Introduction to Flow Cytometry
presented by:
Flow Cytometry Core Facility
Biomedical Instrumentation Center
Uniformed
f d Services University
Topics Covered in this Lecture
• What is flow cytometry?
• Flow cytometer instrumentation.
• The use of fluorochromes in flow cytometry
cytometry.
• Immunophenotyping.
• Compensation
Compensation.
• Data analysis and gating.
• Clinical applications.
applications
• Research applications.
• E
Example l off an experiment
i t using
i flow
fl cytometry.
t t
Flow Cytometry--
y y
a.k.a. FACS
• Flow cytometry is a technique used to measure
the physical and chemical properties of cells or
cellular components.
• Cells are measured individually,
individually but in large
numbers.
• Synonymous with FACS (fluorescence-activated
(fluorescence activated
cell sorter).
• Also, simply referred to as “Flow.”
Flow.
“Seeing” Cells
• Microscopists visualize cells
based on their morphology and
staining characteristics.
• Flow cytometrists measure
cells based on similar
characteristics.
• Hence,, using g flow
cytometry, a cell can be “seen”
both qualitatively and
quantitatively.
tit ti l
[Link]
Historically…
• In the clinical lab, mixed cell populations of the
blood were evaluated manuallyy byy microscope.p
• In the 1950’s, the Coulter counter automated cell
counting based on
Eosinophil
size.
Neutrophil
• By
B th
the 1970’
1970’s, a
method was needed
to automatically
Lymphocyte
separate living cells
Basophil
into subpopulations
p p
Monocyte
for further study.
[Link]
Historically…
• In 1960,
960, Dr. Louis
ou s Kamentsky,
a e ts y, in co
collaboration
abo at o
with IBM, developed an automated optical
scanner that scanned cell preparations on slides.
• Inferior
I f i opticali l andd computer techniques
h i at that
h
time led him to develop a fixed scanner that
detected cells, passing in single file, based on
their light scatter and absorption.
• In 1974, Dr. Leonard Herzenberg of Stanford
patented a device that sorted living cells into
collection vessels for further use in biological
analyses – the first FACS
FACS.
Neutrophil Eosinophil
Then…
Lymphocyte
Basophil
Monocyte
www users path ox ac uk
[Link]
…and
d Now.
N
Introduction to Flow Cytometry: A Learning Guide; Becton Dickinson
Flow Cytometer Instrumentation
• There are four general components of a flow
cytometer:
– Fluidics
– Optics
– Detectors
– Electronics
• Understanding g how a flow cytometer
y operates
p
is critical to the design and execution of flow
cytometry experiments.
Flow Cytometer Fluidics
• The cell sample is injected
into a stream of sheath fluid.
• Byy the laminar flow
principle, the sample remains
in the center of the sheath
fluid.
• The cells in the sample
p are
accelerated and individually
pass through a laser beam
f iinterrogation.
for t ti
[Link]
Light Scatter
• When a cell passes through the laser beam, it
deflects incident light
light.
• Forward-scattered
light (FSC) is
proportional to the
surface area or size of
a cell.
• Side-scattered
Side scattered light
(SSC) is proportional Introduction to Flow Cytometry: A Learning Guide;
to the granularity or Becton Dickinson
internal complexity of a cell.
Flow Cytometer Optics
• Light emitted from the interaction between the cell
particle and the laser beam is collected by a lens
lens.
• The light
moves through
h ha
system of optical
mirrors and
filters.
• Specified
S ifi d
wavelengths are
then routed to
optical detectors.
Fluorescence
• In modern flow cytometers, more than one laser
is focused on the sample stream.
• In this way, not only can cells be measured
based on their size and internal complexity, but
they can also be measured based on their
fluorescent signal intensity.
• Fluorescence is typically “bestowed” upon a cell
through
h h the
h use off fluorescent
fl dyes
d called
ll d
fluorochromes.
Physics of Light
• Photons of light excite electrons to a higher energy
state which then release energy as heat and light
state, light.
• Each type of fluorochrome exhibits its own Stokes
shift in this regard and emits light of a specific
wavelength.
Guide to Flow Cytometry;
DakoCytomation
Fluorochrome Emission
• The laser beam excites the fluorochrome at a
specific
p wavelength
g (absorption)
( p ) and the
fluorochrome emits light at a separate wavelength
(emission).
• Note that absorption color differs from emission
color.
Guide to Flow Cytometry; DakoCytomation
Flow Cytometer Optics
• The emission wavelength of a fluorochrome can be
optically separated from other confounding light
through the use of optical filters.
• Shortpass, longpass, and
bandpass optical filters are used
to limit each fluorochrome
emission to a desired
wavelength.
wavelength
Flow Cytometer Optics
Introduction to Flow Cytometry: A Learning Guide; Becton Dickinson
Flow Cytometer Signal Detection
• As a pparticle passes
p through
g
the laser and fluoresces, it is
detected by a photodetector
(
(PMT).)
• An electrical pulse (the
voltage pulse) is generated and
is processed by the signal
processing
i electronics
l t i off theth
flow cytometer.
Introduction to Flow Cytometry: A
Learning Guide; Becton Dickinson
Flow Cytometer Electronics
• The voltageg pulse
p
height, width, and area
are determined by the
particle’s
l ’ size, speed,
d
and fluorescence
intensity.
intensity
• The pulse parameters
are then
th acquired
i d andd
analyzed in real-time by
a computer.
computer
BD LSR II User’s Guide; Becton Dickinson
Flow Cytometer Instrumentation
Graphical
h l Summary
[Link]
In Addition…
• Some flow cytometers
can sort cells into pre-
pre
determined
subpopulations.
• An electrostatic
charge
g is used to deflect
a drop containing a
fluorescently-labeled cell
into one of three
collection vessels.
[Link]
Fluorescence-activated Cell Sorters
BD FACSVantage
BD FACSAria
Benchtop Flow Cytometers
BD FACSCalibur
BD LSR II
Flow Cell
• The flow cell is the flow
chamber where the laser
beam interrogates the
particles passing within the
sheath fluid.
• This is typically a closed
syste
system.
[Link]
Nozzle Tip
• The flow chamber inside a cell sorter interrogates
the particles
passing in air,
rather than in
sheath fluid.
• This
Thi isi
typically an
open
system.
[Link]
Differentiating Among Cell Types
• In the early days of flow cytometry
cytometry, different cell
types were identified based only on their light
scattering characteristics.
• Even though thousands of cells could be rapidly
detected, flow cytometry offered little more than
what could be achieved by cell counters and
microscopy.
• Thee introduction
t oduct o oof fluorochromes
uo oc o es intoto flow
o
cytometry converted this otherwise limited
method of cell detection into a powerful tool for
the rapid differentiation of cells.
cells
Fluorochrome-conjugated Antibodies
• Initially, fluorescent dyes commonly employed in
microscopy were used to stain whole cells.
• However, dye uptake by
cells was unreliable and led
to problems with data
reproducibility.
d ibilit
• Subsequently, antibodies
were covalently bound to
fluorochromes as a means of
specifically and reliably
[Link]
labeling cells.
Basic Immunology
• Antibodies (immunoglobulins) are the protein
weapons of the immune system.
• They recognize, through specific binding,
molecules called antigens.
• Antigens
g are ubiquitous
q in nature. Theyy are
found in the body, as well as in foreign invaders.
• The antibody-antigen interaction has many uses
in the laboratory, including the specific
identification of cells.
Polyclonal vs. Monoclonal Antibodies
• Polyclonal
y antibodies bind to multiple
p aspects
p of the
same antigen. Their heterogeneity causes problems
with standardization when used in flow cytometry.
• Homogeneous
monoclonal
antibodies bind to
only one aspect of
an antigen
i andd will
ill
reproducibly label
cells
cells.
polyclonal antibodies monoclonal antibodies
Guide to Flow Cytometry; DakoCytomation
Cell-Surface Markers
• Monoclonal antibodies are used to recognize
specific antigens on the surface of cells.
• These cell-surface markers characterize different
cell types.
types
• Fluorochrome-tagged monoclonal antibodies
b i htl label
brightly l b l
cells for
detection by
the flow
cytometer.
y
Introduction to Flow Cytometry: A Learning Guide; Becton Dickinson
T Cell Subsets
• In immunology, the use of fluorochrome-tagged
monoclonal antibodies resulted in the discovery of
phenotypically diverse T cell subsets.
• This
Thi
Regulatory revolutionary
T cell
observation made
Dendritic
Effector
flow cytometry the
cell
T cell preferred research
p
tool of modern
immunology.
[Link]
Immunophenotyping
• Many cell surface features (as well as some
internal characteristics) can be simultaneously
assessed by employing different combinations of
fluorochromes.
fluorochromes
• Several uniquely colored
fl
fluorochromes
h are available
l bl
to conduct such multicolor
(multiparameter)
experiments.
[Link]
Immunophenotyping
• However, many fluorochromes possess
overlapping emission wavelengths.
BD LSR II User’s Guide; Becton Dickinson
Compensation
• When the wavelengths of two fluorochromes
overlap, the observed fluorescent signal detected by
the flow cytometer may not be the actual signal
displayed by the cell.
• In other words, the cell appears to possess a
surface marker or
phenotype
h that
h it
does not actually
have.
have
Guide to Flow Cytometry; DakoCytomation
Compensation
• This fluorescence interference can be corrected
for by adjusting the measurement parameters of the
flow cytometer (either manually or automatically).
• This
Thi correction
ti isi
termed compensation.
• In addition, this
problem can be
avoided by carefully
selecting
fluorochromes that do
not overlap.
BD LSR II User’s Guide; Becton Dickinson
Data Analysis
• Flow cytometry is utilized both in the clinical lab
and the research lab.
• Standardization has resulted in data that is
reproducible across laboratories.
• Accurate data representation is key to this
reproducibility.
reproducibility
• This is a 2D
dot plot;
plot a
commonly used
method of data
representation.
Introduction to Flow Cytometry: A Learning Guide; Becton Dickinson
Data Analysis
• Flow cytometry computer software can generate
data in the form of densityy p
plots and contour plots.
p
• These graphical representations can sometimes be
misleading.
Introduction to Flow Cytometry: A Learning Guide; Becton Dickinson
Data Analysis
• Histograms are a
common and reliable
method used to present
flow data for analysis.
• However, these
graphs require
advanced
d d
software and are
more visual than
useful.
Gating
• To optimize the analysis of multiparameter
experiments,
p gating
g g is performed
p to isolate cell
subpopulations of interest.
• This stepp often eliminates
the need to physically sort cells
for further analysis.
[Link]
Applications - Clinical
• Bone marrow cells are evaluated based on SSC
and CD45 expression to diagnose acute
lymphoblastic leukemia.
normal patient patient with ALL
Jennings, C. & Foon, K.(1997). Blood, 90(8), 2863-2892.
Applications - Clinical
• CD4+ T cell counts are used to monitor the
progression
i off AIDS in
i HIV-infected
HIV i f t d patients.
ti t
[Link]
Applications - Research
• A kinetics assay, such as Ca2+ mobilization, can
be performed using a fluorochrome, indo-1, that
binds to calcium ions.
• Cells are loaded with indo-1 and then stimulated
to mobilize Ca2+.
• The UV laser
excites the indo-1
and a fluorescent
pulse is observed
over time.
BD LSR II User’s Guide; Becton Dickinson
Applications - Research
• Several fluorochromes (DAPI, propidium iodide,
7-AAD
7 AAD, etc
etc.)) bind directly to DNA and are used to
estimate the amount of DNA present in a cell.
• The amount of DNA in a cell
determines whether it has
entered the cell cycle.
[Link]
Summaryy
• Flow cytometers measure cells based on their
size internal complexity
size, complexity, and fluorescence
fluorescence.
• Qualitative and quantitative analyses of cell
populations have clinical and research
applications.
ppli tion
• Successful experimental design depends on an
understanding g of flow cytometer
y instrumentation
and basic immunological principles.
