SS symmetry

Review
Frequency Up-Conversion for Vibration Energy Harvesting:
A Review
Xin Li 1,2 , Guobiao Hu 2 , Zhenkun Guo 3 , Junlei Wang 4 , Yaowen Yang 2, * and Junrui Liang 1, *

1 School of Information Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China;
lixin1@[Link]
2 School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Nanyang Technological University,
Singapore 639798, Singapore; [Link]@[Link]
3 College of Mechanical Engineering, Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture,
Beijing 100044, China; guozhenkun@[Link]
4 School of Mechanical and Power Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China;
jlwang@[Link]
* Correspondence: cywyang@[Link] (Y.Y.); liangjr@[Link] (J.L.)

Abstract: A considerable amount of ambient vibration energy spreads over an ultra-low frequency
spectrum. However, conventional resonant-type linear energy harvesters usually operate within high
and narrow frequency bands, which cannot match the frequencies of many vibration sources. If the
excitation frequency deviates a bit from the natural frequency of an energy harvester, the energy
harvesting performance will deteriorate drastically. Because of the ultra-low frequency characteristic,
it is challenging to reliably harvest energy from the ambient vibrations. To address this mismatching
issue, the ultra-low frequency ambient vibrations are converted into high-frequency oscillations using
certain mechanical mechanisms, which are termed frequency up-conversion techniques. This paper
reviews the existing approaches that can realize frequency up-conversion for enhancing energy har-



vesting from low-frequency vibration sources. According to their working mechanisms, the existing


methods are classified into three categories: impact-based, plucking-based, and snap-through-based
Citation: Li, X.; Hu, G.; Guo, Z.;
approaches. The working principles of the three approaches are explained in detail. Represen-
Wang, J.; Yang, Y.; Liang, J. Frequency
Up-Conversion for Vibration Energy
tative designs from all categories are reviewed. This overview on the state-of-the-art frequency
Harvesting: A Review. Symmetry up-conversion technology would guide the better design of future kinetic energy harvesting systems.
2022, 14, 631. [Link]
10.3390/sym14030631 Keywords: energy harvesting; frequency up-conversion; impact; plucking; snap-through

Academic Editor: Edwin

Charles Constable

Received: 16 January 2022 1. Introduction

Accepted: 14 March 2022 Recent advances in perpetual sensing and pervasive computing systems put forward
Published: 21 March 2022
an urgent demand for getting rid of chemical batteries, which are not environmentally
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral friendly and need to be recharged or replaced frequently [1]. Energy harvesting technology
with regard to jurisdictional claims in renders a solution of powering small electronics by harnessing energy from ambient energy
published maps and institutional affil- sources, such as solar [2], radio frequency (RF) [3], thermal [4], and vibration [5,6]. The
iations. rapid development of micro-electronic and micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS) has
dramatically reduced the power supply demand. For example, the power consumption of
some up-to-date embedded micro-controllers in ultra-low-power mode has been reduced
to about 30–250 nW [7,8]. Therefore, employing energy harvesting technology to provide a
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors. sustainable power supply has become possible in a wide range of applications, including
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
wireless remote sensors for structural health monitoring [9], implanted sensors for medical
This article is an open access article
devices, etc.
distributed under the terms and
Kinetic energy is one of the most ubiquitous energy sources [10,11], existing in various
conditions of the Creative Commons
forms in the ambient environment, including human activities (walking, running, finger
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
tapping, heartbeat, and breathing), structural vibrations (industrial machinery, bridges, and
[Link]/licenses/by/
4.0/).
transport vehicles); and fluid flows (wind, water, and ocean). Therefore, the development

Symmetry 2022, 14, 631. [Link] [Link]

Symmetry 2022, 14, 631 2 of 16

of vibration energy harvesting systems has attracted immense research interest in recent
years [12–18]. The development of an energy harvesting system requires domain knowl-
edge across different disciplines, including mechanical engineering, electrical engineering,
computer engineering, and material science. Therefore, to improve the performance of an
energy harvesting system, sophisticated designs are often seen by considering issues from
either the mechanical or electrical perspective, or both in some cases. To be more specific, on
the one hand, using innovative mechanical structures can enhance the power output [19],
and introducing nonlinear behaviours can widen the operation bandwidth [20–22]. On
the other hand, utilizing advanced interface circuits, such as the synchronized switch
harvesting on inductor (SSHI) [23] or synchronous electric charge extraction (SECE) [24]
interface circuits, the output power can be increased by 300–400% [25], compared with the
case using the bridge rectifier standard energy harvesting (SEH) circuit [26].
These techniques have been well studied to date in the literature. There have been
many example applications of using energy harvesting technology in powering various
electronic devices. Energy conversion efficiency and operation bandwidth are the two main
concerns in the design of any energy harvesting system. The operation bandwidths are
normally in the relatively high-frequency range for most existing energy harvesters de-
signed based on various transduction mechanisms, including piezoelectric, electromagnetic,
triboelectric, etc. From the general mathematical formula of a typical energy harvester, it is
learned that the maximum power of an energy harvester is proportional to the cube of the
vibration frequency and drops dramatically at low frequencies [27]. When the excitation
frequency deviates even a bit from the natural frequency of the energy harvester, the energy
harvesting performance will deteriorate drastically. According to the literature, researchers
have devoted numerous efforts to finding proper solutions addressing the aforementioned
two issues. However, besides the above two concerns, in real-world application scenar-
ios, most ambient vibration energies spread over an ultra-low frequency spectrum. For
example, human gait motion is at around 1 Hz and wave heave motion is lower than
1 Hz. Therefore, the ultra-low frequency feature poses another issue to restrict the wide
application of energy harvesters in practical circumstances [28–30]. The ultra-low frequency
feature of most practical scenarios makes it challenging to achieve frequency matching
for realizing optimal energy harvesting. The straightforward idea is to use frequency
up-conversion mechanisms that are devised to address the above issue. In other words,
when the external excitation frequency is quite low, e.g., at a few Hertz, a certain frequency
up-conversion mechanism should be utilized to convert the low-frequency excitation into
the high-frequency oscillation of the energy harvester. In this manner, the energy harvester
could vibrate at its resonant state and produces desirable power output.
Although several articles have reviewed various topics of vibration energy harvesting
from different aspects [9,10,28,31–38], attention has been paid on collecting and summa-
rizing various broadband and power-boosting techniques. Only a recent comprehensive
review has been conducted to focus on frequency up-conversion mechanisms for energy
harvesting [39]. This article aims to provide a comprehensive overview of existing fre-
quency up-conversion techniques for ultra-low frequency vibration energy harvesting.
Moreover, according to the principles of frequency up-conversion mechanisms, the exist-
ing approaches are mainly classified into three categories, namely, impact, plucking, and
snap-through-based energy harvesters. Representative designs and applications from all
categories are discussed.

2. Energy Conversion Mechanisms

Vibration energy harvesters can be classified into three main categories depending on
their energy transduction mechanisms, namely, electromagnetic [40,41], electrostatic [42,43],
and piezoelectric [44,45] types.
Symmetry 2022, 14, 631 3 of 16

2.1. Piezoelectric Transduction

The piezoelectric transduction mechanism is based on the piezoelectric effect, which is
the capability of certain materials to generate an electric charge on the surfaces in response
to applied mechanical stress [46]. Piezoelectric transducers have the advantages of high-
power density and ease of implementation, thus they are widely used for energy harvesting.
Moreover, piezoelectric devices could be miniaturized and easily integrated with MEMS
technology in a compact form. Therefore, piezoelectric transduction is a suitable choice to
meet the miniaturization requirements of future self-powered devices.

2.2. Electromagnetic Transduction

The electromagnetic transduction mechanism refers to Faraday’s law of induction:
a voltage difference, sometimes called electromotive force, will be induced in a coil due
to any change in the magnetic flux in which the coil is placed. Conventional power
plants often realize this transduction mechanism for producing large-scale electricity. The
difference is that the generators of power plants are driven by huge heat engines; while
small-scale electromagnetic energy harvesters are driven by small ambient vibrations [41].
Electromagnetic vibration energy harvesters are suitable for scenarios where a relatively
large amount of power is required. However, a major disadvantage of electromagnetic
transduction is that the dimensions of the energy harvester assembly are usually large
because of the need for different parts, such as coils and magnets.

2.3. Electrostatic Transduction

The electrostatic transduction mechanism [43,47] could be understood through retro-
spection of the working principle of a parallel-plate capacitor. In a parallel-plate capacitor,
its capacitance is proportional to the surface area of the conductor plates and inversely
proportional to the separation distance between the plates. On the other hand, capacitance
is the ratio of the change in electric charge on the conductor plates over the corresponding
change in the electric potential. When the external excitation drives one of the conduc-
tor plates to vibrate, the separation distance between the plates would periodically vary.
Therefore, if the capacitor is pre-charged with a constrained voltage, the variation of the
separation distance between the conductor plates would lead to the generation of currents
in the circuit shunted to the parallel-plate capacitor. Instead of pre-charging the elec-
tret materials, we can realize triboelectric energy harvesting by coupling the triboelectric
effect and electrostatic induction [48]. Since triboelectric nanogenerators cannot realize
energy transduction without electrostatic induction, they can also be deemed to belong to
this category.

3. Frequency Up-Conversion Principles

As well-known, a typical linear energy harvester produces a substantial power output
only around its natural frequency. However, ambient vibration energy usually spreads
over a low-frequency spectrum. To address this challenge, efforts have been devoted to
developing mechanical structures with low resonant frequencies for energy harvesting [49].
In general, there is still a limited number of low-frequency designs due to the challenge of
space and size restrictions. Moreover, the aforementioned designs all belong to linear type
energy harvesters that have narrow operating bandwidths. Instead of pursuing frequency
matching, another idea is to achieve frequency up-conversion, i.e., to convert low-frequency
vibrations into high-frequency oscillations. To this end, various means have been proposed
in the literature, which can be mainly classified into the following three categories, as
listed in Table 1. More detailed introductions of these means will be presented in the
following sections.
Symmetry 2022, 14, 631 4 of 16

Table 1. Classification of frequency up-conversion mechanisms. The orange-colored blocks denote

piezoelectric transducers. The black slender blocks denote elastic beams. The dichromatic square
blocks denote magnets. To facilitate the graphical illustration, only piezoelectric transduction-based
designs are selected.

Frequency Representative
Mechanisms Methodologies References Applications * Features
Ranges Designs

• Small-scale wind • Simple

Yang et al. [50]
Mechanical • MEMS • Unstable
Impact 1–50 Hz Halim et al. [51]
impact • Human-limb motion • Random output
Halim et al. [52]
• Risk of fracture

• Wind flow
Priya et al. [53]
Mechanical • Knee-joint motion
10–50 Hz Pozzi et al. [54]
plucking • Pavement
Tan et al. [55] • Compact
harvesting
Plucking • Robust
Zhao et al. [56] • Windmill • Miniaturizable
Magnetic Kulah et al. [57] • MEMS • Risk of fracture
10–100 Hz
plucking Fan et al. [58] • Human-limb motion
Kuang et al. [59] • Knee-joint motion

• Miniaturizable
• Random vibration • Large output
Snap-through 1–30 Hz Ando et al. [60]
• Minimum excitation
requirement

* The applications indicate the applications in the references, rather than the only application scenarios of the
methods in those categories.

3.1. Impact-Based Approach

A typical scenario where an impact phenomenon often occurs is a weight falling and
striking a target object. During the falling period, with the increase of the falling speed,
the gravitational potential energy of the weight is converted into kinetic energy. When
impact occurs, the kinetic energy will be transferred to the targeted object in a short instant.
Based on this mechanism, if the targeted object is designed as an energy harvester, it will
be deformed in a short instant, and some initial energy is stored because of the impact.
After the impact is released, the energy harvester starts to undergo an underdamped free
oscillation at its natural frequency.

3.2. Plucking-Based Approach

As explained above, in the impact-based approach, the initial kinetic energy is injected
by the impacts. After releasing, the energy harvester starts oscillation with an initial velocity.
On the other hand, the plucking-based approach has a different mechanism. Plucking
refers to the action of pulling an energy harvester forcibly away from its equilibrium by an
external force. The external force can be applied through mechanical contact or magnetic
coupling. According to the different forms of the applied external force, the plucking-based
approach can be further classified into two sub-categories: the former is referred to as
the mechanical plucking-based approach and the latter as the magnetic plucking-based
approach [61]. In the plucking design, the plucker bends the structure, so as to input some
initial potential energy to the energy harvester structure. After the plucker is released, the
energy harvester starts to undergo an underdamped free oscillation at its natural frequency
with an initial displacement.

3.3. Snap-Through-Based Approach

Snap-through is a nonlinear phenomenon that can be observed in a bistable system
and refers to the action when a bistable system snaps from one stable state to the other. The
snap-through phenomenon often occurs along with a large-amplitude inter-well oscillation.
As the power output of an energy harvester is normally proportional to the maximum
displacement, the large-amplitude inter-well oscillation can significantly improve the en-
ergy harvesting performance. Since lots of typical vibration energy harvesters are designed
Symmetry 2022, 14, 631 5 of 16

based on beam structures, and a post-buckled beam is convenient for the implementation
of a bistable system, buckled piezoelectric beams with snap-through behaviours have been
widely explored for vibration energy harvesting.

4. Impact-Based Energy Harvesters

The working principle of mechanical impact-based energy harvester is shown in
Figure 1a. Firstly, the rigid ball is allowed to fall freely onto the centre of the clamped
beam under the effect of gravity. After the collision, the kinetic energy of the rigid ball
is transferred to the beam. As the sum of all momentums is conserved during collisions,
the velocity of the beam becomes non-zero, and the beam starts to vibrate with an initial
velocity. Due to the piezoelectric effect, the piezoelectric patch attached to the beam
generates voltage output. Umeda et al. [62] developed an electrical equivalent model of
this system to analyse the relationship between the input mechanical impact energy and
the output electric energy. Later on, researchers designed various configurations based on
the mechanical impact-based structures [52,63–66].

Figure 1. Mechanical impact-based energy harvesters. (a) The principle of mechanical impact [62].
(b) A mechanical impact-driven piezoelectric energy harvester [51]. (c) An impact-induced rotational
piezoelectric wind energy harvester [50].

Figure 1b demonstrates a mechanical impact-based frequency up-conversion broad-

band piezoelectric energy harvester designed by Halim et al. [51,67]. A low-frequency
driven beam with a horizontally extended tip mass simultaneously struck two high-
frequency piezoelectric generator beams during its vibration. Hence, high-frequency
voltage outputs were generated by the two piezoelectric beams. By utilizing impact-
induced resonance, Yang et al. [50] proposed a small-scale energy harvester that could
harness energy from winds. As shown in Figure 1c, when the wind drove the device to
rotate, the ball struck the piezoelectric cantilevers; thus, electricity was generated by the
piezoelectric transducers. The design enabled each bimorph to be struck in a similar area,
but at different moments. It was proved that a relatively stable output frequency could be
obtained by the proposed system.
Symmetry 2022, 14, 631 6 of 16

5. Plucking-Based Energy Harvesters

5.1. Mechanical Plucking
Rotational vibration energy harvesting has received extensive attention in recent years.
Priya [53] designed a piezoelectric windmill consisted ten piezoelectric bimorphs, as shown
in Figure 2a. The structure and framework of the piezoelectric windmill are similar to
that of a conventional windmill, except the blades are made of piezoelectric materials.
The piezoelectric blades oscillate to produce electricity as the wind flows through the
windmill. Janphuang et al. [68] proposed a piezoelectric microelectromechanical system
(MEMS) harvester. It consisted of an atomic force microscope-like piezoelectric cantilever
and a rotating gear with a series of teeth. During the rotation of the gear, the piezoelectric
cantilever was plucked by the teeth of the gear. Thus, voltage output was consequently
produced. A geometrically nonlinear plucking-based framework to achieve frequency
up-conversion for piezoelectric energy harvesting is presented in [69]. Fang et al. [70]
designed a music-box-like extended rotational plucking energy harvester with multiple
piezoelectric cantilevers, as shown in Figure 2b. Fu et al. [71] proposed a theoretical model
of a plucking piezoelectric energy harvester by using Hertzian contact theory to describe
the involved impact. In order to convert the impulsive excitation to the plucking force
for helping the harvester jump to the high-energy orbit, Fang et al. [72] also proposed an
asymmetric plucking-based bistable energy harvester with a rotary structure and plectrum.

Figure 2. Mechanical plucking-based energy harvesters. (a) A piezoelectric windmill harvester [53].
(b) A music-box-like extended rotational plucking energy harvester [68]. (c) A knee-joint energy
harvester [54]. (d) A double-frequency up-conversion harvester for gathering ultra-low-frequency
human walking in public squares [55].

Given the rapid development of smart wearables and IoT devices, harnessing energy
from human motions shows great potential in replacing traditional batteries and providing
sustainable energy. This idea has attracted lots of interest from academic and industrial
communities [73]. According to the research, the peak power stored in walking motion
can be up to 275 W [74]. Various on-body and off-body type energy harvesters have been
developed for human motion energy harvesting. Figure 2c shows a knee-joint piezoelectric
harvester [54,75,76], which was designed to harvest the kinetic energy from knee-joint
motion. It was worn on the outer side of the knee and fixed by braces and comprised a
hub that carried a series of bimorphs. The ring-mounted plectra plucked the bimorphs as
Symmetry 2022, 14, 631 7 of 16

the joint rotated during walking. On-body type energy harvesters are fixed around the
knees or shoes and affect normal human motion to some extent. Unlike them, off-body
type energy harvesters do not influence human movement and show a greater potential for
practical application. Tan et al. [55] proposed a double-frequency up-conversion harvester
for gathering ultra-low-frequency human walking in public squares. Figure 2d shows that
the harvester is mainly composed of a gear rack and a multi-leaf cam. The rack acts as the
first frequency up-conversion mechanism for low-frequency walking. The multi-leaf cam
carries out the second frequency up-conversion operation. After the two-stage conversion,
the low-frequency input signal from walking is significantly increased.
Liu et al. [77,78] proposed a piezoelectric energy harvester with a wide operating
frequency range by incorporating a high-frequency piezoelectric cantilever, a low-frequency
piezoelectric cantilever, and a metal base as the bottom stopper. Figure 3a illustrates
that frequency up-conversion of the energy harvester is realized when the low-frequency
piezoelectric cantilever scrapes through the high-frequency piezoelectric cantilever. The
advantages of the proposed harvesters include: restricting the large displacement of the
compliant driving beam, improving the power density, and being especially suitable for a
compact MEMS device, as shown in Figure 3b [78]. Gu et al. [79,80] also designed a similar
impact-driven vibration energy harvester that consisted of a compliant driving beam and
two rigid generating beams.

Figure 3. Impact plucking-based harvesters. (a) The operating mechanism of the proposed scrape-
through piezoelectric energy harvester [77]. (b) Schematic drawing of MEMS harvester system and
fabricated cantilevers [78]. (c) An impact-driven wave energy harvester [81].

Figure 3c presents an impact-driven harvester designed by Lin et al. [81] for wave
energy harvesting. It is constituted by a cylindrical buoy, a series of beams, and a shaft
sleeve with teeth. The device could adapt a conventional harvester that operates at a
frequency higher than hundred hertz to capture the energy from the slow (frequency ~
0.1 Hz) wave motion. The authors also established a mathematical model to describe and
predict the dynamics of the proposed harvester. More relevant studies can refer to these
further studies [82–84].
Symmetry 2022, 14, 631 8 of 16

5.2. Magnetic Plucking

Figure 4a,b, respectively, show the schematic and the prototype of a MEMS-based mag-
netic plucking vibration energy harvester [57,85]. Low-frequency ambient vibrations were
converted to higher frequency oscillations through a mechanical frequency up-converter.
The diaphragm with a magnetic had a low natural frequency that matched the ambient
excitation frequency. A series of Parylene cantilevers with high resonant frequencies were
installed beneath the diaphragm. During the vibration of the diaphragm, the attached
magnet pulled the Parylene cantilevers up to a certain position, then released them at
another position. After being released, the cantilevers started to vibrate at their resonant
frequencies. Coils were located on the top surface of the cantilevers. Currents were induced
in the coils during the vibration. Since the oscillating frequencies of the cantilevers were
high, the energy conversion efficiency was increased. Galchev et al. [86,87] designed a
parametric frequency-increased generator, as shown in Figure 4c. A large inertial mass
harnessed the kinetic energy from the ambient vibration and transferred a portion of the
energy to two frequency-increased generators through magnetic force coupling. The two
generators converted the kinetic energy into electrical energy via either electromagnetic
induction [86] or piezoelectric transduction [87].

Figure 4. Magnetic plucking-based micro-scale harvesters. (a) 3D view of the MEMS-based electro-
magnetic vibration-to-electrical power generator [57]. (b) Components of the micro-generator [85].
(c) Illustration of the method of magnetic plucking operation [86].

Wind energy is widely available in nature. Recent research has shown that it is also an
ideal renewable energy source for energy harvesting [88,89]. Unlike wind farms with giant
dimensions, wind energy harvesters are expected to be miniaturized and only produce
small-scale power outputs for low-power-consumption electronics [90]. Piezoelectric
transducers are more efficient than electromagnetic transduction at small scales [91], and
piezoelectric wind energy harvesters can efficiently capture wind energy at low and variable
wind speeds [92]. Karami et al. [93] proposed a novel piezoelectric energy harvester, as
shown in Figure 5a. The rotation of the blades could induce the large oscillations of
piezoelectric beams. The magnetic force applied on the piezoelectric beams depended
on the relative distance between the piezoelectric beams and the magnets on the rotating
blades. During rotation, the parameters in the governing equations of the piezoelectric
beams varied. Thus, the piezoelectric beams were parametrically excited. Figure 5b presents
a piezoelectric windmill for harvesting wind energy from low-speed air flows [94,95]. Its
Symmetry 2022, 14, 631 9 of 16

cut-in wind speed was as low as about 1 m/s, and the robustness could be maintained
under high-speed winds up to 20 m/s. Fu et al. [96] designed a turbine-like piezoelectric
energy harvester with self-regulation ability. The plucking mechanism was implemented
by setting up a magnetic coupling between the magnets installed on the turbine rotor and a
piezoelectric beam. The magnetic coupling could be self-regulated, and the harvester could
produce considerable output over a broad wind speed range. Figure 5c shows the hybrid
water-proof wind energy harvester designed by Zhao et al. [56]. The rotational motion
of the blades could drive the separately installed piezoelectric beams to vibrate through
magnetic coupling. A force amplification structure was adopted to enhance the energy
conversion efficiency. More relevant studies can be found in [97–99].

Figure 5. Magnetic plucking-based wind energy harvesters. (a) A bistable structure wind energy
harvester [93]. (b) A micro-power wind energy harvester from low-speed air flows [94]. (c) A
water-proof hybrid wind energy harvester [56].

Magnetic plucking mechanisms have also been widely employed for harvesting energy
from low-frequency human motions [100,101]. Pillatsch et al. [102] built a frequency up-
converting energy harvester, as shown in Figure 6a, to collect energy from human bodies.
It consisted of an eccentric proof mass that carried a magnet and a piezoelectric beam.
When the proof mass swung and the magnet passed by the tip of the piezoelectric beam,
the piezoelectric beam deflected under the magnetic force. After the magnet passed over,
the deflected piezoelectric beam started to vibrate around its natural frequency. The
energy conversion efficiency of this frequency up-converting energy harvester was then
further improved by using synchronous switch harvesting circuits and bistable mechanical
structures [103–107]. Figure 6b shows an energy harvester for harnessing energy from knee-
joint motions through a magnetic plucking mechanism [59,108]. Magnetic plucking avoided
direct contact between the piezoelectric beam and the plectrum, thus increasing the service
life and reducing the noise. Figure 6c demonstrates an impulse-excited energy harvester
for collecting energy from human bodies [109]. A cylindrical proof mass actuated an
array of piezoelectric beams through magnetic attracting force. After the initial excitation,
those piezoelectric beams were left to vibrate at their resonant frequencies. A similar
design was proved to be capable of harnessing energy from both sway and bi-directional
Symmetry 2022, 14, 631 10 of 16

vibrations [110]. Another similar device was developed to harvest energy from low-
frequency motions, then power a transmission circuit for wireless sensing [111].

Figure 6. Magnetic plucking-based motion harvesters. (a) A human motion energy harvester
with rotating proof mass [102]. (b) A magnetic plucking-based knee-joint energy harvester [59].
(c) An impulse-excited motion harvester [109]. (d) A 3-axial frequency-tunable piezoelectric energy-
harvester [112]. (e) A magnetic-force-configured harvester for various mechanical motions [58].

Chung et al. [112] proposed a frequency-tunable piezoelectric energy harvester, as

shown in Figure 6d. Due to the magnetic-force configuration, the harvester could convert
three-axial mechanical vibration into electrical outputs. Moreover, the frequency mis-
matching issue was addressed by the plucking mechanism. In addition, the device avoided
mechanical wear-out problems since the plucking was realized through magnetic couplings.
Fan et al. [58] also designed a similar nonlinear piezoelectric energy harvester, as shown
in Figure 6e. It was able to harvest energy from the sway motion in different directions
on the horizontal plane. Other relevant articles on the topic of magnetic plucking energy
harvesting can be found in [113,114].

6. Snap-Through Based Energy Harvesters

The working principle of snap-through can be easily understood by referring to the
lumped parameter model that consists of two inclined springs and a mass presented
in [115]. Snap-through motion occurs in a bistable structure with two equilibrium states.
The rapid transition between the two equilibrium states is referred to as the snap-through
motion. Under a large excitation, the bistable system undergoes large-amplitude intra-
well oscillation [6]. Jung et al. [116] designed a snap-through-based piezoelectric energy
harvester, as shown in Figure 7a. The bi-stability was achieved by a buckled bridge structure.
A piezoelectric beam was attached to the proof mass of the bistable system. The natural
frequency of the piezoelectric beam was higher than the buckled bridge. A single snap-
through motion generated an impulse-like excitation to the piezoelectric beam, making it
vibrate almost freely at its natural frequency. A similar energy harvester consisting of a
buckled bridge and an attached piezoelectric beam was built and investigated by Speciale
et al. [117]. Instead of attaching the piezoelectric beam to the proof mass of the bistable
structure, Ando et al. [60] placed the piezoelectric beam at the lateral sides of the proof
mass, as shown in Figure 7b. When the bistable system snapped from one equilibrium
state to the other, the proof mass rapidly crashed on the lateral piezoelectric beam. The
Symmetry 2022, 14, 631 11 of 16

impact was converted to the free vibration of the lateral piezoelectric beam, thus producing
an electrical output. The above work all employed piezoelectric transductions. Panigrahi
et al. [118] developed a frequency un-conversion electromagnetic harvester based on the
snap-through mechanism. Figure 7c demonstrates the schematic of the electromagnetic
harvester. The bi-stability was formed by the combination of the linear spring and the
magnets. The magnet also played the role of inducing the current in the coil during the
vibration. The experimental result demonstrated that the response frequency could be
increased more than 25 folds due to the employment of the snap-through mechanism. More
related work using similar design strategies, as introduced above, can be found in [119–121].
It is worth noting that the snap-through phenomenon itself does not realize frequency
up-conversion. The snap-through phenomena are designed to be induced by low-frequency
vibrations for producing impulse-like large-amplitude excitations. Harvesters with high
resonant frequencies are attached to or placed near the snap-through systems for harnessing
impulse-like excitations.

Figure 7. Snap through-based vibration energy harvesters. (a) A snap-through-based piezoelectric

energy harvester [115]. (b) A frequency up-converting energy harvester based on snap-through and
impact [60]. (c) A frequency un-conversion electromagnetic harvester based on the snap-through
mechanism [116].

7. Conclusions
This paper has presented a review on the state-of-the-art frequency up-conversion
mechanisms for energy harvesting and the corresponding designs under low-frequency
vibration excitations. The existing frequency up-conversion approaches have been classified
into three categories according to their working principles.
The first approach, impact-based frequency up-conversion, is realized by instanta-
neously pre-charging an energy harvester with initial kinetic energy then releasing it for
free vibration at its natural frequency with an initial velocity. The kinetic energy transfer
is completed during the impact in a relatively short time. The second approach is often
referred to as plucking. The plucking-based approach pre-charges an energy harvester with
initial potential energy. Plucking refers to the action of pulling an energy harvester forcibly
away from its equilibrium by an external force. The potential energy of the harvester is
increased during the plucking process. After releasing, it induces a free vibration at the
natural frequency with an initial displacement. The third approach is based on the snap-
through phenomenon of a bistable system. The snap-through motion refers to the rapid
transition between the two equilibrium states of the bistable system. Usually, a piezoelectric
beam with a high natural frequency is attached to or placed near the bistable system. Under
a low-frequency excitation, the snap-through motion can generate impulse-like excitation to
Symmetry 2022, 14, 631 12 of 16

the piezoelectric beam. Thus, it can vibrate almost freely at its natural frequency, converting
the low-frequency ambient excitation to high-frequency voltage outputs.
Most existing researches that adopted the above three approaches have been summa-
rized and discussed. The plucking-based approach is the most widely employed method
for energy harvesting from low-frequency vibrations. It is envisioned that researchers
in this field can be inspired by this literature review and develop novel frequency up-
conversion approaches or innovative energy harvesting systems based on the techniques
reviewed in this article. Furthermore, hybrid design has become a new research trend in
recent years. It is expected that more innovative designs can be proposed by combining
different transduction mechanisms and frequency up-conversion principles to improve
energy harvesting performance further.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, X.L., G.H., Z.G., J.W., Y.Y. and J.L.; methodology, X.L.,
G.H., Z.G., J.W., Y.Y. and J.L.; software, X.L., G.H., Z.G., J.W., Y.Y. and J.L.; validation, X.L., G.H., Z.G.,
J.W., Y.Y. and J.L.; formal analysis, X.L., G.H., Z.G., J.W., Y.Y. and J.L.; investigation, X.L., G.H., Z.G.,
J.W., Y.Y. and J.L.; resource, X.L., G.H., Z.G., J.W., Y.Y. and J.L.; data curation, X.L., G.H., Z.G., J.W.,
Y.Y. and J.L.; writing—original draft preparation, X.L., G.H., Z.G., J.W., Y.Y. and J.L.; writing—review
and editing, X.L., G.H., Z.G., J.W., Y.Y. and J.L.; visualization, X.L., G.H., Z.G., J.W., Y.Y. and J.L.;
supervision, X.L., G.H., Z.G., J.W., Y.Y. and J.L.; All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was supported in part by the Natural Science Foundation of Shanghai under
Grant 21ZR1442300; in part by Natural Science Foundation of China under Grant U21B2002, and
in part by the International Innovation Cooperation Project granted by the Science & Technology
Department of Sichuan Province (grant number 2020YFH0066).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available within the article.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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