4- BE '¥i
'
a.
Physics s
P R A C T l C A L
DP 1 SE !! !
o
stopwatch Idp 8 UNITS
o angle to 10 @ whole no . ! A SF
o voltmeter 1 Ammeter I smallest division 8 Range : 50% Vt instrument !
o measuring cylinder I smallest division 800ns tant → need units .
o thermometer 0.0 10.5 @ do intermediate steps
→
o Ruler ( metre -
rule ) 0.1 eg X -
Y AP (x -
Y)
-
= -
70 70
vernier caliper (Max 15cm ) 0.01cm
1st
o
: =
0.1mm
.
micrometer screw gauge
-
o O -
01mm -
( MAX : 2.5cm )
o electronic balance 0.19
0.019
precautions
① ②
u precaution = action taken t reason stated
* have taken air
taking
eg l : taking readings from measuring iyiinaen egg : a readings on
metre once
① → guiton
of water meniscus is read @ eye level → ensure ! look down perpendicularly to the
② → prevent para Ilex ervvor tale of the metre une
eg z : taking ammeter reading → prevent pavaciex errors .
audits
image line
① → ensure ammeter pointer
.
are in
with each other
② → prevent para flex error
zero error con ammeter ,
eg 3 :
→ ammeter was checked to have a zero error
of T O .
10A
→ subsequent readings taken had 0.10A
Subtracted away
human reaction time : O -
3 -
0.5 S
PRECAUTIONS
vernier caliper
o ( neck for zero error ann deduct zero error from subsequent readings
are vernier scale
o maintain tiant grip on the apparatus and ensure locking mechanisms tightened ,
so that # Will not move
or
a
when readings are taken improving the aim vary of readings
,
Micro meter seven gauge
o ( same as V. L . I
turning
'
o tighten the a Vip by tightening the ratchet only .
Stop Vertue + when clicking
'
sound it
produced to prevent over -
Tightening
pendulum
the
o ensure angle of oscillations kept small to minimizeeffect of air resistance on pendulum bob
o ensure pendulum bus is set into motion first . When oscillations are stable ,
then star t stopwatch
o ensure that pendulum bob is oscillating in an elliptical plane
newton metre reset zero error
← O
o check for zero error & check the state of
thermometer spring !
o when taking readings ,
ensure that eye level is at the mercury meniscus
to prevent para Ilex environ
o ensure entire bulb of thermometer is submerged in the liquid to ensure reading
is aim rate and not lunching sides of container .
o ( not lian ins ) , before taking vending of temperature of liquid ,
use
thoroughly auilkly
stirrer lalnss von to stir
Hanina to ensure heat is evenly distributed
circuit
readings heating in wives , which
o when are not taken open switch to prevent
,
can affect resistance of circuit
o ensure connections are secured properly to ensure there is no undesirable
contact resistance across these connections
* Voltmeter Unmelted last !
Light experiments
a) Optical ping
o optical pins placed vertically upright to reduce error in alignment
o optical pins must be placed as far away from each other ( at least 6cm ) to improve
accuracy
b) lens
along a line
o object and image distance must be measured a parallel to the principal axis
illuminated
o object must be aligned with the optical centre of lens
on vertical screen
^
o lens cannot be tilted It to suvtule ) as image produce
9am ight not be sharp
o lens must be perpendicular to path Of light .
o move lens back and forth a few
-
times to examine sharpness of image
graph ! f.
measured !
A dependent variable Innit
o read to an accuracy within tot
" " " " "" " "" " " " "
" " " ""
X ④ - anomalous
data changed
- ,
independent
variable innit
tables
\ ) )
average
→
to " W " West St : )
CONCLUSIONS at cm
1- t #
n n
^
a)
b)
- - - -
10,0 ) tis
d
pv varies linearly with IV DV is directly proportional a) ndecveases
o o as t increases
→ with tve gradient to IV at a decreasing rate -
deco
eg if Ohm 's law b) a increases with t at a
,
since pd across x is directly pro -
reusing rate
portion al to current flowing through X, C ) A increases with t at an
X is an ohmic conductor increasing rate
ERROR 101
o random error : caused when reading on instrument is
estimated
→ repeat t take average
o systematic error : cause readings to consistently deviate
→ identity error leg . environmental factors , zero errors )
identifying error -
suggesting improvements
| /
resistance
1) error o action eg . use wire with no Kinks
a
, , explain o explain → mis wi , , lead to move accurate measurement
[Link] of length
l 9 % error due to human reaction time is to
y
,
Pendulum
● Error due to human reaction time
○ Repeat twice and calculate average
● The center of the pendulum bob can only be estimated, causing the length of pendulum
measured to be inaccurate
○ Place eye close to the bob at the same level as the center of the bob to avoid
parallax error
09 nu of oscillations
● Angle of release is too large, oscillations are not regular
.
.
has a ninh percentage
ever or
○ Ensure angle of release is small to ensure smaller angle of oscillation and that
T oscillations are in an elliptical plane
● Increase the number of oscillations (instead of 3, do 20) — max 20!
Heat experiment
● Heat is lost when metal block is transferred from the beaker of hot water to the beaker of
tap water
● Heat is lost from styrofoam cup via conduction and convection (or heat is gained from
surroundings)
Light experiment
Optical pins
● Holes made my pins are rather big, leading to the construction of emergent and incident
ray to be inaccurate
● The pin (no.) cannot be placed exactly at the edge of the block due to the thickness of
the pin.
Lens
● There exists a range of v (length in front of lens) that a clear image can be formed,
leading to uncertainties when measuring focal length
● Object might not be aligned to the center of the lens leading to the focal length
measured not being the principal focal length
● Large images are not sharp. This causes the value of v measured to be inaccurate
19 for ruler Moments
may not be at
40cm mark ● Mass provided may not have an exact mass of 50g or 100g, causing the clockwise or
i n
µ anti-clockwise moment calculated to be inaccurate.
pivot point leg
)
● The center of gravity of the mass provided is estimated, causing inaccuracies in the
readings for distances
Electricity experiments
R ● Wire becomes hot after awhile, affecting the resistance in the circuit.
● Kinks in the wire causes the actual length of wire to be longer than the measured length
r -
elf) L
A ● Cross-sectional area is not uniform, readings taken at each point does not reflect the
actual reading
● Contact of jockey is not consistent, causing variations in readings of V
● Fluctuations in the pointer causes reading to be inaccurate
● Heating effect in wires changing resistance of R
,
, : .
affecting value of V
source of inaccuracy
eg density ( measuring cylinders
o some water lust during transfer of clay
0 Wood LCUVK ) absorbs some water
✓ measuring cylinder is less alwivute I only when comparing calculated and measured value )
:
O
Qu DX of retraction
RANDOM NOTES
"
deci d 10
-
2
( enti c lo
3
O
-
Milli M (
'
O' put key into switch .
