain of India’s Rousseau and Voltaire etc. Inspired the
resources, commercialisation of agriculture, Indians in general and intelligentsia in
the policy of land settlements accompanied particular with the ideals of liberty,
with periodic famines was disastrous. nationality and self-government.
144 Magbook ~ Indian History

Development of the Means of Impact of Contemporary Global

Communication Movements
! Development of railways, Modern Postal System and the ! Some contemporary national movements in the European
introduction of electric telegraph during the reign of Dalhousie nations like German Unification, Italian Unification,
unified the country and facilitated the growth of nationalism. nationalist movements against the Turkish empire,
! Railways led to increase in passenger traffic which in turn Liberation Movement of Greece and Italy in general and
increased interaction between the people and maintained a of Ireland in particular helped Indian nationalism.
regular contact between them.
Lord Lytton’s Reactionary
Emergence of Modern Press Policies
! The rapid growth of press helped the nationalist Indians in ! The highly expensive Second Afghan War, which was
spreading the message of patriotism and modern liberal ideas financed out of Indian revenues, the abolition of import
and to create a strong public opinion against the excesses duties on British textile and the Arms Act of 1878, which
and inequities of the colonial administration. was an attempt to disarm the Indian people, created
! It helped to spread ideas of nationalists leaders, widespread discontent against the British empire.
self-government democracy, civil rights and industrialisation. ! Another anti-Indian move of Lytton’s regime was the
lowering the age limit (from 21 to 19) for appearing in the
Rediscovery of India’s Past Indian Civil Service Examination that was held only in
! Historical researches by European scholars, such as Max London. Against this Indian Association started a massive
Muller, Monier Williams, Sassoon and Roth and by Indian agitation under the leadership of SN Bannerjee and Lal
scholars such as RG Bhandarkar, RL Mitra and Swami Mohan Ghose. The Grand Durbar organised by Lord Lytton
Vivekananda opened new vistas of India’s rich socio-political, in 1877 at Delhi to proclaim the assumption of imperial
economic and cultural heritage. This gave new sense of self title by Queen Victoria when the country was in the severe
respect and confidence among the nationalists. grip of famine.
! Bankim Chandra wrote Anand Math to expose the true
character of British Rule. Vernacular Press Act
! Din Bandhu Mitra wrote Neel Darpan to expose the ! The Vernacular Press Act, (1878) that curbed the liberty
exploitation by indigo planters and Bharatendu of the Indian Press (later the act was repealed by Lord
Harishchandra put forward the idea for the use of swadeshi Ripon), was popularly known as Gagging Act. To bypass
things. the restrictions imposed by Vernacular Press, Amrita
Bazaar Patrika was immediately converted to an English
Socio-Religious Movement paper. The founding of the newspaper Hindu in Madras
! Various socio-religious reform movements like Brahmo was also in reaction to Lytton’s Press Act.
Samaj, Arya-Samaj, the Ramakrishna Mission were
launched to reform the society. The Ilbert Bill Controversy (1883)
! In the religious sphere, the reform movements criticised Officially called the Criminal Procedure Amendment
religious superstition, idolatry, polytheism and hereditary Code Bill was introduced by Sir Courtenay Ilbert (law member
priesthood. These movements criticised the caste system, in the Governor-General Executive Council) in the
untouchability and other social and legal inequalities. Governor-Generals Legislative Council in February, 1883. Its
! They played a vital role in arousing nationalist feeling, like aim was to give Indian District Magistrates and sessions
Swami Dayanand for instance, was the first to use the word judges the right to try European and British offenders, in
Swaraj. Many Arya Samajis were in the forefront of the criminal cases. The bill gave birth to strong protest movement
National Movement and were primarily responsible for the
by the members of the European community and they stood
united against the Bill.
rise of extremism in the INC.
They sought to protect their rights and privileges by forming a
Rise of Urban Middle Class European and Anglo-Indian Defence Association. Ripon had to
modify the bill which now provided the European British
Intelligentsia subjects, accused of criminal offences, the right to claim trail
! The Western education, British administrative and economic by jury, to which no less than half the member had to be
innovations gave rise to a new urban middle class in towns. Europeans or Americans. The Ilbert Bill Controversy proved an
! This class had close ties with the ruling class and were eye-opener to the Indians and intensified the growing feeling
aware of the imperialistic policies of the British, came to the of unity and nationalism among Indians.
forefront.
Magbook ~ Growth of Nationalism and Struggle for Independence (1885-1919) 145

Pre-Congress Political In Deccan

Associations Bombay Association (Jaganath Shunkerseth, 1852)
! It was the first political organisation of the Bombay
! During the course of 19th century, various organisations started
Presidency established to vent public grievances to
emerging at regional level to represent interests of various sections
the British Government of India.
of Indian society. These organisations prepared the foundation for
the emergence of a Pan-India nationalist organisation. Poona Sarvajanik Sabha
(MG Ranade and GV Joshi, 1870)
In Bengal ! In 1875, the members of the Poona Sarvajanik

Bangabhasha Prakasika Sabha Sabha submitted a petition to the house of

(Associates of Raja Rammohan Roy, 1836) commons demanding India’s direct representation
in British Parliament.
! It is said to be the first organised political association of India. It
was mainly founded to safeguard the interests of the landlords. Bombay Presidency Association (Pherozeshah
The organisation worked in co-operation with the British India Mehta, KT Telang, Badruddin Tyabji, 1885)
Society in London and appointed a committee to supply it with ! Pherozeshah Mehta was its the President and
regular information about Indian grievances and demands. remained so till 1915.
Dwarkanath Tagore was one of its very active members and was
responsible in founding Bengal British India Society in 1843. In South India
Landholder’s Society (Landholders of Calcutta, 1837) Madras Native Association (GL Chetty 1852)
! Also known as Zamindari Association, was founded to safeguard ! The Madras Native Association sent a petition to the
the interest of landlords through constitutional agitation. British Parliament on the eve of the passing of the
Charter Act of 1853, making demands similar to that
British India Society (Mr William Adams, 1839)
of the British Indian Association.
! It was founded in England with the efforts of William Adam, a
friend of Raja Rammohan Roy. In 1841, this society started Madras Mahajan Sabha
printing a newspaper British Indian advocate. (M Vira-Raghavachari, G Subramania Iyer, Ananda
Charlu, 1884)
British Indian Association (George Thompson, 1851) ! P Rangaiah Naidu was the first President of the
! The British Indian Association was founded by merging Sabha with R Balaji Rao as its secretary. In
landholders society and the Bengal British India society. During September, 1885, the sabha in collaboration with
the years following the Revolt of 1857, the British Indian the Bombay Presidency Association and the Indian
Association was the most important political body in India and its Association, sent a delegation to England.
organ, the Hindu Patriot was the most influential newspaper in
the country. Popular Campaigns
East India Association (Dadabhai Naoroji, 1866) Pre-Congress political associations organised various
campaigns in reaction to British policies.
! The aim of the East India Association was popularisation of
Indian grievances so as to influence British public opinion. These were as follows:
! For imposition of import duty on cotton (1875).
India League (Sisir Kumar Ghosh)
! For right to join volunteer corps.
! Sisir Kumar Ghosh was a journalist and founder editor of the
! For an All India Fund for Political Agitation.
Amrita Bazar Patrika.
! For indianisation of Government Service (1978-79).
Indian Association ! Campaign in Britain to vote for Pro-India party.
(Anand Mohan Bose, SN Bannerjee, 1876)
! Against Lytton’s Afghan campaign.
! The Indian Association formed the centre of an all India

movement by providing the leadership for agitation on issues ! Against Vernacular Press Act, (1878).
such as the age limit for the Indian Civil Services examination ! Against Arms Act, (1878).
and the Ilbert Bill Agitation. ! Against lowering the maximum age for appearing in
! It is considered to be the most important Pre-Congress political Indian Civil Service.
organisation. It was the only Pre-Congress organisation, which ! Against plantation labour.
seriously tried to become all India body and in this context it ! Against Inland Emigration Act.
sponsored an All-Indian National Conference in 1883 and 1885
! In support of Ilbert Bill.
at Calcutta.
146 Magbook ~ Indian History

As per Charter Act of 1853, the services were thrown open

Evolution of Civil Services !
to all the citizens of British kingdom, including Indians. But,
! The Civil Services in India during British Rule went
for all practical purposes the selection process remained
through constant experimentation and innovation. It has
highly biased against the entry of Indians.
evolved over a period of two centuries and has been
crafted very meticulously by way of a series of legislations ! The main reasons for low representation of Indians in the
by the British authorities. services were the very low maximum age of eligibility for
giving the entrance exam and the location of examination
! The Pitt’s India Act of 1784, established a Board of
centre in England.
Commissioners to supervise the Civil and Military
Government of the company also called the Board of ! Infact, after successive reductions the maximum age was
Control. reduced to 19 years during the tenure of Lord Lytton.
! The act placed the Civil and Military Government of the ! Facilitation of entry of Indians in the elite Civil Services
company in due sub-ordination of the Government in remained one of the strongest demand of the early
England. political agitations, so that the first all India political
association the India Association headed by Surendra
! Lord Cornwallis introduced first major reforms in Civil
Nath Bannerjee started the 'Civil Services Agitation' all
Services. He was the one who introduced the category of
over India.
covenanted and non-covenanted service in the company’s
bureaucracy.
! The covenanted was exclusive preserve of firstly the Indian Civil Servants
British then the European. This was the precursor of Satyendranath Tagore was the first Indian to Joint the Civil
much famous Indian Civil Service. Cornwallis introduced Services (1863). Three more Indians entered in 1871,
very attractive pay scales for the covenanted civil servants RC Dutt (wrote Economic History of India), Bihari Lal Gupta and
who entered into a covenant with the company’s SN Bannerjee.
government. Subhash Chandra Bose joined Civil Services in 1921 and resigned
! In 1800, Lord Wellesley founded the College of Fort in the same year. He ranked fourth in the list of Civil Services.
William at Calcutta for the purpose of training of new Gurusaday Dutt was the first Indian who secured the first rank in
recruits to the covenanted services. the ICS examination, in 1905.

Commissions/Acts Related to ICS

Sir Charles Aitchison Commission, 1886 LEE Commission, 1923
◆
Appointed by Lord Dufferin to consider the demand for ◆
It recommended that the Secretary of State should
simultaneous examination and the lowering of maximum age. It continue to recruit the Indian Civil Service, the Irrigation
recommended that the term ‘covenanted’ and ‘uncovenanted’ be Branch of the Service of Engineers and the Indian Forest
dropped. Services.
◆
He suggested that services be divided into three classes— ◆
On the basis of Government of India Act, 1919, it
(i) Imperial Indian Civil Services, (ii) The Provincial and (iii) The recommended the establishment of a Public Service
Sub-ordinate Service. Commission. It stipulated that 20% of the officers should
◆
The first was to recruited in England and the later in India be recruited by promotion from provincial civil services and
exclusively out of Indians. of the remaining 80% half should be Indian and half
◆
He recommended that the minimum and maximum age limits be British.
fixed at 19 years and 23 years respectively. Government of India Act, 1935
◆
It rejected the idea of simultaneous holding of examination in both ◆
The provision was made for establishment of a Federal
India and England and recommended the abolition of statutory Civil Public Service Commission. Despite all these reforms the
Services. Indian Civil Services remained essentially a colonial
Montague-Chelmsford Commission, 1919 apparatus, which proved to be the proverbial Steel Frame
of British Rule in India.
◆
Conceded to the demand of holding of examination simultaneously
in India as well as England.
◆
But, with the ushering of the independent India’s
Constitution some ground breaking changes were made to
◆
The commission recommended that one-third of the superior posts
the then existing set-up of Civil Services to make it useful
in the Indian Civil Services were to be recruited in India and this
in meeting the lofty goals of freedom struggle.
proportion is to be increased by 1.5% annually.
Magbook ~ Growth of Nationalism and Struggle for Independence (1885-1919) 147

Birth of Indian National Formation of INC

Indian National Congress was finally formed on 28th
Congress (INC), 1885 !
December, 1885.
! Congress was the natural and inevitable product of various ! The first Session of the Indian National Congress was
forces of the 19th century. The credit for the birth of the held on 28th December, 1885 at Tejpal Sanskrit
Congress is often given to AO Hume, who with the blessings of Pathshala, Bombay under the Presidentship of
the Viceroy Lord Dufferin successfully organised the prominent WC Bannerjee.
political leaders and founded Indian National Congress. ! In 1886, the delegates to Congress became 436.
Moderate leaders dominated the Congress in its early
Background of INC phase. The moderate belief in the essential sense of
! Indian Association decided to hold its first Indian Conference justice and goodness of the British nation was strong.
in Calcutta at the same time, so that it can reach to the
! In 1889, a British Committee of Indian National
masses, but the plan failed.
Congress was founded under the Chairmanship of
! In 1884, at the annual convention of the Theosophical Society W Wedderburn (biographer of AO Hume) in London
at Adyar in Madras, AO Hume proposed formation of a and a journal India was also started.
committee, so as to make necessary preparations for a session
at Pune to be held in 1885.
The Safety Valve Controversy
! Members of the committee included AO Hume, SN Bannerjee,
There is a controversy over the actual motives of Hume in
Narendra Nath Sen, Subramanya Aiyar, P Ananda Charlu,
foundation of INC. It was started with the WC Bannerjee’s
Sardar Dayal Singh, Lala Sriram, KT Talang and VN Mandalik.
statement in 1898 that Hume was acting under the direct
! Before the formation of Indian National Congress, two sessions advice of Dufferin. It was believed that at Dufferin’s idea
of the Indian National Conference had been held in 1883 and was to have a political organisation through which the
1885 under the guidance of SN Bannerjee and Anand Mohan government could ascertain the real wishes of the people
Bose. and save the administration from any possible political
! AO Hume was a retired British member of Indian Civil outbursts in the country.
Services. He played an important role in the foundation of the This theory (popularly known as Safety Valve Theory
Indian National Congress in 1885. got enough support from radical critics like Lala Lajpat Rai,
! Earlier, he founded the Indian National Union in 1884, which RP Dutt etc. This theory however, has lost its basis with
is considered to be the fore runner of the Indian National the opening of Dufferin’s private papers.
Congress. Hume only took advantage of an already created
! He served as the General Secretary of INC from 1885 to 1906. atmosphere. Probably the exaggerated idea of Hume’s
! AO Hume published a pamplet, an old men’s hope in the potential influence in official circles and his being above
Madras Session in 1887.
regional loyalties made him more acceptable among
Indians.

The Prominent/Important Sessions of Congress

Date Place President Related Facts
December, 1885 Bombay WC Bannerjee Held at Gokaldas Tejpal Sanskrit Pathshala, Bombay. Earlier the session was
to be held at Poona, but the venue was shifted due to the outbreak of Cholera
at Poona. Attended by 72 delegates.
December, 1886 Calcutta Dadabhai Naoroji
December, 1887 Madras Badruddin Tyabji First session to be presided over by a Muslim President.
December, 1888 Allahabad George Yule First session to be presided over by an Englishmen.
December, 1889 Bombay William Wedderburn A committee on Indian National Congress was endorsed.
December, 1890 Calcutta Pherozeshah Mehta Kadambini Ganguly the first Woman Graduate of Calcutta University
addressed the session.
December, 1907 Surat Rash Behari Ghosh The session witnessed the split between the moderates and the extremists. The
candidate of extremist at this session who lost the presidential election was
Lala Lajpat Rai.
December, 1917 Calcutta Annie Besant First Woman President. She gave first flag to Congress, Green and Red.
148 Magbook ~ Indian History

Date Place President Related Facts

December, 1919 Amritsar Motilal Nehru Resignation of moderates like SN Bannerjee.
December, 1924 Belgaum Mahatma Gandhi The only session where Gandhiji was the President.
December, 1925 Kanpur Sarojini Naidu First session to be presided by Indian woman.
December, 1928 Calcutta Motilal Nehru First All India Youth Congress came into existence return of Gandhi to active
politics after 6 years.
December, 1929 Lahore Jawaharlal Nehru Poorna Swaraj Resolution; Congress Working Committee authorised to launch
CDM. Nehru report got a decent burial.
December, 1930 On account of the Civil Disobedience Movement no Congress Session could be
held in 1930, but Jawaharlal Nehru continued as the President.
March, 1931 Karachi Vallabhbhai Patel Resolution on Fundamental Rights and National Economic Policy
Pt Jawaharlal Nehru drafted the resolution on FR.
1937 Faizpur Jawaharlal Nehru First session to be held in village.
Demanded the formation of a Constituent Assembly.
Adoption of an Agrarian Programme.
February, 1938 Haripura Subhash Chandra Bose National Planning Committee was set-up under the Chairmanship of
Pt Jawaharlal Nehru.
March, 1939 Tripuri Subhash Chandra Bose, Resignation of Subhash Chandra Bose (Rajendra Prasad took over) and
After defeating Dr formation of Forward Block.
Pattabhi Sitaramayya
November, 1946 Meerut Acharya JB Kripalani He was the President of Congress when India achieved independence.
1947 Delhi Rajendra Prasad

Struggle for Independence ! Dadabhai Naoroji made this demand in 1906, in his
! Indian National Movement was a struggle of Indian presidential address at Calcutta Session of Congress.
public at two fronts. At one front Indian public tried to ! A strong point made by the nationalists during this phase was
become a nation and at other front fought against the about the economic drain of India.
British to become a nation state by restoring ! In this context, they demanded the end of India’s economic
sovereignty to Indian people. drain.
! Abolition of discriminatory laws.
Moderate (1885-1905) ! Opportunities for Indians in administrative jobs and holding
! During this period (1885-1905) the Congress was ICS examination simultaneously in England and India.
dominated by such leaders who by their method of ! Abolition of salt tax, reimposition of import duties on cotton
functioning were termed moderates or liberal. They goods, reduction in high military expenditure were their other
appealed through petitions, speeches and articles loudly economic demands.
professing loyalty to the Raj. The methods of the
moderates can best be described as Constitutional Achievements of Moderates
agitation. ! Creation of a wide national awakening.
! Popularisation of the ideas of democracy and nationalism.
Demands of Moderates ! Exposed the exploitative character of British imperialism.
! The political demand of Congress were moderate while ! In this context, the ‘Theory of Drain of Wealth’ popularised by
its economic demands were radical and
the moderates played the most important role.
anti-imperialist. Expansion and reform of legislative
councils, leading to popular control of administration. ! Their major concrete achievements were the appointment of
! Removal of restriction on freedom of the press and the a Public Service Commission in 1886. The enactment of the
speech. Indian Council Act of 1892, which provided, some powers to
! Separation of the judiciary from the executive. elected local bodies.
! By the beginning of the 20th century, the moderate ! Their efforts resulted in a resolution of the house of commons
nationalists put forward the claim of self-government (1893) for simultaneous examination of the ICS in London
within the British empire. Gokhale first made this and India and appointment of the Welby Commission on
demand from the Congress platform in 1905. Indian Expenditure (1895).
Magbook ~ Growth of Nationalism and Struggle for Independence (1885-1919) 149

The Extremists (1905-1918) Prominent Extremists

! The moderate policies of the early Congress disillusioned Bal Gangadhar Tilak (1856-1920)
many of its younger leaders known as neo-nationalists or ! Known as Lokmanya to the Indians and as the
extremists. The extremists advocated, boycott of foreign Father of Indian Unrest to the British, he was
goods, use of Swadeshi goods, national education, passive regarded as ‘one of the most dangerous pioneer of
resistance and Swaraj. For some extremists, Swaraj referred disaffection’. He began his political career as a
to complete autonomy or independence and not just moderate, but by the beginning of the 20th century
self-government as was declared by moderates. became an extremist.
! The Boycott of British made goods and use of Swadeshi or ! He used religious orthodoxy as a method of mass
home made products was designed to encourage Indian contact through his organisation of the Ganapati festival
industries. The idea of a National Scheme of Education was (1893) and Shivaji festival from 1896 onwards. He was
to encourage the boycott of government controlled the first to give the slogan of Swarajya, Swadeshi and
universities and colleges. Boycott.
! The extremists well understood and highlighted the negative role ! He was a distinguished member of the Deccan
of Britain in India. They talked of democracy, constitutionalism Education Society and he was instrumental in founding
and progress and talked of broadening the social base of the the New English School, which later became the
National Movement. They also realised that these objectives Ferguson College. He also edited two newspapers
could not be realised without pressure tactics and some sort of (Maratha in English and the Kesari in Marathi).
direct action. The policy of the extremists yielded good ! In 1916, Tilak organised his own Home Rule League at
dividends. The Partition of Bengal was annulled in 1911, which Poona and declared ‘Swaraj is my birthright and I will
gave a new self-confidence and self-assurance to Indian have it’.
nationalists. ! He played a prominent role in Anti-Partition Movement
of 1905-08 and was responsible in making it an All India
Causes for the Rise of Extremists Movement. During Swadeshi Movement he declared,
! There was a growing consciousness among the Indians of Swaraj is essential for the exercise of Swadharma,
the exploitative character of the British colonial rule in India. without Swaraj there could be no social reform, no
The writings of early nationalist leaders had exposed the true industrial progress, no useful education and no
nature of British Rule in India e.g. Ranade’s essay on Indian fulfillment of national life.
Economy (1898), Dadabhai Naoroji’s Poverty and Un-British
Rule in India (1901), RC Dutt, Economic History of India Lala Lajpat Rai (1865-1928)
(1901) etc. Some of the repressive policies of the British ! Popularly known, as the Punjab Kesari, he was the
Government which led to the discontent among the people leader of the ‘College faction’ of the Arya Samaj. The
and resulted in the growth of extremism were as follows: Gurukul faction was led by Lala Munshi Ram. Lajpat
— The deportation of Chapekar brothers without trial in 1897. Rai became an extremist leader in the beginning of the
— The enactment of law making it an offence to preach nationalism 20th century and played an important role in
(1898). Anti-Partition Movement.
— University Act of 1904. ! He was the editor of the Punjabee and authored a book
— The enactment of the Indian Official Secrets Act, to restrict the ‘Unhappy India’. He had declared that political rights
freedom of the press (1904). could not be won by an organisation which could not
— The controversial partition of Bengal in 1905. distinguish between begging rights and claiming them.
! The immediate cause for the rise of extremism was the In Punjab, the cult of Swadeshi was propagated by Lala
reactionary rule of Lord Curzon (1889-1905). Curzon Lajpat Rai. While leading an anti-simon procession he
considered the Congress as an unclean thing and seditious was wounded and later died of injuries.
organisation.
Bipin Chandra Pal (1858 -1932)
! The Calcutta Corporation Act (1899), the Official Secrets Act
! Known as the Father of Revolutionary Thought in
and the Indian Universities Act created great resentment in
India, BC Pal began his career as a journalist and
India. The worst and most hated aspect of Curzon’s
started the Paridarsak (a weekly) and later became the
administration was the Partition of Bengal in 1905. Curzon
Assistant Editor of Bengal Public Opinion and the
partitioned Bengal, ostensibly for administrative convenience,
Tribune. He started New India in 1901 to propagate his
but in reality for curbing the growing nationalism. It is said that
brand of nationalism revolving around the ideals of
partition aided rather than deterred the forces undermining the
Swaraj, Swadeshi, Boycott and National education.
British position in India.
150 Magbook ~ Indian History

! He began his political career as a moderate, but later drifted Road to Partition
towards the extremism. In 1902, he wrote, the Congress here and ! The Curzon scheme to partition Bengal came to be
its British Committee in London are both begging institutions.
publicly known from the time the Viceroy wrote his
Aurobindo Ghosh (1872-1950) minute on Territorial Redistribution on
1st June, 1903.
! Aurobindo Ghosh published New Lamps for Old in 1893-94
(While serving as a lecturer in Baroda) in which he criticised ! The province came into existence on 16th October,
the moderate politics of the Congress. He described the 1905, by breaking up Bengal and its 41.5 million
Congress leader’s pleas to the government on issues like Bengali speaking people.
Legislative Councils and simultaneous Civil Services ! After the Partition of Bengal the two new provinces
Examination in London and India as playing with bubbles. He that came into existence were East Bengal and
advocated the Doctrine of Passive Resistance in a series of Bengal.
articles in 1907 in Bande Mataram. ! The truncated new province of Bengal with its capital
! Aurobindo played an important role in Anti-Partition Movement at Calcutta was to comprise 11 District of West Bengal,
and propounded the theory of organised and relentless boycott the district of Darjeeling, as also the whole of Bihar
of British goods, British System of Education, Judiciary and and Orissa (Majority of the population being Hindu).
Executive.
! After his release from the jail, in 1910, he went to Pondicherry Swadeshi Movement, 1905
and thereafter concentrated on philosophical, spiritual and ! The initial objective of the movement was the
literary activities. Some of his books were Savitri (The longest annulment of Partition of Bengal. However, it was
epic poem in English), the Life Divine etc. soon superseded by the greater objective of
! Aurobindo Ghosh raised patriotism to the pedestal of mother attainment of Swaraj.
worship and said. I know my country as my mother. I adore ! Aurobindo Ghosh came out with the theory of
her. I worship her. organised and relentless boycott of British goods,
! In his work, Bhavani Mandir wrote our mother country is not a British system of education, judiciary and executive
piece of the Earth, neither a figure of speech nor a fiction of and the social boycott of the loyalists and civil
mind. It is mighty Shakti composed of the Shaktis of all the disobedience of unjust laws. The boycott of British
millions of units that make up the nation. products was followed by the advocacy of Swadeshi
and holding of Swadeshi melas. Charka came to
Partition of Bengal, 1905 signify the popular concern for the country’s
economic self-sufficiency.
! Among the Lord Curzon’s administrative measures, the one
that elicited the strongest opposition was the Partition of ! An important aspect of the Swadeshi Movement was
Bengal in 1905. the emphasis placed on self-reliance or Atmasakti
! Real attack on Bengal came as early as 1899 when Curzon (Advocated by Rabindranath Tagore). Several
reduced the number of elected members in the Calcutta exclusive Indian industrial ventures such as the
corporation primarily to satisfy the European business interests Calcutta Potteries, Bengal Chemical Swadeshi Stores
in the city, who often complained of delay in the grant of (Opened by Acharya PC Ray), Lakshmi Cotton Mills,
licenses and similar other facilities. Mohini Mills and National Tannery were started.
! The government made attempt to suppress the
British Idea Behind Partition students by threatening to withdraw grants,
! The idea of partition was first given by William Ward in 1896 scholarships and affiliations of the institutions to
(Chief Commissioner of Assam). which they belonged, through the infamous circular
! Later, to meet the growing nationalist challenge in Eastern of 22nd October, 1905 issued by Carlyle, the Chief
India, Curzon and his advisors, Sir A Fraser, (the Lieutenant Secretary of the Government of Bengal (the circular
Governor of Bengal), and HH Risley, (Secretary, Home is also known otherwise as the Carlyle Circular).
Department, Government of India) searched for an effective ! The Congress supported the Boycott Movement only
answers and eventually, found it in the division of the for Bengal at its Banaras Session in 1905. Extremists
Bengali-speaking people. wanted to extend the movement to the other parts of
! The official statement made by Risley was, Bengal united is a the country, but the moderates refused to accept
power and Bengal divided will pull in several different ways. this.
Similarly, Curzon also said, ‘‘The Indians only business was to be ! In 1906, Session of Congress at Calcutta Dadabhai
governed and it was sacrilege on its part to have any other Naoroji declared the aim of Congress to be Swaraj
aspiration’’. Another objective behind the partition was to split up like that of UK and other colonies.
the Hindus and Muslims.
Magbook ~ Growth of Nationalism and Struggle for Independence (1885-1919) 151

The four compromise resolutions passed at this session were—Swadeshi,

!
Boycott, National Education and Self- Government. Here the demand for
Surat Split, 1907
! The differences between the moderates
Swaraj was raised for the first time from the Congress platform.
and the extremists widened during the
! Indian Society of Oriental Art was set-up in 1907. Nanda Lal Bose Swadeshi movement. The issues being
became the first recipient of scholarship offered by the society. spread of Boycott movement outside
! A large number of national volunteer bodies or Samitis sprang up in. Some Bengal, choice of the method for struggle,
of the distinguished society among them were as follows: conflict of ideologies and clash of
— Dawn Society (Named after the journal—Dawn) by Sachindra Mukherjee personalities.
— The Anti-Circular Society ! The extremist wanted to extend the idea
— The Swadesh Bhandhav of Boycott and Swadeshi to the regions
— The Anushilan by Promotha Mitter
outside Bengal and also to include the
— The Dacca Anushilan Samiti by Pulin Das government services, law courts,
! Samitis preached the essential of Swadeshi and Boycott, took up social Legislative Council and all other forms of
work during famines and epidemics, imparted physical and moral training, associations with the British in their
organised crafts and national schools and set-up arbitration committees programme. The moderates on other
and village societies. hand were not in favour of this.
! Many prominent Muslims joined the Swadeshi Movement including Abdul ! The growing differences between the
Rasul (the famous barrister), Liaquat Hussain (the popular agitator) and moderates and the extremists came to
Guznavi (the businessmen). Maulana Abul Kalam Azad joined one of the the fore at the Surat Session of the
revolutionary terrorist groups. Congress in 1907, when against the
! With the split of Congress at Surat the Swadeshi Movement lost its major wishes of the extremists who preferred
strength and force and was finally suppressed by the British through Lala Lajpat Rai; Rash Behari Ghosh was
repressive measures like imprisonment and deportation of many of its chosen as the President.
leaders in 1908. ! Finally, the moderates who were in
! However, the Swadeshi Movement was the beginning of the organised majority gained complete control over the
movement in India. The significance of the movement can be assessed Congress organisation and the extremists
from the fact that Mahatma Gandhi wrote the real awakening in India took were suspended from the INC.
place after the Partition of Bengal.

Annulment of Partition of Bengal All India Muslim League

! Simla Deputation The Partition of Bengal
! In December 1911, King George V and the Queen Empress visited India
created a communal divide. On 1st
(He was the only British King to visit India).
October, 1906, a Muslim deputation led
! On 12th December, 1911 a magnificent coronation Durbar was held in by the Agha Khan, met Lord Minto at
Delhi, which was chosen as the seat of the imperial function. Simla.
! The official proclamation regarding the annulment of the Partition of ! The address presented by the deputation
Bengal and the transfer of British capital from Calcutta to Delhi was made claimed a privileged position for Indian
at Delhi Durbar.
Muslims on the grounds of political
! After the annulment of partition the West and East Bengal were integrated importance, military service and the
and three separate states created historical memories of their lost political
— Bengal (Comprising East and West Bengal) glory. Minto gave a categorical assurance
— Assam (of same status it had in 1874) that the political rights and interests of
— Bihar and Orissa (finally separated in 1935). the Muslims as a community would be
safeguarded.
Hardinge Bomb Case ! The Simla deputation was followed in
23rd December, 1912 was fixed as the date for the Viceroy’s state entry into the Eastern Bengal by Muslim meetings in
new capital, Delhi. On that day, when the Viceroy and Vicereine, the ruling princes support of the Partition of Bengal.
and senior officials were being taken in long procession through Chandni Chowk in Nawab Habibulla (or Salimullah) of
Delhi, a bomb was thrown at the elephant carrying the Viceroy. Dacca, favoured by Lord Curzon, took
Hardinge was badly wounded. Rash Behari Bose threw the bomb. Bhai Bal Mukund the leadership of the Pre-Partition
was sentenced to death in the Hardinge Bomb case. movement.
152 Magbook ~ Indian History

! A meeting was held at Dacca on 30th December, 1906, ! The Home Rule Movement had borrowed the term Home
where it was decided to form a political association, called Rule from a similar movement in Ireland. The main
the All India Muslim League with three objectives : objective of Home Rule League was to attain home-rule
(i) To promote among Muslims loyalty to the British Government. for India within the British empire, on the lines of the
(ii) To protect and advance the political rights of the Muslims. autonomous colonies of Australia, New Zealand etc.
(iii) To prevent the rise among the Muslims of any feeling of Tilak’s Home Rule League
hostility towards other communities without prejudice to ! Tilak’s Home Rule League, launched at the Bombay
other objects of the league. Provincial Conference held at Belgaum in April, 1916, was
! To propagate his Anti-League views Maulana Mohammed organised into 6 branches; Tilak launched propaganda in
Ali started an English Journal Comrade and an Urdu favour of Home Rule through Maharatta and Kesari.
Paper ‘Hamdard’. He also started Al-Hilal, which served ! It published pamphlets in Kannada, Gujarati, Marathi and
as a mouthpiece of his nationalist views. English.
Indian Council Act, 1909 ! The demands included Swaraj, formation of linguistic
! Viceroy and the Secretary of state for India (Minto-Morley) states and education in vernaculars.
decided to work out some scheme to reform the legislative ! It was during the Home Rule Movement that Bal
councils. This culminated as Indian Council Act, 1909. Gangadhar Tilak was given the title of Lokmanya.
! It introduced separate and discriminatory electorates. Annie Besant’s Home Rule League
! For the provincial councils a provision of three categories ! Annie Besant had come to India from England in 1893 to
was made viz. General, special and chambers of work for the Theosophical Society. She had set up her
commerce. headquarters at Adyar near Madras.
! For the central council, one more category Muslims was ! Annie Besant’s Home Rule League was formally
added. This was for the first that, the seats in the inaugurated in September, 1916, in Madras, with
legislative bodies were reserved on the basis of religion for George Arundale, as the organising secretary.
Muslim. This is called as Communal Representation.
! Most of leagues work was carried on by Annie Besant
and her lieutenants— Arundale, CP Ramaswamy Aiyer
Demand for Separate Electorate and BP Wadia.
The Amritsar Session of the League, held in 1908, under the ! Annie Besant also brought out the papers New India and
Presidentship of Sir Syed Ali Imam, demanded a separate Commonweal. The Commonweal adopted as its cardinal
electorate for the Muslims, which was conceded to them by the programme, religious liberty, national education, social
Morley-Minto reforms 1909. reform and political reform aiming at self-government for
Jinnah for many years opposed the league. In 1910, at the India within the British Commonwealth.
Allahabad Session of the Congress, he moved a resolution ! The main aim of Weekly Commonweal was to popularise
condemning the system of communal electorates.
the idea of and achieving self-government for India within
the British Commonwealth. Jawaharlal Nehru in Allahabad
Home Rule Movement, 1916 and B Chakravarti and J Bannerjee in Calcutta joined the
! The Home Rule Movement was the Indian response to the league.
World War I and represented the emergence of a new ! The repression of the government only served to harden
trend of aggressive politics. Annie Besant and Bal the attitude of the agitators and strengthen their resolve to
Gangadhar Tilak proved to be the pioneers of this new resist the government.
trend. However, the idea of starting a Home Rule League
! After Montague’s Declaration (August, 1917) also known
in India originated with Annie Besant.
as August Declaration, Mrs Besant finally dropped her
! The definite campaign for Home Rule, began with the league, but Tilak continued his movement.
publication of weekly, the Commonweal, on 2nd January,
1914. Tilak started the Indian Home Rule League in April, Lucknow Pact (1916)
1916 and 5 months later in September, 1916 Mrs Annie The Lucknow Session (1916) is memorable for the following
Besant started the Home Rule League. two important developments :
! Tilak’s League was to work in Maharashtra (Excluding (i) The first was the readmission of the extremists.
Bombay City), Karnataka, the Central province and Berar
(ii) The second was the bond of alliance between the Congress
and Annie Besant League was given charge of rest of
and the Muslim League.
India.
Magbook ~ Growth of Nationalism and Struggle for Independence (1885-1919) 153

! The league at its Annual Session of 1915 in Bombay ! Shortly thereafter, Montague visited India in November, 1917,
which was also attended by many Congress leaders to ascertain the views of all shades of political opinion in
(Gandhi, Malviya and Sarojini Naidu) appointed a India. On the basis of these discussions a detailed report on
committee to draw up a scheme of political reforms in Indian Constitutional reforms was prepared, which was
consultation with other communities. published in July, 1918. This report in turn formed the basis
! During simultaneous annual sessions of the league and of the Montague Chelmsford reforms or the Government of
Congress held at Lucknow in December, 1916 both India Act, 1919.
passed resolution separately for a joint scheme of
Second Split in INC (1918)
constitutional reforms and reached an agreement to
cooperate in the political field on the basis of a
! Reactions within the Congress sharply varied. The moderates
welcomed it as the Magna Carta of India, while others
common programme. Tilak and Annie Besant
criticised it as falling far short of the legitimate expectations of
dominated the Lucknow session.
India.
! This agreement is generally known as the Lucknow ! The division of opinion within the Congress on the Montague
Pact or the Congress League Scheme. The pact had declaration ultimately resulted in the second split in the party,
resulted largely due to Tilak’s effort. this time the moderates walking out. The INC in a special
! The Lucknow Pact exhorted the British Government to session (August, 1918) criticised the August declaration as
confer self-government on India as early as possible, to disappointing and unsatisfactory and suggested important
expand Provincial Legislative council and the modification.
Governor-Generals Legislative council and to provide ! The moderates led by Surendranath Bannerjee, supported the
for greater representation of the elected members on declaration in a separate conference (November, 1918).
the expanded council.
! This brought about the second split in the Congress. The
! It further demanded that the powers of making ultra moderates started a new party called the National
appointments to the Indian Civil Services should vest Liberal league in 1918, later on known as All-India liberal
in the Government of India and that the commissioned Federation.
and non-commissioned ranks in the military and naval
services should be thrown open to Indians. The pact Revolutionary activities
also marked the formal acceptance of separate
electorates for Muslims. First Phase
! The pact succeeded in getting the reforms through ! Vasudev Balwant Phadke, known as Father of militant
Montague Chelmsford Reforms of 1919. nationalism, gathered backward classes including Kols and
! However, the All-India Hindu Mahasabha led the Bhils and tried to create rebellion within British empire. But
crusade against the Lucknow Pact, at its conference he was caught and deported to Aden. By 1902, four
held in Lucknow, VP Madhav Rao, in his presidential revolutionary groups were set-up in Calcutta and Midnapur :
address and attacked the principle of separate (i) Midnapur Society by Sarla Ghosal
electorates. (ii) Anushilan Samiti
(iii) Atmonnoti Group
! The Congress league or the Lucknow pact survived till
(iv) Yugantar group by Barindra Kumar Ghosh, Raja
the suspension of the Non-Cooperation movement in
Subodh Malik and Hemchandra Qanungo.
February, 1922, after the Chauri-Chaura incident.
! First political robbery was conducted in 1906, known as
! The basic defect of the Lucknow pact was that it was
Rangpur Dacoiti.
based on the wrong notion that Hindus and Muslims
formed separate communities and therefore, the pact ! A bomb manufacturing unit was set-up at Maniktala
proved to be only a temporary truce. (Calcutta).
! Kingsford attempt to murder case, 1908 Yugantar group
Montague Declaration (1917) planned to kill Kingsford, the Magistrate of Muzaffarpur, but
! The aftermath of the World War I, the rapid growth of failed.
the revolutionary activities and the popularity of the ! Aurobindo Ghosh was arrested and Khudiram Bose was
Home Rule Movement pressurised the British to effect arrested and executed in Hijni jail, Hazaribagh.
a change in its policies and adopt a conciliatory ! There was an assassination attempt on the life of Governor-
attitude towards the demands of the Indian General, Lord Hardinge (December, 1912) by Master Amir
nationalists. On 20th August, 1917, Montague Chandra, Awadh Bihari and Basant Kumar Biswas.
(Secretary of State of India) made, a historic ! In Madras, revolutionary activities were carried on by Bharat
declaration in the house of commons defining the goal Mata Association under Vanchi Iyer and supported by VO
of British policies in India. Chidambaram pillai.
154 Magbook ~ Indian History

! Indian revolutionary activities outside India were based on — Its headquarter was known as Yugantar Ashram in San
the principle of absolute political freedom. Prominent Francisco (USA). They published the newspaper Hindustani
groups were as follows: Ghadar.
— India House by Shyamji Krishna Verma set-up in London. He — In Punjab, Bharat Mata society under Kartar Singh carried
also started the newspaper The Indian Sociologist. VD Savarkar the Ghadar movement. Similarly in Hong Kong a Sikh priest,
was its member, who later started the secret societies Abhinav Bhagwan Singh, carried the movement.
Bharat and Mitra Mela. — The movement ended with the arrest of Lala Hardayal,
— Other Members Lala Hardayal, VN Chatterjee, MPT Acharya, beginning of World War and Komagata Maru incident
PM Bapat, VSS Iyer and Madan Lal Dhingra (assassinated (chartership of Gurudith Singh carrying Muslim and Sikh
British Officer Curzon Wylie in 1909). immigrants from Vancouver, but the British Government did
! Paris Indian Society It was founded by Madam Bhikaji not allow anyone to leave the ship at Calcutta and violent
Cama. She started two newspapers Vande Mataram and protests broke out).
Madans Talwar. Second Phase
! India Independence Committee was set-up by Virendranath ! Bhagat Singh founded the Naujawan Bharat Sabha.
Chattopadhyay in Berlin.
! Kakori Train Dacoity Case 1925 — Ram Prasad Bismil
! Ghadar Party Movement (1913) Indian nationalists and Ashafaqulla were accused.
including students like Tarak Nath Das, who published Free
! Murder of Saunders (ASP of Lahore), 1929 — Bhagat
Hindustan Newspaper in North America helped in rising
Singh was accused.
awareness about nationalism.
— Similarly, Hind Association of Pacific coast was set-up in 1913
! Assembly Bomb Case (Delhi), 1929 — Bhagat Singh,
by Sohan Singh Bhakna and also started a newspaper, Batukeshwar Dutta and Rajguru.
Hindustani Ghadar, edited by Lala Hardayal. ! Surya Sen was accused in Chittagong Armoury Dacoity,
— Soon activities of the association came to be known as Ghadar 1930.
Party movement, which was first secular, democratic, ! Udham Singh murdered General Dyer in London in
revolutionary movement.
1940.
Chapter twenty four
Struggle for Independence
Second Phase (1919-1927 )
Major consequence of ! Montague described the Government of ! Gandhi’s move of starting Satyagraha was
the world war was the India Act, 1919 as a bridge between the condemned by liberals like Sir DE Wacha,
government by Parliament and Surendranath Bannerjee, TB Sapru,
erosion of the myth of
government by the representatives of the Srinivas Shastri and others like Annie
white man’s prestige. people of India. It was a transitional stage Besant.
An impetus to the in the development of self-government. ! These leaders opposed the Anti-Rowlatt
National movement was satyagraha because they thought that it
given by the impact of The Rowlatt Act, 1919 would hamper the reforms from the side
In 1917, the Governor-General of British Government.
the Russian Revolution !

Chelmsford had appointed a committee ! The date for hartal was fixed to 6th April,
of November, 1917. The 1919. In Delhi, the hartal was observed
under the Chairmanship of Justice Sydney
Nationalist movement in Rowlatt to investigate the nature and on 30th March and ten people were killed
India was also affected extent of revolutionary activities and to in police firing.
by the fact that the rest suggest legislation if necessary so as to ! In Amritsar, Dr Kitchlew and Dr Satyapal
of the Afro-Asian world deal effectively with them. The committee were arrested on 10th April, 1919. This led
was known as the Sedition or Rowlatt to mob violence and government buildings
was also convulsed by Committee. were set on fire, five Englishmen were
nationalist agitation ! In this act, they provided trial of offences murdered and a woman assaulted.
after the war. by a special court consisting of three
High Court judges. There was no appeal Jallianwala Bagh
against the decision of this court and it Massacre
could take into consideration evidence not
! After the hartal of 6th April, 1919, Punjab
admissible under the Indian Evidence act.
was facing a violent situation. Therefore,
The bill gave authority to the government
the Civil Government handed over the
to search a place and arrest a person
administration to the military authorities
without a warrant, detention without a trial
under Brigadier General Dyer.
for maximum period of two years was also
provided in the bills.
! Dyer also banned all public meetings and
detained all the important political
Anti-Rowlatt Satyagraha leaders, including the two Congress
leaders, Dr Satyapal and Dr Kitchlew, who
! Gandhiji launched his campaign against were associated with the Reception
the bill and for this, formed a Satyagraha committee for the Annual Session of the
sabha on 24th February, 1919 in INC to be held on December, 1919.
Bombay.
! On 13th April, 1919, General Dyer ordered
! The Rowlatt Act gave powers to the his troops to fire on a peaceful unarmed
government regarding the suspension of crowd, without warning, assembled at
the right of Habeas Corpus. Gandhi Jallianwala Bagh to protest against the
inaugurated his Satyagraha by advising to arrest of Dr Satyapal and Dr Kitchlew the
observe a day of hartal. occasion was the Baisakhi celebration.
Magbook ~ Struggle for Independence Second Phase (1919-1927) 157

! According to official figure, 379 persons were killed, but ! Finally, Gandhi succeeded in persuading the Congress
the unofficial accounts gave much higher figure. The leaders to support the movement. Finally, at the special
Martial law was immediately enforced in Punjab on the Calcutta session (September, 1920), Congress endorsed
night of 13th April. the programme of non-cooperation. The Nagpur session of
! In protest of the Jallianwala Bagh tragedy, Rabindranath the Congress (December, 1920) ratified the resolution
Tagore surrendered the knighthood conferred on him by passed at Calcutta Congress Session. The Khilafat
the British Government and Sir Sankaran Nair, a former Committee as well as the congress outlined four stages of
President of the INC, resigned his membership of the non-cooperation i.e.
Viceroy’s Executive Council. (i) Resignation of titles and honorary posts.
! After this massacre, Gandhiji withdrew this movement (ii) Resignation from civil services under the government.
and called it as ‘It was my Himalayan Blunder’. (iii) Resignation from Police and Army services.
! To enquire into this massacre, British Government (iv) Non-payment of taxes for redressal of the Punjab grievances,
rectification of the khilafat wrongs and the establishment of
appointed Hunter committee, its report was called by
Swaraj.
Gandhiji as a Official Whitewash.
! The All India Khilafat Conference held at Karachi on 8th
Khilafat Movement, 1919 July, 1921 called upon Muslim soldiers in the Indian Army
to quit their jobs.
! The Sultan of Turkey, ruler of the vast Ottoman empire,
was the Caliph of the Islamic world and the Indian Non-Coorperation Movement, 1920
Muslims regarded him as their spiritual leader Khalifa. In
the World War I, Turkey was defeated. The harsh terms ! The Congress accepted to launch Non-Coorperation
of the Treaty of Sevres (1920) with Turkey further added movement for two wrongs (i) Khilafat issue and (ii) Punjab
the fuel. Thirdly revolts in Arab land engineered, at wrong. The third main aim of Non-Coorperation movement
British instigation, against the Sultans made the Muslim i.e. Swaraj was added at Nagpur Session of INC December,
sentiments in India to flare up, hence, the Muslims 1920.
started the Khilafat movement. Opposition to NCM
! The main demand of the khilafatists was that, the ! Some leaders opposed the programme of NCM. Lala Lajpat
Ottoman Caliph should retain his empire with sufficient Rai opposed the programme of Educational Boycott, CR
temporal power to defend Islam, the Arab lands should Das opposed the programme of Boycott of Legislature and
remain under Muslim rule and the Sultan of Turkey MM Malaviya and Jinnah opposed the goal of Swaraj.
should be the warden of the places sacred to the
! The Congress session at Nagpur started from
Muslims.
26th December, 1920, ratified the non-cooperation
! MA Ansari demanded the restoration of the Arab lands to resolution, earlier passed at Calcutta (September, 1920).
the Caliph, at the Muslim league’s 1918 Annual Session
! The Nagpur session was historic due to two important
in Delhi which was supported by the Congress.
amendments to the Constitution of the Congress. Firstly,
Course of the Movement the goal of the Congress was changed from the attainment
! In April-May, 1919, the All India Khilafat conference was of self-government by constitutional means to the
formed in Bombay. At a conference in Lucknow in attainment of Swaraj by peaceful and legitimate means.
September, 1919, an All India Khilafat committee was ! Secondly, revolutionary changes were brought about in the
set-up with Seth Chhotani of Bombay as President and Congress organisation.
Maulana Shaukat Ali as Secretary. The changes were as follows:
—Formation of Working committee of 15 members.
! Other leaders associated with the committee were
—Formation of an All India Congress committee of 300 members.
Maulana Azad, Hakim Ajmal Khan, Muhammed Ali and
—Formation of Congress committee from town to village level i.e.
Hasrat Mohani.
creating a hierarchy of district, Taluka and Village Congress
! Gandhiji was elected President of the All India Khilafat committee.
conference (November, 1919). The Amritsar Session of —Reorganisation of Provincial congress Committee on a linguistic
the INC (December, 1919) gave a great fillip to the basis.
Khilafat agitation. —Opening of Congress membership to all adults i.e. men and
women of the age of 21 or more on payment of 4 annas as
! Lokmanya Tilak passed away in the early hours of
annual subscription.
1st August and people all over the country observed
hartal and took out processions, kept fast and offered ! The programme of the Non-Cooperation movement had
prayers. Tilak Swarajya fund was created to collect money two main aspects:
for movement. (i) Constructive and (ii) Destructive
158 Magbook ~ Indian History

! The AICC meeting at Vijayawada on 31st March, 1921 ! CR Das with Motilal Nehru and others pro-changer on
outlined two more programmes: 31st December, 1922 announced the formation of the
(i) To collect 1 crore rupees for the Tilak Memorial Swarajya Congress-Khilafat Swaraj party better known as the Swaraj
fund. party. CR Das became its President and Motilal Nehru its
(ii) To introduce 20 lakh charkhas into Indian household. Secretary.
! The swarajists got clear majority in the Central provinces;
Growth and Spread of Movement they were the largest party in Bengal and they fared quite
! The Non-Cooperation movement was the first real mass well in Bombay and Uttar Pradesh though not in Madras and
movement launched under Mahatma Gandhi. Punjab because of strong castes and communal currents.
Thousands of students left schools and colleges and Justice Party in Madras and Unionist in Punjab, were more
joined more than 800 national schools and colleges. powerful.
! The newly started national institutions like the Kashi ! In the Legislative assembly, since swarajists were not in
Vidyapeeth, the Gujarat Vidyapeeth and the Jamia majority, a coalition of seventy members was formed known
Millia Islamia and others accommodated many as the Nationalist party with the support of independents led
students. by Jinnah and the liberals.
! Many leading lawyers of the country like CR Das,
Objective of Swarajists
Motilal Nehru, MR Jayakar, Saifuddin Kitchlew,
Vallabhbhai Patel, C Rajagopalachari, T Prakasam and ! The immediate objective of swarajists was speedy attainment
Asaf Ali gave up their practices. of full dominion status.
! Between January and March, 1921, the districts of Rae Achievements of Swarajists
Bareli, Pratapgarh, Faizabad and Sultanpur witnessed ! In the very first session, Motilal Nehru put forward the
widespread agrarian riots under the leadership of Baba national demand for framing a new Constitution.
Ram Chandra.
! Rangachari moved a resolution requesting the Governor-
! In late 1921, there was another strong peasant outburst General in Council to revise the Act of 1919 to secure for
which is popularly known as the Eka movement under India provincial autonomy and dominion status.
the leader Madari Pasi.
! Motilal moved an amendment in favour of a Round Table
! The Bijolia movement in Mewar and the Bhil conference to recommend a scheme of full responsible
movement under Motilal Tejavat acquired impetus from government.
Non-Cooperation movement.
! In the Central legislature, the swarajists forced the
! The programme to start the civil disobedience was appointment of Alexander Muddiman committee (in 1924) to
approved by the Congress session at Ahmedabad. inquire into the defects of the Act of 1919 and to suggest
Bardoli Taluq was selected as a place from where remedies.
Gandhiji would launch Civil Disobedience campaign.
! When the recommendation of the Lee commission
! On 5th February, Congress volunteers were fired at by constituted under the Chairmanship of Viscount Lee to
the police at Chauri Chaura at Gorakhpur district in enquire into the organisation and condition of public services
Uttar Pradesh. In retaliation, the infuriated mob killed came for approval of the assembly, Motilal moved an
22 policemen. amendment which was carried by the majority vote.
! The Congress Working committee, which met at Bardoli ! The swarajists further succeeded in throwing out the budget
on 12th February, 1922, called off the movement (the forcing the government to rely on its power of certification.
resolution popularly known as Bardoli resolution). The
! Further in March, 1925, the swarajists succeeded in electing
country was shocked at Mahatma decision to call off
Vithalbhai Patel, a leading swarajists, as the President of the
the movement.
Central Legislative assembly.
! Subhash Chandra Bose called it a national calamity.
! Lajpat Rai joined the Central Legislative assembly as swarajists
and accepted the deputy leadership of the party. ML Nehru
Swarajya Party accepted the membership of Skeen committee, which was
! In December, 1922, the Gaya session of the Congress, set-up to report on the early Indianisation of the Army.
became a battleground between the supporters of the
council entry and no council entry. Finally, the Resignation of the Swarajists
‘no-changers’ led by Rajagopalachari defeated the ! In the 1926 elections, though the Swarajya party won
‘pro-changers’. CR Das resigned alongwith Motilal 40 seats in the Central legislature and half of the seats in
Nehru as the President and the Secretary of the Madras, in other provinces, it suffered badly. The swarajists
Congress (Gaya session 1922). finally walked out of the legislature in 1930.
Magbook ~ Struggle for Independence Second Phase (1919-1927) 159

Important National Muddiman Committee (1924)

Activities (1922-27) ! In the Central Legislative Assembly, the Finance bill was rejected
and thrown out in 1924. Swarajists led by Motilal Nehru introduced
Vallabhbhai Patel launched the Sarabandi (no tax)
campaign in Gujarat in 1922. an amendment in 1924. They demanded the framing of an Indian
Constitution by an Indian Constituent Assembly.
All-India Khilafat Committee lost relevance after the
abolition of Khalifa in Turkey by Mustafa Kamal Pasha ! As a response the government appointed a Nine Member Reforms
in 1924. This led to the revival of All India Muslim Enquiry committee under the Chairmanship of Sir Alexander
League with Jinnah as its leader in 1924. Muddiman (home member in the Executive council) to examine
the working of Dyarchy of the Montague-Chelmsford reforms.
The Hindu Mahasabha a communal organisation of
the Hindus founded in December, 1915 gained
Recommendations
strength with MM Malaviya accepting its
presidentship at the Belgaum session of Sabha in ! The minority (consisting of only non-official Indians) stated that the
December, 1924 Act of 1919 had failed. It also opined that a Constitution was
needed to be framed for automatic progress. Therefore, it
Various Non-Brahmin organisation of South India
joining hands to form a single All-India Body. Finally, recommended the appointment of Royal Commission. Lord
All India Non-Brahmin Conference was held at Birkenhead the Secretary of State for India said that action would be
Belgaum on 28th December, 1924 with A Ramaswami taken on the basis of majority report.
Mudaliar as the Chairman. The conference demanded
communal representation for non-Brahmins both in Butler Committee (1927)
elected bodies as well as government jobs. ! In 1927, the people of Princely States formed the State Peoples’
Akali Movement intensified British authorities under Conference with a view to introduce self-government institution. This
fear that it may affect the loyalty of Sikh soldiers in move threatened the interests of princes who sought the help of
the British Army as well as the Sikh peasantry. British in this matter. The result was the setting up of a Three
To pacify Sikhs, a bill was passed in July, 1925 which Member committee consisting of Harcourt Butler, WS Holdsworth
created Shiromani Gurudwara Prabandhak Committee and SC Peel. Harcourt Butler was the Chairman of the committee.
(SGPC) to manage the affairs of Gurudwaras. ! Purpose was to inquire into the relationship between the Indian
Nagpur Flag Satyagraha was launched in mid 1923 States and the paramount power and to suggest ways and means
against a local order banning the use of the Congress for more satisfactory adjustments of the existing economic relations
flag. between them and British India.
Borsad Satyagraha (1922) in Kheda district (Gujarat) ! The committee was officially called the Indian States Committee.
was launched to protest against the imposition of a The committee visited 16 states and submitted its report in 1929.
Poll Tax on every adult to pay for police reinforcement
required to suppress increasing rate of dacoities. Recommendations
Finally, the tax was cancelled on January, 1923. ! According to the committee, the relationship of the paramount
Ezhava Congress leader TK Madhavan in 1924-25 power with the state was not merely a contractual relationship, but
demanding temple entry for untouchables led Vaikom a living, growing relationship shaped by circumstances, policy and
Satyagraha in Travancore, other lower castes like resting on a mixture of history and theory.
Nairs also participated. ! The committee laid stress on preservation of Princely State through
Communist Party of India was formed on December British paramountacy.
26, 1925 at Kanpur. P.C. Joshi was appointed its first ! According to it, state should not be transferred without their
General Secretary in 1935 and held the office till 1947. own agreement to a relationship with a new government in British
The Swarajists finally walked out of the legislature in India responsible to an Indian legislature.
1930 as a result of the Lahore Congress resolution and ! Simon Commission substantially endorsed the Butler committees
the beginning of civil disobedience. finding and agreed that the Viceroy should be the agent of the
paramount power in its relation with the princes.
160 Magbook ~ Indian History

His only excursion into politics was his demand

Early Political Life of Gandhiji !
(October, 1915) for the abolition of the system of
! Gandhi’s rise to power was ‘phenomenal’. Suddenly, he arrived indentured labour for manual work outside India.
at the Indian political scene and came to the centre-stage of all ! No Satyagraha was started because the Government
activities against the British Rule. Gandhiji believed in of India abolished the system before the date fixed
Satyagraha, which was based on truth and non-voilence. It was by him (31st July, 1917). His constructive work
influenced by Thoreau, Emerson and Tolstoy. He was anxious began with the foundation of the Sabarmati Ashram
to distinguish Satyagraha from passive resistance. at Ahmedabad in May, 1915.
! Till the beginning of 1917, Gandhi was more of a
Gandhiji in Africa freelance preacher and social worker than a
! Gandhiji reached Durban in 1893 to sort out the legal problems recognised politician. Gokhale was his closest ally
of Dada Abdullah, a Gujarati merchant. and teacher.
! There, he was deeply shocked by the political and social
disabilities which were imposed by law, administrative and
Initial Political Activities
social measures of the Europeans upon the Indian residents. ! It was through involvement in three local disputes in
! He revolted against the racial injustice, discrimination and Champaran (In North Bihar) in Kheda (in Gujarat)
degradation to which Indians had to submit in the South African and in Ahmedabad in 1917-18 that Gandhi emerged
colonies. as an influential political leader. In Champaran, he
took up the cause of peasants against landlords, in
! Gandhiji soon assumed the leadership of the struggle against
Kheda that of farmers against revenue officials and in
these conditions and during 1893-1914 was engaged in a
Ahmedabad that of mill-workers against mill-owners.
struggle against the racist authorities of South Africa.
! In every case, the strategy was Satyagraha and the
! It was during this struggle that he evolved the technique of
principles were truth and non-violence. In every
Satyagraha based on truth and non-violence.
case, the real force working under Gandhi was ‘mass
! He founded a political association known as the Natal Indian participation’. Champaran struggle was the first
Congress and also a newspaper called Indian Opinion with a struggle of Gandhi in India.
view to educating Indians in political matters and giving
publicity to their grievances. Champaran Satyagraha (1917)
! The major problem at Champaran in Bihar was of the
Gandhi’s Success in Africa Indigo planters. The European planters forced the
! He used passive resistance or civil disobedience or Satyagraha peasant to grow indigo on 3/20th of the total land
for the first time against a legislation making, it was compulsory area (tin katie system). Peasants were also forced to
for Indians living in South Africa to take out certificates of sell their produce at the prices fixed by the
registration. He also protested against restrictions on Indian Europeans. When the German syntactic dyes
migration. replaced indigo, the planters demanded for high
! The Indians defined this law by crossing over from one rents and illegal dues from the peasants in order to
province to another without producing the licences. In 1906, maximise their profit.
he set-up the Tolstoy Farm in Transvaal with the help of his ! Through tours in rural areas, he established direct
German architect friend, Kallenbach, to house the families of contact with ordinary people and talked about their
the Satyagrahis. concerns in the language which they understood.
! He led a struggle against a judgement of the South African This was a novel political technique; it had never
Supreme Court, which invalidated all marriages not conducted been practiced by the educated leaders of the
according to Christian rites and registered by the Registrar of Congress.
marriages. In 1909, Gandhiji released his book Hind Swaraj. The ! For the first time, the peasants were drawn into
Gandhian ideas are illustrated in this book. political agitation under a new type of leadership.
! For the first time in India, Gandhi was displaying that
Gandhiji in India magnetic personality, which was to draw multitudes
! On receipt of instructions from GK Gokhale, Gandhi returned to to him and to earn him the title of Mahatma and the
India from South Africa in January, 1915. nickname of Bapu. Under pressure from the
! Instead of immediately entering in Indian politics, he spent Government of India, the Government of Bihar
1915 and much of 1916 touring India, visiting places as far appointed a committee of enquiry (June, 1917). The
apart as Sind and Rangoon, Banaras and Madras in order to recommendations of the committee were
get to know his homeland and to make himself known to his implemented, by the Champaran Agrarian Act of
countrymen. 1917. He was also member of this committee.
Magbook ~ Struggle for Independence Second Phase (1919-1927) 161

Some of leaders associated with

!
Gandhiji in this Satyagraha were JB
Acquisition of Political Prominence
! Champaran, Kheda and Ahmedabad were the testing ground of Gandhian
Kripalani, Rajendra Prasad, Mahadev
style of politics in India. These were non-violent mass based campaigns. In
Desai, Narhari Parikh etc.
the process of these campaigns, Gandhiji was able to recruit a number of
! Based on this movement a book Neel committed political workers, who played vital role in the national movement
Darpan was written by Dinbandhu in the years to come.
Mitra.
! Prominent among them were Rajendra Prasad, JB Kripalani, Vallabhbhai
Ahmedabad Satyagraha (1918) Patel, Mahadev Desai and Indulal Yagnik. By the end of 1918, through
! While Gandhiji was still engaged in his three limited campaigns, he had demonstrated that Satyagraha was viable in
task in Bihar, he received a letter from India. By this time, he also attained considerable public position and
Shrimati Anasuyabai. She informed him achieved some authority in specific areas.
about the condition of workers in ! What distinguished him was his weapon of political agitation which seemed
Ahmedabad mills and requested him to to meet the need of the day. Satyagraha could involve people, bring them
take up their cause with the mill owners. directly into the fold of nationalist agitation and give them a sense of
! The terrible plague of 1917-18, led to a participation.
heavy decline in the number of workers ! The Satyagrahas of Champaran, Kheda and Ahmedabad made Gandhiji very
in the major industrial city of popular among the masses. He started emerging as a leader of the masses
Ahmedabad. In order to attract the and won the admiration and respect of political workers. Finally, these
workers, the mill owners started paying struggle brought Gandhiji in close contact with the masses whose interests
them 75% of their wages as plague he pursued all his life.
bonus. ! In fact, he was the first Indian nationalist leader, who identified his life and
! The mill owners declaration of locking his manner of living with the life of the common people. Very soon he
out the mills on 22nd February, 1918 became the symbol of poor India, nationalist India, rebellious India and of
made the situation even more serious. course the independent India.
At last, the issue was resolved with the
intervention of Mahatma Gandhi. The Ideology and Thoughts of Gandhiji
mill owners agreed to give 35% of Satyagraha
wages as bonus. This offer was
! One of the most important aspects of Gandhi’s political ideology is
accepted by the workers.
Satyagraha which means truth and non-violence.
! Gandhiji intervened in a dispute
! To Gandhi, Satyagraha was the only road to achieve Swaraj. Satyagraha
between the workers and mill owners
entails non-violent, non-cooperation and self-sacrifice.
and he took a fast unto death to force a
compromise. ! The principles of Satyagraha were opposed to wrongs and injustice. A
satyagrahi was not to compromise with evil, injustice and wrong. The
Kheda Satyagraha (1918) suffering of the Satyagrahis are intended to generate compassion and
! It was first Non-Cooperation movement awaken ahimsa in the hearts and minds of the contending party.
in India. In 1917 most of the kharif ! The truth was to be established and a change of opponent’s heart was to be
crops of the farmers of Kheda district brought about not by any forceful or violent means, but by arousing the
in Gujarat were destroyed due to heavy conscience of the opponent or by inflicting of suffering on oneself.
rains thus, incapacitating them to pay ! Gandhian Satyagraha is the weapon of brave. It was infact, a struggle
the land revenue to the government. without fear and cowardice. According to Gandhi, a satyagrahi must be
When the government refused to comply fearless.
with the peasant’s demand to remit the
land revenues, Gandhiji advised them to Non-Violence
withhold the payment and launch a ! The doctrine of non-violence is another important aspect of Gandhi’s
struggle against the government on ideology. ‘‘My creed is non-violence under all circumstances. My method is
22nd March, 1918. conversion, not coercion; it is self-suffering, not the suffering of the tyrant.’’
! Gandhiji with his lieutenants like This statement by Gandhi captures the basic principles of non-violence.
Vallabhbhai Patel, the young lawyer of ! The Gandhian ideal of ‘active ahimsa’ entails not just abstaining from all
Kheda (who had become Gandhiji’s violence, but fully embracing an enemy with love. It ‘requires deliberate
follower during this Satyagraha), Indulal self-suffering’ and therefore ‘calls for the greatest courage.’ Ultimately, the
Yagnik and many other youth, toured self-suffering of a practitioner of ahimsa is intended to awaken and convert
villages to encourage the peasants. the soul of the enemy, who will then be overpowered by pity and love.
162 Magbook ~ Indian History

Swadeshi promotion of khadi, village reconstruction etc., are

expression of broad social outlook of Gandhiji.
! Gandhiji was a champion of swadeshi, which he believed
was essential to Satyagraha and Swaraj. Swadeshi entailed ! The Socio-Economic programme of Gandhiji helped to
complete self-sufficiency in the political, economic and spread the message of nationalism down to the lowest and
religious life of the Indian people. Swadeshi was an most oppressed section of the society. This in one sense
integral part of Gandhi’s overall vision for an independent developed pan-Indian loyalty towards the Congress and
India - one in which self-sufficient, self-governing village National Movement.
republics were the foundation of the country. ! He was also instrumental in the abolition of the system of
! Gandhiji believed that if the Indian masses followed the indentured labour.
Swadeshi doctrine, ‘‘Then every village of India will… be a
Religious Outlook
self-supporting and self-contained unit, exchanging only
such necessary commodities with other villages where ! His Hinduism revolved around a few fundamental beliefs:
they are not locally producible.’’ in the supreme reality of God, the unity of all life, and the
value of ahimsa as a means of realising God. He had faith
Novel Ideas of Gandhiji that ‘‘Religions are different roads converging to the same
point’’. Because he saw all religions as essentially the
! The novelty value of Gandhi’s political method is of great
same, he advocated mutual tolerance and respect
significance. Beside Satyagraha, it includes civil
between different religions to Gandhiji.
disobedience, non-cooperation, court arrest, hartal,
hunger strike, marches etc. These novel methods became ! ‘Songs from Prison’ is a collection of songs and lyrics by
an indispensable part of the overall nationalist programme Gandhiji, written during his imprisonment in Yeravada Jail,
and strategy. Moreover, they were used effectively and to a Poona (1931-32). It is a translation of ancient Indian
great extent successfully in our struggle for independence. religious lyrics in English.

Gandhi and Imperialism Constructive Programme

! The ultimate aim of Gandhian struggle was not political ! The constructive work is the significant aspect of
freedom alone but a life of dignity for the masses. He Gandhian strategy. It included development of Khadi,
believed that the mere removal of the British by the Indian cottage industries, spinning, women’s upliftment,
rulers would result in nothing more than English Rule Hindu-Muslim unity, upliftment of Harijans, national
without Englishmen. He was of the opinion that the real education etc. In the course of time, these became
enemy was the entire forces of imperialism and symbolic of rendering one’s contribution towards his
colonialism. It was these forces that gave sustenance to country. The most important significance of the
the exploitation of poor by rich and British rule was just a constructive programmes is that it facilitated the
manifestation of that. involvement of even those, who did not have aptitude and
Socio-Economic Outlook taste for political and Parliamentary activity and secondly
it also helped in sustaining the sense of activism during
! His concerns for Hindu-Muslim unity, for the upliftment of
the passive phases of the mass movement.
Harijans, for raising the status of women in the society,
Chapter twenty-five
Struggle for Independence
Third Phase (1927-1939)
It was presided by MA Ansari. On
Simon Commission !
19th May, 1928 at its meeting at
! Lord Birkenhead, Secretary of State for India Bombay, the All Parties Conference
The political announced the appointment of a Statutory appointed a committee with Motilal
atmosphere in the Commission under the Chairmanship of Sir Nehru as its Chairman. The purpose
John Simon on 8th November, 1927. Simon
country was marked by was to consider and determine the
Commission was officially known as Indian principles of the Constitution for India.
a ferment of Statutory Commission. All the seven members
revolutionary and ! The committee consisted of Sir Tej
of the commission were Englishmen, who were
Bahadur Sapru, Sir Ali Imam, MS
terrorist activities. the members of British Parliament.
Aney, Mangal Singh, Shoaib Qureshi,
Communalism was also ! The commission was appointed to review the
GR Pradhan, NM Joshi, MR Jayakar
performance of reform of 1919 and suggested
growing as a festering further reforms.
and Subhash Chandra Bose.
wound, which erupted ! White Commission with no Indian Recommendations of Report
sporadically in riots and representative was greeted with strong protest. ! India must be given dominion status,
bloodsheds. Amidst this The Congress, at its session at held Madras in which meant independence within the
December 1927, resolved to boycott the British Commonwealth.
atmosphere came the
commission. ! India would be a federation, having
sudden appointment of However, the league led by Mohammed Safi
! a bicameral legislature at the centre
the Simon Commission as also Justice Party in Madras, Unionist Party to which the ministry would be
in 1927. in Punjab, Central Sikh Sangh and All India responsible.
Achhut Federation did not oppose the ! The Governor-General would be only
commission. the constitutional head with the same
! The commission paid two visits to India powers as the British Crown.
(February-March, 1928 and October, 1928) ! There was no provision for separate
and April, 1929), each time it faced boycott.
electorate. Citizenship was also defined
The report of Simon omitted any mention of
and Fundamental Rights were
Dominion Status even as a distant goal and
enunciated.
rejected all ideas of transfer of power at the
! The Annual Session of the INC held in
centre.
Calcutta in December 1928, approved
! The proposals of Simon Commission were
the Nehru Report and also served an
completely rejected by the major political
ultimatum on the British Government to
parties in the country, including the Muslim
accept the Nehru Report on 31st
league.
December, 1929, failing which the party
Nehru Report would launch another Mass Movement,
with a new goal of Poorna Swarajya.
! In response to the appointment of Simon
commission and challenge given by Lord
! The open session of the Muslim League
Birkenhead Secretary of State for India, the All meeting at Delhi on 28th March, 1929,
Parties Conference was called at Delhi on rejected the Nehru report and
12th February, 1928. accepted Mr Jinnah’s Fourteen Points.
Magbook ~ Struggle for Independence Third Phase (1927-1939) 165

Jinnah’s ‘Fourteen Points’ Lahore Session of the Congress

! The Fourteen Points were announced by (December,1929)
Jinnah in Delhi on 28th March, 1929 at a ! Historic Lahore Session of the Congress was presided by Jawaharlal
meeting of the Muslim League. It did not Nehru.
accept the Nehru report on the ground that it
—The Lahore Session of the Congress passed a series of landmark resolutions.
discarded separate electorates and other
—The Nehru Committee report had lapsed (i.e. dominion status was now not
demands of minorities and rather presented acceptable).
his Fourteen Points. —As per the Poorna Swaraj resolution passed at the Lahore Congress the word
(i) The form of the future Constitution of India Swaraj in the Congress Constitution would mean complete independence.
should be federal with residuary powers vested —All future elections were to be boycotted.
in the provinces.
—Round Table Conference, decided to be held in London, should be
(ii) A uniform measure of autonomy should be boycotted.
granted to all provinces. —A Programme of Civil Disobedience was to be launched. The Congress
(iii) All legislatures and other elected bodies should Working Committee allowed Gandhi to determine the time place and issue
be constituted on the definite principle of on which CDM was to be launched. Gandhi decided to inaugurate the
adequate and effective representation of movement by violating the Salt Laws on the sea-coast at Dandi.
minorities. ! On 31st December, 1929 Jawaharlal Nehru, the President of the
(iv) In the Central legislature, Muslim representation Congress unfurled the flag of India’s independence on the banks of the
should not be less than one-third. Ravi in Lahore.
(v) Representation of communal groups should
! The Congress Working Committee, which met on 2nd January, 1930,
continue to be by separate electorates as at
present, provided that it should be open to any decided that 26th January, 1930, should be observed as the Poorna
community at any time to abandon its separate Swaraj Day (Independence Day).
electorate in favour of joint electorate.
(vi) Any territorial redistribution should not affect Civil Disobedience Movement (First Phase)
the Muslim majority in Punjab, Bengal and the ! Gandhi placed as an ultimatum on 31st January, 1930 eleven points of
NWFP. administrative reform and stated that if Lord Irwin accepted them there
(vii) Full liberty of belief, worship and observance, would be no need for agitation. The important demands were as
propaganda, association and education should follows :
be guaranteed to all communities. (i) The rupee sterling ratio should be reduced.
(viii) No bill or resolution or any party should be (ii) 50% reduction in land revenue.
passed in any legislature or any other elected (iii) Abolition of the Salt Tax and government salt monopoly. 50% cut in
body if three-fourths of the members of any military expenditure.
community in that body opposed it as being (iv) Salaries of highest grade service should be reduced by half.
injurious to the interests of that community. (v) Change Arms Act allowing citizens to bear arms for self-protection.
(ix) Sind should be separated from the Bombay (vi) Protection for Indian Textile Industry.
Presidency. (vii) Reservation of coastal shipping for Indians.
(x) Reforms should be introduced in the NWFP (viii) Release of all political prisoners.
and Baluchistan on the same footing as in (ix) Total prohibition of intoxicants.
other provinces. (x) Carry out reforms in Criminal Investigation department.
(xi) Adequate share for Muslims should be
provided in the Constitution in all services of Dandi March (Salt Satyagraha)
the state subject to the requirements of
efficiency.
! On 12th March, 1930, Gandhi started the historic march from his
Sabarmati Ashram with 78 followers.
(xii) Adequate safeguards for the protection and
promotion of Muslim culture, education, ! After a 24 days long march, he symbolically broke the Salt Law at
language, religion, personal laws and Dandi on 5th April, 1930. The breaking of the Salt Law formally
charitable institutions. inaugurated the civil disobedience.
(xiii) No cabinet, either Central or Provincial, should ! Soon the defiance of Salt Law started all over the country. In Tamil
be formed without atleast one-third of the Nadu, C Rajagopalachari led a Salt March from Trichinopoly to
ministers being Muslims. Vedaranniyam on the Tanjore coast.
(xiv) No change should be made in the Constitution ! In Malabar, K Kelappan, the hero of the Vaikom Satyagraha walked
by the Central Legislature except with the
from Calicut to Payyanur to break the Salt Law.
concurrence of the state constituting the
Indian federation.
! As a consequence of Salt Satyagraha, the Indian National Congress
was declared illegal by the colonial rulers in April, 1930.
166 Magbook ~ Indian History

Course of the Movement Civil Disobedience Movement

! In United Province and Gujarat, a No Tax (Second Phase)
campaign was launched on 18th April, the Bengal
revolutionaries led a seize to the Chittagong ! The Second Round Table conference (September, 1931) failed to
Armoury and fought a Pitched Battle on Jalabad satisfy Congress or provide anything substantial to the country.
hill on 22nd April under the able leadership of ! The Gandhi returned to India disheartened and disillusioned.
Surya Sen. Meanwhile Lord Wellington had succeeded Irwin as the Viceroy
! On 21st May, with Sarojini Naidu, Imam Sahib and had flouted many provisions of the Gandhi-Irwin pact.
and Gandhi’s son, Manilal infront ranks, a band of ! On 4th January, 1932, a fresh batch of Congress leaders including
2000 marched towards the police cordon that Gandhiji and Sardar Patel were arrested Gandhi was kept in
had sealed off the Dharasana salt works. Yervada prison (Pune) during Civil Disobedience movement and at
! The Working committee in May, 1930 sanctioned; Aga Khan Place (Pune) during Quit India movements.
non-payment of land revenue in Ryotwari areas, ! The announcement of Communal award (16th August, 1932) by
non-payment of Chaukidari (village police) tax in Ramsay MacDonald (British PM) the strength and the pace of Civil
Zamindari region and Forest satyagraha. Disobedience movement began to decline.
! The Viceroy took the initiative of releasing the ! In the background of the Communal award and Gandhi’s fast unto
Congress leaders and invited Mahatma Gandhi for death, the Civil Disobedience movement lost its momentum. After
talks which led to the Gandhi-Irwin pact and the the Poona pact, Gandhi lost interest in the movement and got fully
suspension of the Civil Disobedience movement. involved in the anti-untouchability struggle, which led to the
foundation of Harijan Sevak Sangh.
Gandhi-Irwin Pact ! In its place, Mahatma Gandhi launched Individual Civil
(5th March, 1931) Disobedience on 1st August, 1933. However, the Civil
Disobedience movement continued to linger till early April, 1934
! During the course of Civil Disobedience
when Gandhiji decided to formally withdraw in April, 1934.
movement the Simon Commission report was
published and to consider its recommendation Impacts of Civil Disobedience Movement
the First Round Table conference was called in ! The Congress swept polls in most provinces in 1937.
London in November, 1930. ! The left parties emerged as an-alternative in politics.
! Some of the liberal leaders like Tej Bahadur ! Some Congress activist formed socialist group.
Sapru, VS Shastri and MR Jayakar on their return ! Nehru and Subhash Chandra Bose emerged as leader.
from the First Round Table conference tried to
persuade Gandhi on the same lines. Three Round Table Conferences
! Gandhiji initiated a talk with Irwin on
14th February, 1931, which culminated in the
First Round Table Conference
Delhi pact of 5th March, 1931. The pact is ! Sir John Simon recommended British Government to call a
popularly called Gandhi-Irwin pact. conference consisting of the representatives of both the British
India as well as the Indian States, so as to take a final decision on
! According to the pact, the Congress agreed to the issue of constitutional reforms for India and by a declaration of
join the Second Round Table conference for Lord Irwin Round Table conference was called.
drafting the constitutional reforms on the basis of ! The First Session of the Round Table conference began on
(a) Federation (b) Responsibility and
12th November, 1930. The British Indian delegation comprised 58
(c) Safeguards or reservation in the interest of
members, rest were British officials. Some prominent members
India for such matters as defense external affairs,
who participated were as follows :
minorities and the financial credit of India.
! On behalf of the Congress, Gandhiji agreed to Organisation Leader
discontinue the Civil Disobedience movement. Hindu Mahasabha MR Jayakar, MS Moonje
! The government agreed to release all political Sikh Sardar Sampurna Singh
prisoners, except those guilty of violence and Christians KT Paul
restore the confiscated property of the Liberal TB Sapru, CY Chintamani, Srinivas Shastri
satyagrahis. Muslim League Aga Khan, Mohammed Shafi, Jinnah, Muhammed
! Gandhiji requested for remitting the death Ali, Fazlul Haq
sentence on Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru Depressed Classes BR Ambedkar
was turned down by the Viceroy. Princes Akbar Hydari (Diwan of Hyderabad), Mirza Ismail
(Diwan of Mysore), Maharaja of Bikaner
Magbook ~ Struggle for Independence Third Phase (1927-1939) 167

Second Round Table Communal Award and Poona Pact

Conference
! On16th August, 1932, Prime Minister Ramsay Mac Donald announced in
! Wellington succeeded Lord Irwin in the British Parliament the proposal on minority representation known as the
Delhi in April, 1931. Sir Samuel Hoare, a Communal Award. The award reserved a number of seats in the Provincial
leading conservative became Secretary legislature (Lower House only). According to this award, Muslim, Christian,
of state for India. Anglo Indians, European and Sikh voters would elect their candidates by
! The Congress had suspended Civil voting in separate communal electorates.
Disobedience movement, but reiterated ! The award declared the depressed classes (officially described as
Poorna Swaraj as its ultimate political scheduled castes) also to be a minority community entitled to separate
goal. electorates and thus, separated them from the rest of the Hindus. They also
Participants had the right to vote in the remaining general constituencies also.
! Mac Donald, however, promised to accept any alternative scheme mutually
Party/Ideology Representative
agreed upon by the Hindus and the depressed classes.
Congress Mahatma Gandhi
! Gandhiji reacted strongly to the proposal and wrote to the British Prime
Muslim Mohammed Iqbal
Minister on 18th August, 1932.
Depressed BR Ambedkar
! He went on fast unto death on 20th September, 1932 to enforce his
Liberals TB Sapru
demand. The 20th of September was observed as a day of fasting and
Capitalist GD Birla prayer. Temples, wells, etc were thrown open to the depressed classes all
Others Sarojini Naidu, MM over the country.
Malalviya, Ali Imam
! Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya summoned a conference of various castes
! The Second Session made and political parties, including Dr BR Ambedkar to sort out the issue.
recommendation such as : ! On 25th September, 1932, the sixth day of Gandhiji fast, they arrived at an
—The composition of the Indian federation. agreement in Poona, popularly known as Poona pact. Poona pact between
—Structure of the federal judiciary. Gandhi and Ambedkar was concluded with the following terms :
—The mode of accession of states to the —The Principle of Joint and Common Electorate was accepted, for all Hindus.
federation. —48 seats in different Provincial legislature were reserved for the depressed classes
—Distribution of financial resources. in place of 71 (as provided in the Communal award).
! It was agreed at the conference that —18% of the seats in the Central legislature were reserved for the depressed classes.
responsible government would be —Adequate representation would be given to the depressed classes in the civil
services.
established immediately, both at the
centre and in the provinces, including
complete control over finance, army,
Election of 1937 and Congress Ministries
defence and external relations. ! The Lucknow Session of April, 1936, presided by Jawaharlal Nehru,
Congress resolved to contest election.
Third Round Table Conference ! Jawaharlal Nehru in his presidential speech (Lucknow session) advocated
! The Third Round Table conference was socialism and took three socialists into the Congress Working committee
called on 17th November, 1932. The i.e. Jayaprakash Narayan, Acharya Narendra Deo and Achyut Patwardhan.
Congress boycotted it. The prominent
members were TB Sapru and Ambedkar.
! The British Government, on the basis of All India Kisan Sabha
the discussion at the three sessions, The Lucknow session was important from another point of view as well. It was
drafted its proposals for the reform of during this session that the First Meeting of the All India Kisan Sabha was held
the Indian Constitution, which were under the Presidentship of Swami Sahajanand Saraswati.
embodied in the white paper published The Faizpur session held at December, 1936, under the Presidentship of Jawaharlal
in March, 1933. Nehru, attacked fascism and Congress passed resolutions condemning Italian
! The white paper was examined and aggression of Abyssinia and Japanese aggression of China. In this session,
approved by a Joint committee of the Congress demanded the formation of a Constituent assembly.
British Parliament (October, 1934) and a
The session passed some important resolutions such as :
bill, based on the report of this
—The people of the princely state should have the same right of self-determination
committee, was introduced and passed as those of the rest of the India, but the struggle for liberty was to be carried out
in the British Parliament as the by the people of states themselves.
Government of India Act, 1935. —The provincial units were asked to conduct agrarian enquiries.
168 Magbook ~ Indian History

Elections Congress Ministries in

! The elections to the provincial legislatures were held in January- Office (1937-1939)
February, 1937. Congress won 715 out of 836 seats. In five provinces, ! In all the Congress remained in power in eight
it had a clear majority (Madras, United Provinces, Central Provinces, provinces for 28 months. During this period, it
Bihar and Orissa). made efforts to work for the benefit of Indians.
! In NWFP, Assam and Bombay Congress emerged as the single largest ! In all the Congress ruled provinces the efforts
party. In Bengal, Punjab and Sind, the Congress did not have majority. were made to protect the peasant’s from the
The Congress could not do well in the election to upper houses as the moneylenders and to improve irrigation
franchise, there was limited to the upper strata only. As far as facilities.
reserved seats were concerned.
! In the United Provinces and Bihar, Tenancy
! The government therefore formed Interim Ministries (e.g. Nawab Bills were passed.
Chhatari of National Agriculture party formed his ministry in United
! The Congress Government in Bombay
Province and Sir Dhunjishah formed his ministry in Bombay).
appointed a Textile Enquiry committee in
! In July, 1937, the Congress formed ministries in the United Provinces, 1937, which recommended a wage increase
Central Provinces, Orissa, Bihar, Madras and Bombay. Later Assam and health and insurance cover to worker.
and the NWFP also came under the Congress rule.
! The Bombay ministry also introduced an
! In Punjab, the Unionist party and the Muslim league formed a Industrial Disputes act in November, 1938,
coalition government. based on the principles of arbitration, to
Ministries Formed in Different Provinces prevent strikes and lockouts. In the field of
civil liberties, all political prisoners were
Province Ministry
released and Constructive programme
Bombay BG Kher undertaken The other major achievements of
United Province Govind Vallabh Pant the Congress ministries were as follows :
Madras C Rajagopalachari —Reduction in salaries of ministries.
Orissa Hari Krishna Mehtab —The declaration of Fundamental Rights.
Central Province Dr NV Khare —Welfare schemes for tribals.
Bihar Sri Krishna Sinha —Carrying jail reforms.
North-West Frontier Province Dr Khan Saheb —Carrying out commercial and economic surveys
Bengal Fazlul Huq of Krishak Praja party, with the and uplift of village industries.
support of Muslim league, but later on Muslim —Promotion of education, especially primary
league was installed with HS Suhrawardy as the education through the introduction of basic
premier. It remained in power till August, 1947 education.
Sind Ghulam Hussain Hidayatullah and Allah ! The Congress Government also joined the
Bakhsh efforts to develop planning through the
Assam Bardoli, supported by Congress National Planning committee appointed in
Punjab Sikandar Hayat Khan of Unionist party 1938 by the Congress President Subhash
(Remained in power till March, 1947) Chandra Bose.
Chapter twenty six
Struggle for Independence
Fourth Phase (1940-1947 )
The August Offer (1940) The Individual
The outbreak of the ! Viceroy Lord Linlithgow issued a statement Satyagrahas
World War II and British from Simla on 8th August popularly known ! There were two opinions in Congress
as the ‘August Offer’. The main purpose of about the launching of Civil
unilateral declaration this proposal was to secure Congress Disobedience. Gandhi felt that the
that India is party to war, co-operation during the World War II. atmosphere was not in favour of civil
without consultation ! The offer turned down the Congress disobedience as there were
with the Indian leaders demand for setting up the provincial differences and indiscipline within the
National Government, but promised for Congress. While some leaders of
in particular and its
— immediate expansion of the Viceroy’s Congress, socialists and the All India
people in general, made Executive Council by increasing the number Kisan Sabha were in favour of
the Congress to demand of Indians. immediate struggle.
— a representative Constitution making body to
a clear cut definition of be set-up after the war. ! The August Offer had disillusioned the
the British Government’s — a war Advisory Council would be set-up Congress. Finally, Gandhiji had a long
war and peace aims consisting representative of British India and meeting with the Viceroy at Simla in
the Indian States. September 1940, after which, he was
applicable to India. — dominion status in the unspecified future. convinced that the British would not
— right to secede for some provinces. modify their policy in India.
! In this offer, the Viceroy had promised the ! He therefore, decided to launch
Muslim League and other minorities that Individual Satyagraha. The aim of the
the British Government would never agree satyagraha was to disprove the British
to a Constitution or Government in India, claim of India supporting the war effort
which did not enjoy their support. wholeheartedly.
Reaction of August Offer ! On 17th October, 1940, Acharya
! The Congress rejected the ‘August Offer’ Vinoba Bhave (the first Satyagrahi)
because there was no suggestion for a inaugurated the satyagraha by
National Government and it encouraged delivering an anti-war speech at
anti-Congress forces like the Muslim League. Paunar; Bhave had been personally
selected by Gandhiji for this.
! The British however, went ahead with its
implementation and accordingly in July, ! Mahatma Gandhi suspended it on
1941, the Viceroy’s Executive Council was 17th December, 1940 due to little
enlarged from 7 to 12 members, of whom 4 enthusiasm it created. Jawaharlal
were British and 8 Indians (as against 3 Nehru was the second to offer
Indians earlier). But, no member of the Satyagraha after Vinoba Bhave. It was
Congress or the league joined the new during Individual Satyagraha that
council. The immediate impact of the Gandhi declared Nehru as his chosen
failure of August Offer was the launching of successor. Individual Satyagraha was
Individual Satyagraha. also known as Delhi Chalo Satyagraha.
Magbook ~ Struggle for Independence Fourth Phase (1940-1947) 171

Cripps Mission, 1942 Quit India Movement (QIM)

! As the World War II situation worsened (after
Germany invaded Russia), President Roosevelt
or August Revolution, 1942
of the USA and President Chiang Kai-Shek of ! The Japanese had reached India’s Eastern frontier. In May 1942,
China as also the Labour Party leader of Britain Congress Working Committee adopted a resolution calling for
put pressure on Churchill, to seek the active complete non-violent non-co-operation with any forces invading India.
co-operation of Indians in the war. ! Gandhiji came to believe that ‘‘the presence of the British in India is
! So, a mission headed by Sir Stafford Cripps an invitation to Japan to invade India and their withdrawal removes
(member of the British War Cabinet and a the bait’’.
left-wing labourites) was sent to India to resume ! On 14th July, 1942, the meeting of Congress Working Committee
the dialogue between Congress and other held at Wardha passed the Quit India Resolution. Gandhiji
political parties to join the British war efforts. asked the British ‘to leave India in Gods hand’.
! The Congress argued that without the transfer of ! On 8th August, 1942, the Quit India Resolution was adopted by the
de-facto power and responsibility, the change All India Congress Committee in Gowalia Tank, Bombay. Gandhiji
contemplated would not be of any significance. gave the slogan of ‘Do or Die’. It was adopted on 9th August.
The Working Committee had further objection to
the composition of the Constitution making body, Course of Movement
in which the representative from the princely ! The AICC meeting ended at around midnight on 8th August, 1942.
states would be nominated by their rulers and On the morning of 9th August, police arrested Mahatma Gandhi,
not elected by the people. Maulana Abul Kalam Azad and other eminent Congress leaders.
! The Congress did not want to rely upon future ! From 9th-13th August, 1942, there were widespread disturbances
promises. It wanted a responsible government in Bombay, Ahmedabad, Poona, Delhi etc and the events of these 4
with full powers and also a control over the days in August, 1942 are known as the Great August Uprising. A
country’s defence. parallel government was established in Satara (Maharashtra), which
! To the provision relating to the non-accession of continued to function for a long time.
province to the union, Gandhiji rightly described ! In Bengal, Tamluk Jatiya Sarkar functioned for a long time in
it as ‘‘an invitation to the Muslim League to Midnapore district.
create Pakistan’’. On the overall assessment,
! The longest running paralled government was run by Chittu Pandey
Gandhiji termed the proposal as a post-dated
in Balia (Uttar Pradesh).
cheque on a crashing or failing bank.
! It now took the shape of revolutionary activities directed against
! The Muslim League demanded a definite
blowing up of communication networks and attack on police
declaration by the British in favour of the
personnel. The prominent members of underground movement
creation of a separate state for the Muslims and
were Achyut Patwardhan, Aruna Asaf Ali, Ram Manohar Lohia,
also seats for the Muslims League on a 50:50
Sucheta Kripalani, Chootubhai Puranik, Biju Patnaik, RP Goenka
basis with the Congress in the Interim
etc.
Government.
! Later Jaiprakash Narayan and Ramnandan Mishra joined the
! The league also rejected the Cripps offer on
underground movement after escaping from Hazaribagh jail on
two grounds;
9th November, 1942. The most significant act of the underground
(i) It did not recognise separate electorates for the movement was the establishment of Congress Radio with Usha
Constitution making body. Mehta as its announcer.
(ii) That there was no clear cut acceptance of the
demand for partition. Responses and Trend
! The depressed classes— the Sikhs, the Indian ! The Quit India Movement got a massive response from the people
Christians and the Anglo-Indians demanded of Bombay, Andhra, Bihar, Gujarat, Orissa, Assam, Bengal,
more safeguards for their communities. The Karnataka etc, but the responses in Punjab, Sind, NWFP etc were
British Government also refused to accept the weak. Congress was declared illegal. Therefore, the Congress
demand for the immediate transfer of effective Committee was revived under different names-Congress Workers
power to the Indians and for a real share in the Assemby or Representative Assembly of Congressmen rendering the
responsibility for the defence of India. ban on Congress Committees ineffective.
172 Magbook ~ Indian History

Reaction of Other Parties Indian National Army (INA)

The Muslim League kept aloof from the movement, but some ! Major Fujiwara, a Japanese Army Officer persuaded
members of Muslim Community extended support by providing Captain Mohan Singh, a prisoner of war, to work in
shelter to underground workers. The Hindu Mahasabha collaboration with the Japanese for India’s freedom.
condemned the movement. Mohan Singh first conceived the idea of the INA in
The Communist Party of India opposed the movement. The Malaya.
princes and landlords were supporting the British War effort ! In March 1942, a conference of Indians was held in Tokyo
and did not sympathise with the movement. Some Congressmen and they formed the Indian Independence League. The
like Rajagopalachari and Bhulabhai Desai did not participate in major role in its formation was played by Ras Behari Bose.
! This was followed by a conference in Bangkok (June
1942) where Ras Behari Bose was elected as President of
Repression by the Government the league and a decision was taken to raise the Indian
! The government used airplanes to gun down people at National Army or Azad Hind Fauj to fight for India’s
various places. There were countless lathicharge, independence. Bangkok conference also invited Subhash
floggings and imprisonments. to come to Japan.
! Gandhiji commenced a fast on 10th February, 1943 in jail. ! Ras Behari Bose resigned from the chairmanship of
He declared the fast would last for 21 days. Groups of Indian Independence League in favour of Subhsh Chandra
people secretly reached Poona to offer Satyagraha outside Bose, who was also named as Supreme Commander of
the Aga Khan Palace, where Gandhiji was being held in INA.
detention. ! Bose returned to Singapore and formed the Provincial
! The native State of Awadh whose ruler was pro-nationalist Government of Free india (Azad Hind Sarkar) on 21st
and has got the Constitution of his state drafted by October, 1943. In November 1943, the Japanese
Gandhiji, provided invaluable support by offering shelter to announced their decision to handover the administration
the Prati Sarkar activist. of Andaman and Nicobar islands to the INA. Japanese
Government promised full support to INA to enable India
Parallel Government Established to achieve full independence. Bose renamed Andaman
During Quit India Movement and Nicobar as Shaheed and Swaraj.
Place Ruler ! On March 1944, the INA commenced its military offensive
Tamluk (Midnapur) Jatiya Sarkar under Satish Samant and advanced towards Assam through Burma and
Talcher (Orissa) Lakshman Nayak crossed Indian frontier on 18th March, 1944. The INA
Satara (Maharashtra) Prati Sarkar under Nana Patil. soldiers reached Kohima in Nagaland and captured it in
Balia (East Province) Chittu Pandey first one to come into May 1944. However, the INA failed to capture Imphal due
being; Chittu Pandey called himself a to failure of Japanese to supply the necessary material
Gandhian and air cover and due to advancing monsoon.
! Meanwhile, the status of war turned against Japan and
Subhash Chandra Bose and the British troops recaptured Rangoon in May, 1945 and
the INA troops were forced to surrender and made
INA prisoner. Three months later, Subhash Chandra Bose died
! He was born in 1897. He graduated from Calcutta in an air crash near Taiwan in August, 1945.
University, studied Philosophy in Cambridge and qualified ! Bose set-up two INA headquarters i.e. in Rangoon and in
for the Indian Civil Services. His political mentor was Singapore. The INA had three fighting brigades named
Deshbandhu Chittaranjan Das. after Gandhiji, Azad and Nehru. Soon, other brigades were
! He was elected as Mayor of Calcutta while in jail, in 1932. raised namely, the Subhash brigade and the Rani Jhansi
! In 1939, he defeated Gandhiji’s nominee Pattabhi brigade. The Rani Jhansi brigade was the women’s
Sitaramayya to be re-elected Congress President. brigade of INA. The overseas Indians contributed heavily
in terms of money and material.
! Rabindranath Tagore regarded him as deshnayak.
Subhash Chandra Bose founded the Forward Bloc, in ! Bose in a broadcast on Azad Hind Radio had addressed
January, 1941. Gandhiji as the Father of Nation. Gandhiji returned the
compliment by describing, Subhash as The Prince among
! He made anti-British propaganda from the Berlin Radio
Station and raised free India units with the Indian Patriots. The slogan of INA were Jai Hind and Delhi
prisoners of war in Germany. Chalo.
Magbook ~ Struggle for Independence Fourth Phase (1940-1947) 173

These agreements are as follows:

The INA Trails
— Nomination of equal number of persons by both
! The trail of INA prisoners began on 5th November, 1945 at the in the central executive.
historic Red Fort, Delhi. Some prominent INA officers put on trial — Representation of the minorities in particular of
were General Shah Nawaz, Gurdial Singh Dhillon, Prem Sehgal etc. the Scheduled Castes (SCs) and the Sikhs.
! The AICC at its session held in Bombay from — The government was to be formed and was to
21st to 23rd September, 1945 adopted a strong resolution declaring function with the framework of the existing
Government of India Act, 1935.
its support for the cause of INA soldiers. The Congress organised an
INA Relief and Enquiry Committee. Tej Bahadur Sapru, KN Katju,
Jawaharlal Nehru and Asaf Ali, under the leadership of Bhulabhai
Wavell Plan (1945)
Desai took up the defence of the INA prisoners in the trial. ! Since the resignation of Congress Ministries in
1939, there was a kind of political deadlock in
Rajagopalachari Formula (1944) the country. In an attempt to resolve the
deadlock in India, in March 1945, Viceroy went
! C Rajagopalachari, who had resigned from the Congress in 1943
to England for consultation.
realised the necessity of a settlement between the Congress and the
Muslim League for the attainment of independence of India, evolved ! Viceroy Lord Wavell to create conducive
in 1944 and a formula to hold talks with Jinnah. atmosphere for dialogue ordered on 14th June,
1945, the release of all the Congress Working
! The main contents of this formula were as follows:
Committee members. On this day, Wavell
— The Muslim League while endorsing the Indian demand for
independence should cooperate with the Congress in the formation of broadcast a plan, popularly known as Wavell
Provincial Interim Government for the transitional period. Plan.
— After the end of war, a commission to be appointed for demarcation of ! The Wavell Plan proposed for the formation of a
contiguous districts in the North-West and North-East, which had new Executive Council at the centre, in which
absolute Muslim majority. all the members except the Viceroy and
— Plebiscite for inhabitants in them on the question of separate state on the Commander-in-Chief would be Indian.
basis of adult suffrage. Moreover, all the portfolios except defence were
— It will be open to all parties to advocate their point of view before the to be under the control of Indian members.
plebiscite is held.
! In the proposed Executive Council which was to
— In the case of separation, essential common services like defence,
commerce, communication and other essential sectors were to be run have 14 members, the Muslims who
together. constituted only about 25% of the total
— Any transfer of population shall only be on an absolute voluntary basis. population of India were given the right to be
— The scheme would only be implemented after the full transfer of power over represented by selecting six
by the British. representatives.
! Jinnah turned down Rajagopalachari proposal saying that it offered a
‘Mutilated and moth-eaten Pakistan’, but agreed to hold talks with Cabinet Mission Plan (1946)
Gandhi. ! The decision to send Cabinet Mission was taken
! Jinnah demanded that the Muslims alone were to be entitled to vote on 22nd January, 1946. On 19th February,
for partition and not the whole population of the disputed areas. 1946, the British Prime Minister CR Attlee
Gandhiji refused to accept this as it was based on Two-Nation Government announced in the House of Lords
Theory. about the mission and the plan to quit India. A
high-powered mission of three British Cabinet
Desai-Liaquat Proposals (1945) members: (Sir Pathick-Lawrence (Secretary of
! Gandhiji directed Bhulabhai Jivanji Desai to make another attempt to State for India), Sir Stafford Cripps, (President
appease the league leaders and find a way, out of the 1942-45 of the Board of Trade) and AV Alexander, (first
political impasse. Lord of Admiralty) reached Delhi on 24th
March, 1946.
! Desai being the leader of the Congress in the Central Assembly and
a friend of Liaquat Ali (Deputy Leader of the Muslim League), met ! The purpose of the mission was to find out ways
him in January 1945, gave him proposals for the formation of and means for the peaceful transfer of power in
Interim Government at the centre. After Desai’s declaration at India, to suggest measures for the formation of
Peshawar on 22nd April, 1945. Liaquat Ali published the list of the a Constitution making machinery and also to
agreements. set-up Interim Government.
174 Magbook ~ Indian History

Purpose of Cabinet Mission Plan ! The Akali Sikhs attacked the proposals on the ground that
the inclusion of the Sikh Community in the North-Western
! On 16th May, 1946, the Cabinet Mission announced its
Muslim Block (Group B) would leave the Sikhs at the mercy
own recommendations which were as follows:
of the Muslims and imperil Sikh religion and culture.
— The unity of India had to be retained.
— It rejected the league’s demand for a full-fledged Pakistan on
the ground that it would not solve the communal minority Direct Action Day
problem. On the other hand, partition would create many The league decided on 30th July, 1946 that 16th August, 1946
serious problem related to defence, communication etc.
would be observed as Direct Action Day throughout the country.
— It proposed a very loose union of all the Indian territories
The Bengal Government led by the league leader HS Suhrawardy
(comprising both British India and princely states) under a
had declared, 16th August, a public holiday. In Calcutta, on 16th
centre that would control merely the defence, the foreign
affairs and the communication. The union would have the August, the league organised public demonstration and hartal,
powers necessary to raise the financés to manage these which turned into clashes and rioting all over the city.
subjects.
— All subjects other than union subjects and residuary power Interim Government
would vest in the provinces of British India.
! On 12th August, 1946, the Viceroy Lord Wavell invited
— The princely state would retain all subjects and all residuary
power other than those ceded to the union.
Congress to form the government under the leadership of
Jawaharlal Nehru, which finally came into being on
— The provincial legislatures would then elect a Constituent
2nd September, 1946. The Muslim League kept out, initially.
Assembly or a Constitution making body with each province
being allotted a specified number of seats proportionate to ! On 13th October, the Muslim League decided to join the
its population (roughly in the ratio of one representative to a Interim Government.
million population). ! On 26th October, five nominees of the league joined the
— The proposed Constituent Assembly was to consist of 292 government. Congress appointees resigned to make room
members from British India and 93 from the Indian States. for the league nominees (two seats were already vacant
— The British India members were to be divided into 210 while Mr Sarat Bose, Syed Ali Zahir and Sir Shafat Ahmed
General, 78 Muslims and 4 Sikh seats. Khan resigned).
— In the preliminary meeting, the assembly was to elect not
only a Chairman and other office bearers, but also an Ministers of Various Departments
Advisory Committee. Minister Department
— The members so elected will divide up into three sections:
Jawaharlal Nehru Vice-President of the Executive Council,
(i) Section A for the non-Muslim majority provinces External Affairs and Commonwealth
(Bombay, the United Provinces, Bihar, the Central Relations
Provinces, Orissa and Madras). Vallabhbhai Patel Home, Information and Broadcasting
(ii) Section B for the Muslim-majority provinces in the Baldev Singh Defence
North-West (Sind, NWFP and Punjab). Dr John Matthai Industries and Supplies
(iii) Section C which would consist of Bengal and Assam, here C Rajagopalachari Education
Muslims had small majority over the rest. Among the CH Bhabha Works, Mines and Power
Chief Commissioners’ provinces, three i.e., Delhi, Rajendra Prasad Food and Agriculture
Ajmer-Marwar and Coorg would join Group A whereas one
Asaf Ali Railways
i.e., Baluchistan would join Group B.
Jagjivan Ram Labour
— All these sections would have the authority to draw up
Liaquat Ali Khan Finance (Shanmugam Chettiar after
provincial Constitution and if necessary, group Constitution
Liaquat Ali’s resignation)
and setting up thereby provincial and sectional legislature
and executives. TT Chundrigar Commerce
— After the first general election, a province could come out of Abdur Rab Nishtar Communication
a group. After 10 years, a province could call for Ghazanfar Ali Khan Health
reconsideration of group or union Constitution. Jogendra Nath Mandal Law
! The grouping of provinces was devised to satisfy the
Muslim League, so as to give it a substance of Pakistan Constituent Assembly
to exercise almost complete autonomy in Muslim
majority provinces.
! The election to the Constituent Assembly was held in July,
1946. Out of the total 292 seats allotted to British India, the
! The Congress further wanted the grouping to be optional
Congress won 201; the Muslim League 73; the
(because of the opposition of NWFP and Assam of their
independents 8 and 6 members from other parties. Four
being dragged into Section B and C), whereas the league
seats remained vacant because of the Sikh refusal to join
wanted the grouping to be compulsory.
the assembly.
Magbook ~ Struggle for Independence Fourth Phase (1940-1947) 175

! The Constituent Assembly met for the first time on ! Mountbatten delayed the announcement of
9th December, 1946 in the library of the Council Chamber, Delhi Boundary Commission Award, even though it was
and 205 members attended the meet. The league ready by 12th August, 1947 which aggravated the
representatives and the nominees of the princely states partition tragedy.
abstained. On 11th December, the assembly elected Dr ! The provincial assemblies of East Bengal, West
Rajendra Prasad as its permanent President. Punjab and Sind voted for Pakistan. In Baluchistan,
the decision to join Pakistan was made by a
Objective Resolution meeting of the Quetta Municipality. In the
The most important resolution known as the objective resolution North-West frontier province and Sylhet, the
which declared the assembly’s firm and solemn resolve that India majority voted in favour of joining Pakistan.
would be an independent sovereign state, was adopted on ! The Congress Working Committee, which met on
22nd January, 1947. It was later to be incorporated into the 3rd June, 1947, approved the Partition Plan. The
Preamble of the Indian Constitution. The league in context of its
AICC which met in New Delhi on 14th-15th June
decision, rejecting the Cabinet Mission Plan refused to join the
ratified the proposal.
Constituent Assembly.
! Pandit Govind Vallabh Pant moved the resolution
for ratification. Pandit Govind Vallabh Pant while
Mountbatten Plan, 1947 moving the resolution had said, “This was the only
! The British Prime Minister Attlee announced on 20th February, way to achieve freedom and liberty for the country”.
1947 in the House of Common that British would withdraw from Some Nationalist Leaders who
India by 30th June, 1948, this was known as Attlee’s
Disapproved the Plan
Declaration.
! Attlee believed that announcement of the fixed date for the ! Frontier Gandhi regarded the partition as treachery
British withdrawal from India would bring pressure on the on the part of the Congress and felt that “The
Indians to settle their differences before them. Lord Khudai Khidmatgars were being thrown to the
Mountbatten, the 34th and the last British Governor-General and wolves”.
Viceroy, arrived in India on 22nd March, 1947. ! They even boycotted the referendum held in NWFP.
! Mountbatten was convinced that partition was the only choice. Khan Abul Gaffar Khan wanted an independent
After the reluctant consent of the Congress for the partition of Pathan State in NWFP.
India, Lord Mountbatten held final discussion with the Congress, ! Suhrawardy and Abul Hasan were for an
the league and the Sikh leaders, to seek their agreement on his independent united Bengal. The Hindu Mahasabha
Partition Plan. Shortly, after this, Lord Mountbatten paid a visit to too opposed the partition.
London for consultation in May 1947. ! The non-Muslim majority areas in Punjab and in
! According to the plan, India would be divided, but in a manner Bengal, as also the entire province of Assam
that maximum unity was maintained, Pakistan would be created, (except a part of Sylhet) remained within the
but it would be as small as possible. The plan declared that boundaries of India.
power would be handed over by 15th August, 1947 on the basis
of dominion status to India and Pakistan. The plan laid down the Indian Independence Act
procedure by which power will be transferred.
The procedure are as follows: The British Government introduced in Parliament on
4th July, 1947- The Indian Independence Bill,
— The Provincial Legislative Assembly of Bengal and Punjab would
meet in two parts separately, one representing the Muslim majority
which was enacted on 18th July.
district and the other representing the remaining district, to decide The act provided for the partition of India and the
by vote for the partition of the province. establishment of two dominions (India and Pakistan)
— In the case of Sind and Baluchistan, Legislative Assembly was to from 15th August, 1947. The legislature of each
take its own decision at a special meeting. dominion would have full power to make laws for
— A provision of referendum was provided for in the case of the NWFP that dominion.
and Muslim majority district of Sylhet. The territories of the dominion of India would include
— With regard to the Indian States, the British Government would the whole of British India exclusive of the territories
cease to exercise the powers of paramountacy.
constituting Pakistan, i.e. West Punjab, Baluchistan,
— It would then be open to the states to enter into political relation with NWFP, Sind and East Bengal. The exact boundaries
the successor government. The plan also made provisions for the
of the two dominions would be determined by a
setting up of a Boundary Commission to demarcate boundaries in
case, partition was to be effected. Boundary Commission.
176 Magbook ~ Indian History

Partition of India Integration of Princely States

! Communal riots, which began in Calcutta on after Independence
16th August with the observance of the Direct Action Day, spread ! According to the Indian Independence Act in 1947,
like a chain-reaction. Jinnah blamed Gandhiji, the Viceroy and it was decided that all Indian states will be free to
the British. accede to either the new Dominion of India or
! Mountbatten’s judgement in the summer of 1947, that division of Pakistan. There was decision of completely
the country was the only practical solution, was accepted by the abolishing the practice of monarchy and all
three main parties i.e., the British Government, the Indian princely states were to be annexed. Sardar
National Congress and the All India Muslim League. Vallabhbhai Patel headed the State Department in
! The partition of India was a personal triumph for Jinnah. Political the National Provisional Government built at the
developments finally convinced Congress leaders that it was time of independence.
imperative to secure immediate British withdrawal, even if it ! Sardar Patel alongwith his Chief Assistant VP
meant acceptance of the partition of India. Menon convinced Indian princes to join the Indian
union. Lord Mountbatten also aided Sardar Patel
Radcliffe Boundary Commission and his team in the mission for integration of
◆
A Consultative Committee created in July 1947 to recommend how states. The annexations were made on the basis of
the Punjab and Bengal regions of the Indian subcontinent were to be mainly three factors: Defense, Foreign affairs and
divided between India and Pakistan, shortly before each was to Communication. This resulted into
become independent from Britain. 136 jurisdictional states acceded to Indian union by
◆
The commission appointed by Lord Mountbatten, the final viceroy of 15th August while many states signed the
British India consisted of four members from the Indian National Instrument of Accession a bit later like Kashmir in
Congress and four from the Muslim League and was chaired by Sir October 1947 and Hyderabad in 1948.
Cyril Radcliffe. ! VP Menon successfully negotiated instruments of
◆
The commission’s mandate was to draw boundaries in the two accession with a number of small states beginning
regions that would keep intact as much as possible, the with integration of different tiny provinces of Orissa
most-cohesive Hindu and Muslim populations within Indian and into a single state of Orissa, alongwith this formed
Pakistani territory, respectively. the Union of Kathiawar by including minor states in
Kathiawar in February 1947. This all was followed
by the subsequent accession and merger of many
Reasons for Partition tiny remaining states over the next 5 months.
! Partition of India was basically the result or outcome of the ! Many other annexed states were namely Baroda,
communal politics. The communal problem at its base was more Kolhapur, Gujarat were annexed to the then
politically motivated than religiously oriented. Apart from the Bombay Province. A second form of integration of
Hindus and Muslims, British acted as the third party in the 61 states was the formation of the seven centrally
communal triangle. administered areas which resulted into the
! There was an increase in religious hostilities between Hindus and formation of Himachal Pradesh, Vindhya Pradesh
Muslims. The rise and growth of communal politics was the basis (present day Madhya Pradesh), Tripura, Manipura,
for mobilising people against the other community and it usually Bhopal, Kachchh and Bilaspur. Apart from these,
culminated into communal discord. Jinnah succeeded in the states of United States of Matsya, Union of
influencing majority of the Muslims and generated a fear that an Vindhya Pradesh, Madhya Bharat, Patiala and East
independent India would be dominated by Hindus. Jinnah Punjab States Union, Rajasthan and United States
adopted the slogan Pakistan or perish. of Cochin-Travancore were also integrated to the
! An attempt to draw up a compromise solution acceptable to both India.
Hindus and Muslims failed because of obstinate and unyielding ! Despite of so many integrations, still unification was
approach of Jinnah. incomplete but was complete with the surrender of
! Violence brokeout in August 1946 in Calcutta, in which around Pondicherry (Puducherry) and Chandannagar to
5000 people were killed. Nehru formed a cabinet, but Jinnah India on 1st November, 1954 by the French
believed that Hindus could not be trusted to treat the Muslims authorities. Later in December 1961, Indian Army
fairly. He called for a day of direct action in support of a separate fully liberated Goa, Daman and Diu from the
Pakistan. control of Portuguese government. Thus, the hard
! Louis Mountbatten was sent as the new Viceroy and he soon work of Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and his team of
decided that partition was only to avoid Civil War. assistants fruitfully integrated the Indian states to
form a unified nation of India.