Introduction to Computer

Network and Internet

5th-IT

[Link] Prajapati
What is Internet?
Pieces of Internet
 What is Computer Network?
• Computer networking refers to connected
computing devices (such as laptops, desktops,
servers, smart phones, and tablets that
communicate with one another
• A computer network is a group of computers
linked to each other that enables the
computer to communicate with another
computer and share their resources, data, and
applications
• A network is a set of devices (often referred to
as nodes) connected by communication links
• A node can be a computer, printer, or any
other device capable of sending and/or
receiving data generated by other nodes on
the network.
• A link can be a cable, air, optical fiber, or any
medium which can transport a signal carrying
the information
 What is Internet?
• The Internet is a global wide area network that
connects computer systems across the world
• It is a network of networks that consists of
private, public, academic, business, and
government networks of local to global scope
world
• History:ARPANET
• In 1982, the Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP) was
standardized, which permitted worldwide
proliferation of interconnected networks
 Data Communication
• Data communications are the exchange of
data between two devices via some form of
transmission medium such as a wire cable.
 Components of Data Communication
• Sender
• Receiver
• Message
• Transmission medium
• Protocol
 Data Communication Characteristics
• Delivery
• Accuracy
• Timelineness
• Jitter
 Network Criteria
Performance
• Depends on Network Elements
• Measured in terms of Delay and Throughput
Reliability
• Failure rate of network components
• Measured in terms of availability
Security
• Data protection against corruption/loss of
data due to: Errors and Malicious users
 Delay and packet switching
• Delay specifies how long it takes for a bit of
data to travel across the network from sender
to receiver
• Packet switching is the method of transferring
the data in form of packets.
 Throughput and Bandwidth
• Throughput tells How much data was actually
transferred from source to destination at
given time
• Bandwidth tells how much data can be
transferred from source to destination at
given time.
Connection
oriented
Vs
Connection
less service
• Telephone system

• Postal System
 Packet switching network
• Packet switching is a method of transferring
the data to a network in form of packets.
• In order to transfer the file fast and efficient
manner over the network and minimize the
transmission latency, the data is broken into
small pieces of variable length, called Packet.
• At the destination, all these small-parts
(packets) has to be reassembled, belonging to
the same file
 Packet switching network(Cont..)
• Packet Switching uses Store and
Forward technique while switching the
packets
• Each packet contains Source and destination
address using which they independently travel
through the network
• packets of same file are allowed to choose
different path possible over existing network.
Packet format
 Circuit switching network
• In circuit switching network resources
(bandwidth) is divided into pieces and bit delay
is constant during a connection
• The dedicated path/circuit established between
sender and receiver provides a guaranteed data
rate. Data can be transmitted without any delays
once the circuit is established.
• Telephone system network is the one of example
of Circuit switching
 Why not Packet switching network?
• Since the packets are unordered, we need to
provide sequence numbers to each packet.
• Complexity is more at each node because of
the facility to follow multiple path.
• Transmission delay is more because of
rerouting.
• Packet Switching is beneficial only for small
messages, but for bursty data (large messages)
Circuit Switching is better.
 OSI Model
• OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection.
It has been developed by ISO – ‘International
Organization of Standardization‘, in the year
1984.
• It is a 7 layer architecture with each layer
having specific functionality to perform.
• All these 7 layers work collaboratively to
transmit the data from one person to
another across the globe.
• The OSI Model is a logical and conceptual
model that defines network communication
used by systems open to interconnection and
communication with other systems.
• OSI Model also defines a logical network and
effectively describes computer packet transfer
by using various layers of protocols.
Layered Architecture-Example
 Physical layer
• Responsible for the actual physical connection
between the devices.
• The physical layer contains information in the
form of bits. It is responsible for transmitting
individual bits from one node to the next.
• When receiving data, this layer will get the
signal received and convert it into 0s and 1s and
send them to the Data Link layer, which will put
the frame back together.
Functions of the physical layer
• Bit synchronization: The physical layer provides the
synchronization of the bits by providing a clock. This clock
controls both sender and receiver thus providing
synchronization at bit level.
• Bit rate control: The Physical layer also defines the
transmission rate i.e. the number of bits sent per second.
• Physical topologies: Physical layer specifies the way in
which the different, devices/nodes are arranged in a
network i.e. bus, star or mesh topology.
• Transmission mode: Physical layer also defines the way in
which the data flows between the two connected devices.
The various transmission modes possible are: Simplex, half-
duplex and full-duplex.
• Hub, Repeater, Modem, Cables are Physical Layer devices.
 Repeater
• Operates at the physical layer.
• Its job is to regenerate the signal over the
same network before the signal becomes too
weak or corrupted
• It does not amplify the signal. When the signal
becomes weak, they copy the signal bit by bit
and regenerate it at the original strength.
• It is a 2 port device.
Hub
 What Hub does?
• Hubs function as the central connection point
for Local Area Network (LAN).
• In Ethernet networks, hubs were designed to
work using twisted pair cables and
use RJ45jack to connect different network
devices
• Used to connect segments of a LAN.
• It is a Multiport repeater
• When a host sends frames, the hub forwards the
frames in all the ports.
• Hubs do not separate the type of the frame, for
example, whether the frame uni-cast should be
either multicast or broadcast. Hubs forward all
the frames into all the ports.
• Hub sends the frames to all the ports, a
computer accepts the ones, whose MAC match
matches the destination MAC address field. The
rest of the frames are discarded after receiving
the required information.
• Hubs and switches serve as a central connection
for all of your network equipment and handles a
data type known as frames.
• Frames carry your data.
• When a frame is received, it is amplified and then
transmitted on to the port of the destination PC
• Hubs perform half duplex communication. It
means either a host can send or receive data.
Both works cannot be done together.
 Types of Hub
• Active hub
These hubs regenerate the signals as well as amplify
the signal. Active hubs need electricity to work.
• Passive hub
It simply distributes the signal coming from the
previous ports. It neither regenerates any signal nor
amplifies, therefore it does not require electricity to
work.
• Intelligence hub
This helps the administrator to monitor network traffic,
and you can configure each port on it individually, also
known as a manageable hub.
Network with Active and Passive Hub
Modem
 How does it work?
• It is modulator-demodulator. A modem is
a device or program that enables a computer to
transmit data over telephone or cable lines.
• Computer information is stored digitally,
whereas information transmitted over telephone
lines is transmitted in the form of analog waves. A
modem converts between these
two forms.
• modem can be attached to
RS-232 port
Coaxial Cable
 Structure of Coaxial cable
• Sheath
This is the outer layer of the coaxial cable. It protects the cable from physical
damage.
• Braided shield
This shield protects signals from external interference and noise. This shield is
built from the same metal that is used to build the core.
Insulation
• Insulation protects the core. It also keeps the core separate from the
braided-shield. Since both the core and the braided-shield use the same
metal, without this layer, they will touch each other and create a short-
circuit in the wire.
Conductor
• The conductor carries electromagnetic signals. Based on conductor a
coaxial cable can be categorized into two types; single-core coaxial cable
and multi-core coaxial cable.
Twisted Pair
 Structure of Twisted pair cable
• This cable consists of color-coded pairs of insulated copper
wires. Every two wires are twisted around each other to
form pair. Usually, there are four pairs. Each pair has one
solid color and one stripped color wire. Solid colors are blue,
brown, green and orange. In stripped color, the solid color is
mixed with the white color.
• Based on how pairs are stripped in the plastic sheath, there
are two types of twisted-pair cable; UTP and STP.
• In the UTP (Unshielded twisted-pair) cable, all pairs are
wrapped in a single plastic sheath.
• In the STP (Shielded twisted-pair) cable, each pair is
wrapped with an additional metal shield, then all pairs are
wrapped in a single outer plastic sheath.
Fiber Optic
 Structure of Fiber optic cable
• consists of core, cladding, buffer, and jacket. The core is
made from the thin strands of glass or plastic that can carry
data over the long distance. The core is wrapped in the
cladding; the cladding is wrapped in the buffer, and the
buffer is wrapped in the jacket.
• Core carries the data signals in the form of the light.
• Cladding reflects light back to the core.
• Buffer protects the light from leaking.
• The jacket protects the cable from physical damage.
• Fiber optic cable is completely immune to EMI and RFI. This
cable can transmit data over a long distance at the highest
speed. It can transmit data up to 40 kilometers at the speed
of 100Gbps.
 Network Topology
• A Network Topology is the arrangement with
which computer systems or network devices
are connected to each other.
• Topologies may define both physical and
logical aspect of the network
Mesh Topology
Every device is connected to another device via
particular channel.
If suppose, N number of devices are connected
with each other in mesh topology, then total
number of ports that is required by each device
is ? N-1.
In the Figure, there are 5 devices connected to
each other, hence total number of ports
required is 4.
If suppose, N number of devices are connected
with each other in mesh topology, then total
number of dedicated links required to connect
them is. N(N-1)/2.
In the Figure , there are 5 devices connected to
each other, hence total number of links required
is 5*4/2 = 10.
 Merits and Demerits
Merits
• It is robust.
• Fault is diagnosed easily. Data is reliable because
data is transferred among the devices through
dedicated channels or links.
• Provides security and privacy.
Demerits
• Installation and configuration is difficult.
• Cost of cables are high as bulk wiring is required,
hence suitable for less number of devices.
• Cost of maintenance is high
 Star topology

• In star topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub

through a cable.

• This hub is the central node and all others nodes are
connected to the central node

.
 Merits and Demerits
Merits:
• If N devices are connected to each other in star topology,
then the number of cables required to connect them is N.
So, it is easy to set up.
• Each device require only 1 port i.e. to connect to the hub.
Demerits:
• If the concentrator (hub) on which the whole topology
relies fails, the whole system will crash down.
• Cost of installation is high.
• Performance is based on the single concentrator i.e. hub.
 Bus Topology

•Bus topology is a network type in which every

computer and network device is connected to single
cable.
• It transmits the data from one end to another in
single direction. No bi-directional feature is in bus
topology.
 Merits and Demerits
Merits:
• If N devices are connected to each other in bus topology,
then the number of cables required to connect them is 1
?which is known as backbone cable and N drop lines are
required.
• Cost of the cable is less as compared to other topology, but
it is used to built small networks
Demerits:
• If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash
down.
• If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the
network. To avoid this, various protocols are used in MAC
layer known as Pure Aloha, Slotted Aloha, CSMA/CD etc.
Ring Topology
It forms a ring
connecting a devices
with its exactly two
neighboring devices.

In Figure A ring
topology comprises of
4 stations connected
with each forming a
ring.
 How does it work?
1. One station is known as monitor station which takes
all the responsibility to perform the operations.
2. To transmit the data, station has to hold the token.
After the transmission is done, the token is to be
released for other stations to use.
3. When no station is transmitting the data, then the
token will circulate in the ring.
4. There are two types of token release techniques
Early token release releases the token just after the
transmitting the data
Delay token release releases the token after the
acknowledgement is received from the receiver
 Merits and Demerits
Merits:
• The possibility of collision is minimum in this
type of topology.
• Cheap to install and expand
Demerits:
• Troubleshooting is difficult in this topology.
• Addition of stations in between or removal of
stations can disturb the whole topology.
 Tree Topology

• Makes Hierarchical form

• Secondary hubs are connected to the central hub
which contains the repeater.
•In this data flow from top to bottom i.e from the
central hub to secondary and then to the devices or
from bottom to top i.e. devices to secondary hub and
then to the central hub.
 Merits and Demerits
Merits:
• It allows more devices to be attached to a single
central hub thus it increases the distance that is
travel by the signal to come to the devices.
• It allows the network to get isolate and also
prioritize from different computers.
Demerits:
• If the central hub gets fails the entire system fails.
• The cost is high because of cabling
 Data link layer
• The data link layer is responsible for the node
to node delivery of the message.
• The main function of this layer is to make sure
data transfer is error-free from one node to
another, over the physical layer.
• When a packet arrives in a network, it is the
responsibility of DLL to transmit it to the Host
using its MAC address.
• Packet in Data Link layer is referred as Frame.
• Data Link layer is handled by the NIC (Network
Interface Card) and device drivers of host
machines.
• Switch and Bridge are Data Link Layer devices.
 Functions of DLL
• Framing: It provides a way for a sender to transmit a
set of bits that are meaningful to the receiver. This
can be accomplished by attaching special bit patterns
to the beginning and end of the frame.
• Physical addressing: After creating frames, Data link
layer adds physical addresses (MAC address) of
sender and/or receiver in the header of each frame.
• Error control: Data link layer provides the
mechanism of error control in which it detects and
retransmits damaged or lost frames.
• Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on
both sides else the data may get corrupted thus ,
flow control coordinates that amount of data that
can be sent before receiving acknowledgement.
• Access control: When a single communication
channel is shared by multiple devices, MAC sub-
layer of data link layer helps to determine which
device has control over the channel at a given
time.
Bridge
 How does it work?
• A bridge operates at data link layer.
• A bridge is a repeater, with add on the
functionality of filtering content by reading
the MAC addresses of source and destination.
• Used for interconnecting two LANs working on
the same protocol.
• It has a single input and single output port,
thus making it a 2 port device.
 Types of Bridge
Transparent Bridges:- The stations are completely
unaware of the bridge’s existence i.e. whether or not a
bridge is added or deleted from the network.
• These bridges make use of two processes i.e. bridge
forwarding and bridge learning.
Source Routing Bridges:- In these bridges, routing
operation is performed by source station and the frame
specifies which route to follow.
• The host can discover frame by sending a special frame
called discovery frame, which spreads through the
entire network using all possible paths to destination.
Switch
 How does it work?
• A switch is a multiport bridge
• A switch is a data link layer device.
• The switch can perform error checking before
forwarding data, that makes it very efficient as
it does not forward packets that have errors
and forward good packets selectively to
correct port only.
• Supports full-duplex connectivity
 Network Layer
• Network layer works for the transmission of data
from one host to the other located in different
networks.
• It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of
the shortest path to transmit the packet, from the
number of routes available.
• The sender & receiver’s IP address are placed in the
header by the network layer.
• Segment in Network layer is referred as Packet.
 Functions of Network Layer
• Routing: The network layer protocols determine
which route is suitable from source to
destination. This function of network layer is
known as routing.
• Logical Addressing: In order to identify each
device on internetwork uniquely, network layer
defines an addressing scheme. The sender &
receiver’s IP address are placed in the header by
network layer. Such an address distinguishes each
device uniquely and universally
 Router
• A router is a device like a switch that routes
data packets based on their IP addresses.
• Router is mainly a Network Layer device.
• Routers normally connect LANs and WANs
together and have a dynamically updating
routing table based on which they make
decisions on routing the data packets.
• Router divide broadcast domains of hosts
connected through it.
 Transport Layer
• Transport layer provides services to application
layer and takes services from network layer.
• The data in the transport layer is referred to
as Segments.
• It is responsible for the End to End Delivery of
the complete message.
• The transport layer also provides the
acknowledgement of the successful data
transmission and re-transmits the data if an error
is found.
 How does it work?
At sender’s side:
Transport layer receives the formatted data
from the upper layers,
performs Segmentation and also
implements Flow & Error control to ensure
proper data transmission.
• It also adds Source and Destination port
number in its header and forwards the
segmented data to the Network Layer.
• At receiver’s side:
Transport Layer reads the port number from
its header and forwards the Data which it has
received to the respective application.
• It also performs sequencing and reassembling
of the segmented data.
 Session Layer
• This layer is responsible for establishment of connection,
maintenance of sessions, authentication and also ensures
security.

• Session establishment, maintenance and termination: It

allows the two processes to establish, use and terminate a
connection.
• Synchronization : It allows a process to add checkpoints which
are considered as synchronization points into the data. These
synchronization point help to identify the error so that the
data is re-synchronized properly, and ends of the messages
are not cut prematurely and data loss is avoided.
• Dialog Controller : It allows two systems to start
communication with each other in half-duplex or full-duplex
 Presentation Layer
• Presentation layer is also called the Translation
layer. The data from the application layer is
extracted here and manipulated as per the
required format to transmit over the network. For
example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
• Encryption/ Decryption : Data encryption
translates the data into another form or code.
• Compression: Reduces the number of bits that
need to be transmitted on the network.
 Application Layer
• This layer serves as a window for the
application services to access the network and
for displaying the received information to the
[Link]: Application – Browsers, Skype
Messenger etc.
• Application Layer is also called as Desktop
Layer.
The functions of the Application layer are :
• Network Virtual Terminal
• FTAM-File transfer access and management
• Mail Services
• Directory Services
 The TCP/IP model
• the TCP/IP model, it was designed and developed by
Department of Defense (DoD) in 1960s and is based
on standard protocols.
• It stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol.
• The TCP/IP model is a concise version of the OSI
model.
• The internet protocol suite is commonly known as
TCP/IP, as the foundational protocols in the suite are
Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol
The Network core
Interconnection of ISPs
Delay at Router
 Types of Delay
• Processing Delay: The time required to examine the
packet’s header and determine where to direct the
packet
• Queuing Delay: The packet experiences a queuing
delay as it waits to be transmitted onto the link
• Transmission Delay: The amount of time required to
push (that is, transmit) all of the packet’s bits into
the link. Packets transmit in FCFS manner.
• Propagation Delay: The time required to propagate
from the beginning of the link to router B.
Transmission delay and Propagation
delay
 Packet Loss
• A packet can arrive to find a full queue, with no
place to store such a packet, a router will drop
that packet; that is called packet loss.
• The fraction of lost packets increases as the traffic
intensity increases.
• Therefore, performance at a node is often
measured not only in terms of delay, but also in
terms of the probability of packet loss.
• A lost packet may be retransmitted on an end-to-
end basis in order to ensure that all data are
eventually transferred from source to destination.
 Throughput
• Throughput tells How much data was actually
transferred from source to destination at given
time
• The instantaneous throughput at any instant of
time is the rate(in bits/sec) at which Host B is
receiving the file
• If file consists of F bits and the transfer takes T
seconds for Host B to receive all F bits, then the
average throughput of the file transfer is F/T
bits/sec.
 End to End Throughput

(a) Client downloads a file from server (b) 10 clients downloading with 10 servers
• In figures, Suppose Rs= 2 Mbps, Rc= 1 Mbps,
R = 5 Mbps,
• In Fig-B ,the common link divides its transmission
rate equally among the 10 downloads. Then the
bottleneck for each download is no longer in the
access network, but is now instead the shared
link in the core, which only provides each
download with 500 kbps of throughput.
• Thus the end-to-end throughput for each
download is now reduced to 500 kbps.
 History of computer network
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History of Computer network and Internet