Survey
SURVEYING
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Survey
General Principal of Surveying
1. To work from the whole to the part:
2. To locate a new station by at least two measurements (linear or angular) from a fixed reference point.
Fundamentals of Surveying
With Plane Surveying:
Error in Plan due to not considering curvature: Error of 1 cm in each 12000 m.
Error in elevation due to not considering curvature:
Scales and Error
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Types of Scale
i. Plane Scale: Measures up to 2 different units
ii. Diagonal Scale: Measures up to 3 different units for example 1 metre, 1 decimetre and 1 centimetre.
iii. Vernier Scale:
a. Direct Vernier:
Here,
S = Smallest division on main scale.
v = Smallest division on Vernier scale.
b. Retrograde Vernier:
iv. Shrunk Scale:
Correction and Errors
L = Designated true length of the scale or chain.
L’ = Wrong Length of chain or scale.
l = Actual length of line.
l' = Length of line measured (wrong length)
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Limiting Length of offset
Case 1: If the error is only in direction such that
Case 2: If error is in direction as well as in length measurement.
Correction in Tapes
i. Correction due to Standardization:
Here,
l = Actual length of tape
l’ = Nominal length of tape
ii. Correction for Slope (Always Negative):
Where,
D = Horizontal Equivalent,
L = Slope Distance
θ = angle of slope
Alternatively,
Approximately,
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iii. Correction due to Pull applied:
Here,
P = pull applied during measurement.
Po = Standard pull
L = Measured length
A = Cross sectional area of the tape
E = Young s modulus of material of tape
iv. Correction for Temperature:
Here,
α = coefficient of linear expansion,
Tm = Mean temperature of the tape,
To = Standard temperature.
v. Tape Correction for Sag (Always negative):
Here,
W = Weight of tape per unit length,
P = applied pull
l1 = length of the tape suspended between the supports.
Normal Tension (Pn):
vi. Reduction in Length due to mean see level:
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The value of h is very small as compared to R and hence can be neglected and the formula becomes as
follows:
Chain Surveying
French cross Staff: It is used to take offsets at 45°, 90° and135° from the survey line.
Types of chains used in Chain Surveying
i. Metric Chain: Metric chains are made in lengths 20 m and 30 m.
ii. Gunter s Chain: Length = 66 feet (22 yards), No of links = 100, each link = 66 feet
iii. Engineer s Chain: Length = 100 feet, Number of links = 100, each link = 1 feet.
iv. Revenue Chain: Length = 33 feet, Number of links = 16.
Compass Surveying
Systems Used in Angular Measurement
i. Degree System:
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ii. Centesimal System:
iii. Hour System:
Bearing
i. True Bearing: Angle made with true meridian.
ii. Magnetic Bearing: Angle made with magnetic meridian.
iii. Grid Bearing: Angle made with grid meridian.
iv. Arbitrary bearing: Angle made with the arbitrary meridian.
Fore Bearing and Back Bearing
Fore-Bearing: Fore Bearing of a line is Horizontal angle in the direction of progress of survey.
Back-Bearing: Back Bearing of a line is the horizontal angle in the direction opposite of the progress of
survey.
Included Angles: Included angle is the angle measured in clockwise direction from previous line to the
next line.
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The vertical angle between the magnetic needle and Earth surface is called as Angle of dip.
Theodolite Traversing
Permissible error in Linear measurement equipment:
Latitude and Departure
i. Loop Traverse:
ii. Link Traverse:
Closing Error/ Error of Closure
If the traverse has an error, it will not close as shown in the figure.
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Bowditch Method
when angular measurement and linear measurement both are nearly of same precision.
Correction in latitudes of line:
Correction in departure of line:
Here,
li = Length of ith line in the traverse (only magnitude).
ΣL = Total error in latitude.
ΣD = Total error in departure.
Transit Method
When angular measurements are more precise than linear measurements correction in Latitude:
Correction in Departure:
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Here,
LT = Sum of Latitudes (magnitude only)
DT = Sum of Departure (magnitude only)
ΣL = Total error in latitude.
ΣD = Total error in departure.
Adjustment of Angular Error or Bearing
In a Closed Traverse, the sum of measured interior angles should be equal to as given:
Here,
N = Number of sides of the traverse.
Angular Error should not exceed (Least Count *√N). Angular error is equally adjusted. Bearing is adjusted
in a cumulative way.
Formula to remember for the sensitivity of the bubble tube
Here,
S = Difference between two staff readings
n = Number of divisions of bubble
α = Sensitivity of bubble tube
L = Length of one division
D = distance from the instrument
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Levelling
Height of Instrument (HI):
(Differential Levelling) Exact difference between the levels:
Errors in Levelling
i. Curvature of Earth:
Here,
d = distance between level instrument and the staff in kilometre
R = Radius of earth in kilometre
Cc = Correction due to curvature in meters
On putting the value of radius of earth,
ii. Refraction:
Combined Refraction and Curvature Correction:
Distance of Visible Horizon.
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i. When effect of refraction is neglected and only effect of curvature is considered:
ii. When effect of refraction is considered along with the effect of curvature:
Here,
d = Distance of visible horizon in kilometre
h = Height of the viewing platform
Tacheometric Survey
Case 1: Horizontal Distance is known and angle of Elevation or
Depression is measured
In such case elevation of the point and RL of it can be found as follows:
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Case 2: In case when horizontal distance D can’t be measured
We will have,
Calculation for RL for F:
Tacheometry
Tacheometer is a special type of theodolite that can take 3 different staff readings along with the
measurements of horizontal and vertical angles.
Horizontal Distance:
Here,
k = Multiplying constant of the instrument
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C = Additive constant of the instrument
S1 = Lower Staff Reading
S2 = Intermediate Staff Reading
S3 = Upper Staff Reading
Multiplying constant
Additive constant
Further in case of Analytic Lens:
Analysis using Tacheometry
Case 1 : Angle of Elevation (staff held vertical):
Case 2 : Angle of Depression (staff held vertical):
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Case 3 : Angle of Elevation, staff held normal to the visual axis of telescope (staff perpendicular to line of
sight):
Case 4 : Angle of Depression, staff held normal to the visual axis of telescope (staff perpendicular to line of
sight):
Errors & their Adjustments
Residual Error:
Residual error = Observed value – Most probable value
Indices of precision of equal weight observation
1. Standard deviation
σ = standard deviation
v = Residual variation
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ν = measured value – most probable value
n = number of observation
2. Variance (V):
3. Standard error of mean (σm):
4. Standard error of single observation:
5. Most probable error:
6. Most probable error of mean
7. Maximum error:
emax = ± 3.29σ
Weight
Weights are assigned as an inverse proportion to variance or square of standard deviation.
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Indices of precision of Observations of different weights
Standard deviation of weighted observations
Standard error of mean of weighted observations
Standard error of single observation of weight (wi)
Most probable error of single observation of weight (wi)
Law of propagation of error
Case 1: A = x + y + z
Case 2: A = xyz
Case 3: A = Kxn
Case 4: A = x ± K
eA = ± e x
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Curves
Tangent Length:
Length of the curve:
Apex Distance:
Mid-Ordinate Distance:
Long Chord:
Chainage of Point of Curvature:
Degree of Curve:
For 30 metres chain:
For 20 metres chain:
Here,
R = Radius of curve in meter.
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Setting Out a Curve
Radial Offset Method
In this method, radial offsets are taken at regular intervals as shown below:
Offset from Chord Produced Method
And
Here,
l = Total number of chords formed and hence, l denotes the last chord formed.
Rankine’s Method (Deflection angle method)
Here also, Cn ≯ R/20.
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Photogrametry & Remote Sensing
Isocenter (I): - It is point where angle bisector of angle of fill intersect the photograph.
Angle of swing: - It is a clockwise Angle measured from +ve y-axis up to Nadir point.
Angle of Rotation = Angle of swing – 180°
Scale of vertical photograph: -
Case 1 - On Flat Ground:
Case 2 - On Variable Terrain:
Case 3 - Datum Scale:
Ground coordinates:
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Relief Displacement
d = r – r0
r → distance of top of image from principle point.
Photographic Overlap
Number of Photographs:
N = N1 × N2
Where,
N1 = Number of photographs in the direction of height line.
N2 = number of height lines.
Time interval between exposure: -
Global Positioning System
24 satellites is required to cover the entire Earth.
For stationary objects minimum, 3 satellites are required.
For moving objects minimum, 4 satellites are required.
Electro-Magnetic Radiation Spectrum (EMR):
Type of Radiation Frequency Range (Hz) Wavelength Range
Gamma-rays 1020 - 1024 < 10 - 12 m
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x-rays 1017- 1020 1 nm - 1 pm
ultraviolet 1015 - 1017 400 nm - 1 nm
visible 4 × 1014 - 7.5 ×1014 750 nm - 400 nm
near-infrared 1 × 1014 - 4 × 1014 2.5 μm - 750 nm
infrared 1013 - 1014 25 μm - 2.5 μm
microwaves 3 × 1011- 1013 1 mm - 25 μm
radio waves < 3 × 1011 > 1 mm
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