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42 views25 pagesUnit 5 From Book - Environmental
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FIG. 18-7, ay TERTIARY ATED CARBON
yy ACT
186. apsoRPTiON sjewater treatment Processes, SUCH aS activarey
onventiona ater remove many Or materials (measureg
sludge and (rh a logical oxidation, but they an NOL effective
by BOD test) PY called refractory organic materials measured }
ing the SO COD). These materials include tanning
chemical oxygen ane substances and other colour and odoyy
ligne pe ; MBAS, herbicides and Prasticides such
roducing ation of refractory organics may be roy
tS DDT. The concen nce between BOD and COD (or TOC). Remand
approximate’ y anics can be obtained by adsorption on activated
et See also evidence that activated carbon is effective in
foe oval of some inorganic materials, including some potentially
toxic trace metals. Hence, activated carbon may have application
in treatment of wastewaters for the removal of some dissolved inorganic
as well as organic contaminants.
Adsorption, in general, is the process of collecting soluble sub-
stances that are in solution on a suitable interface. The dissolved
organics in wastewater, not extracted by the conventional biological
treatment, are removed to a considerable degree by adsorption and
bio-degradation on activated carbon. The large surface area of activated
carbon assimilates organics while microbial degradation reopens the
pores in the granules. Wastewater adsorption systems ordinarily employ
aoe oo a bed of granular carbon through which
activned earbe passed. The factors that affect the adsorption by
haracterignes ane, characteristics of the activated carbon @)
charsctetistio Concentration of the material to be adsorbed (#)
(iv) the contacting see ateh Such as pH, and SS content, af
ing system and its mode of operation. Carbon ADVANCED WASTEWATER TREATMENT 541
A
ay be operated in either upflow or downflow configurations. Upflow
anfigurations (Fig. 18.8) are preferred, since they can be operated
a a more OF less continuous basis. Upflow rates may vary between
27m’/min, giving rise to a bed expansion of about 10%.
CARBON INFLOW
SURFACE OF
‘CARBON
> ¢ SL PRESSURE
SA vesset
TANGENTIAL
NOZZLES
INLET SCREENS
TANK SUPPORT .
LEG
CARBON OUTFLOW
FIG. 18.8. UPFLOW ACTIVATED CARBON COLUMN.
Regeneration: Economical application of activated carbon
depends on an efficient means of regenerating the carbon after its
adsorptive capacity has been reached. Granular carbon can be
Fegenerated by heating in a multiple hearth furnace (800°C) wherein
the adsorbed organics are volatilized and released in gaseaous form
Tom the carbon surface. With proper control, granular carbon can
eared to a near virgin adsorptive capacity with only 5-10%
ight loss. Thermal generation involves drying, backing (pyrolysis
of ini i
; adsorbates), and activating by oxidation of the remaining residue.
8.7. PHgADIAnee wane nee jg urea, WHICH logetner witn ammonia, comprises approximalety 85%
of the nitrogen excreted by man.
Following are the popular methods of removal of nitrogen
he waste water :
1, Biological nitrification-denitrification 2. Ammonia stripping
18.9. BIOLOGICAL NITRIFICATION-DENITRIFICATION
The chemical transformation inherent to nitrogen cycle form
} the basis of nitrogen removal by biological wastewater treatment,
from ¢
although some removal results from nitrogen incorporation into cellular
protoplasm. Nitrogen can be removed from wastewater by progressive
biological oxidation of nitrogen compounds to nitrites and nitrates
followed by conversion into introgen gas. Thus, nitrogen removal
is in two distinct steps : (i) nitrification and (ii) denitrification. Fig.
18.11 shows the procedure for the removal for nitrogen from wastewatcr.
In nitrification, ammonia is oxidised to nitrites and then to
jtrates by aerobic nitrifying autotrophic bacteria. In denitrification,
itrates are reduced to nitrogen gas by either autotrophic or hetero-
ophic anaerobic bacteria. The nitrogen forms of interest in AWT
re (i) organic (ii) inorganic and (iii) gasesous nitrogen. As a first
tep, bacterial decomposition releases ammonia by deamination of
nitrogenous organic compounds :
Bacterial
Decomposition
N —————- NH (18.
(organic) (deamination)
Continued aerobic oxidation results in nitrification as under:
Nitrifying bacteria 2
NH; + O, NO; wu(18.6)
(nitrification)
h
h As a further step, biochemical denitrification occurs w
eterotrophic metabolism in an anaerobic environment :
Bacterial denitrification
NOs Be ti 18.7)
Thus, Eqs. 18.5, 18.6 and 18.7 give three reactions in sequence
ng biological nitrification-denitrification, process.
can Biological nitrification. Nitrification is the process in which
probes is first_ converted into nitrate form, thereby eliminating
OD) Of toxicity to fish and reducing to nitrogen oxygen demand
perform Streams. Ammonia oxidation to nittate is a diphasic process
18, i Py autotrophic bacteria with nitrite as intermediate product
Such as mE hese aerobic reactions yield energy for metabolic functions
of ammenntesis of carbon dioxide into new cell growth. The oxidation
Ih the fig {0 nitrate is a two-step process if carried to completion.
Step, ammonia is oxidized to nitrite by the Nitrosonon
defini i FORM
, GH-RATE
MIG EAT eM
son URL,
BRGANIC
MATTER
SOLUBLE
ORGANIC €
NITRI-
FICATION |]
(CELLULAR,
CARBON)
CELLULAR,
SLUDGE | “CxRBON
DISPOSAL
FIG. 18.11. REMOVAL OF ORGANIC AND NITROGENOUS
* POLLUTANTS FROM WASTEWATER
a genera of strict aerebic autotrophic bacteria that utilize ammonia
as their sole source of energy. This is indicated by the following
reaction equation :
NH, + 1.5 0; NOz + 2H* + H2.O + Energy ...(18.8)
The second step, the conversion of nitrite to nitrate, is. ac-
complished by the Nitrobacter, which is a genera of autotrophic bacteria
which utilize nitrite as their 8
n sole energy Source. This is indicated
by the following reaction equation -
NO; =
The ae oe — NO; + energy 18.9)
temperature; (ii) pH ne in the nitrification kinetics are (i)
in wastewater, bei: WO) DO concentration. The rate of nitrification
independant of cients mally Fnear, is a function of time and
i nitrogen ci i
The biolo, Bi oncentration.
i i
-'a8 aerobic cape a ey Processes used for nitrification are identified
can be achieved p (growth and aerobic attached growth. Nitrification
Processes by the main Of the suspended-growth activated sludéf
of aitrifying organis ntenance of conditions suitable for the Bm
Me S24 for combined org {MO attached-growth processes thet
Wickling fitter oq 21008 Oxidation nitrification process
an IN the sug, se Fotating biological contactor. nt
Activated siudge prac BfOwth process, nitrification is achieving,
Process alongwith the usual carbonaceous omd8"
Nitrosonomas
Nitrobacter _ denitrification, a balanced amount of substrate is sup
u : re
_ “nder anaerobic conditions.
it activated sludges reduce NOz and NO} to nitrogen
apwanceD WASTEWAT
‘S47
wilt So mrt (pe varying between 7 A
spsiti’ a i
ey) and have a very slow rate orate ‘8 to 89, with optimum value
pacterias Conerauly, A mean cell residence time of 3 monte
myc, which corr sponds to _a loading factor of 0.3° eae
gobs per day per Kg of MESS; at a MLSs éoncentration of anejnd
y) mg/, is found adequate for the desired degree fini of around
nitrification can be obtained in separate proc Tallow Set
reament OF 1M combined processes. In combined rocesse fon
of BOD 10 TKN is greater than 5. Sometimes, ht is robo es
to separale the two processes (i¢., carbonaceous ersaiga ara
pitrifications) in two stages, using separate reactors having oe te
ems, at cach Stage, as indicated in Fig. 18.12. ‘About 80%
of the carbonaccous material is oxidised in the activated sludge recess
or te frst stage. The sccond stage, enriched with nitrifying autotrophie
pacteria, receives the first stage effluent with residual carbon Cad
almost ent ire amount of ammonia, for nitrificatinn. Such a scheme
ives flexibility in operation, to give optimum [Link]. The ratio
of BOD to TKN in the} second stage is less than 3.
AERATION |
TANK
AERATION
‘TANK
FROM
PRIMARY
!
|
|
|
RETURN SLUDGE RETURN SLUDGE =<
CARBONACEOUS OXIDATION —<—}—> NITRIFICATION
I
| "
FIG. 18.12. TWO STAGE BIOLOGICAL NITRIFICATION
Biological Denitrification. Denitrification is a biological process
which may be applied to nitrified water in order. to convert nitrate
to nitrogen. Biological denitrification is achieved under anaerobic
Conditions by heterotrophic micro-organisms that utilize nitrate as
4 hydrogen acceptor. In this process, the nitrate presentin the waste
Process essentially requires a fully nitrified influent, an anaerobic con-
dition and a su f ‘er substrate. In the process of biological
ply of prop pplied to reduce
the nitrate in the process of stabilization of the supplied. substrate
the heterotrophic bacteria found
gas. However,
Se Organisms require an organic carbon source for cell ‘growth.
Sthanol (CH, OH) has been used as a carbon source in denitrification
lowe The organisms metabolize mathanol according to the fol-
Ng reaction :
In the denitrification process, ai ener ge
348 = -
= SCHOH TENtE COs HOFOH” C1810)
NOx + ation we note that 5/6 mole of Methano}
From the above eaiplctely one mole of nitrate to Molecula;
js required t0 en of CH;OH for 1 mgf of nitrate on we; ht
nitrogen, OF ea reaction requires methanol for the reduction of
basis. ad dissolved oxygen (DO) in the nitrified wastewater
nitrite, nit have suggested the following cquation for
St, Amant and McCarty
thanol demand =
mel 4 = 2.87 (NOs) + 1.53 (NO.) + 0.87 (DO) (18.11)
in which Cm is the methnol required in mg/l, and NO,, NO: ang
DO are the concentrations, respectively of nitrate, nitrite and DO
in mg as N and O2 a 7
Fig. 18.13 shows a three stage nitrification-denitrification
process.
J — stack 1 ———r}— stage 2 ——_.]
| yc Rave activate o
SLUDGE PROCESS
| ORGANICS» CO, + H,0
NITRIFIC ATION
+ =
NH{—=NO} -- NO,
AERATION AERATION
INFLUENT
!
1
+
1
'
'
!
'
1
b+. stace 3
oe ee NOS ~>N,
ELFLUENT
METHANOL,
FIG. 18.13. THREE STAGE NITRIFCATION-DENITRIFICATION PROCESS.
Both suspended-growth systems as well as fixed-growth Systems
ee tried for denitrification. The anaerobic fa submerged)
pee i are found to be more effective in denitrification of
cena ine tS. Pilot plant studies indicate that a mean cell
nitrate in oa OF 3 to 4 days is required for 90% reduction of
han 2 how mplete mix suspended growth systems while a little more
a cone of detention time is adequate for similar efficiency
Tesidence tim, Hero filto—probably due a very high mean en
to have the ee in those filters. Upflow filter beds a
and greater regi vantages of efficient operation in cold tempertu®
Istance to shock loadings than suspended-growth systems, NCED WASTEWATER TREATMEN?!
pv’
: jogging of the media with biological growth is an unresolved
Jo!
pul
oie process of denitrification by suspended growth system con-
fa complete-mixing basin followed by a clarifier for sludge
ists 0
6 ion and return as shown in Fig. 18.14. Underwater stirrers
. contents sufficiently to keep the microbial floc in suspension
METHANOL,
3
EFFLUENT
RETURN SLUOGE
SLUDGE
FIG. 18.14. FLOW DIAGRAM FOR COMP!
ITRIFICATION PROC
SLUOGE RECYCLE
STE MIXING
ACTIVATED
SLUDGE
Weis,
* ADV, EFFLUENT
ANCED Wacrawatae Toiitiionre ni clk es! 19 pitt, Akepbril Bra»
pcnatie a dge prvi, dérs%y gy ——~|
~G~__ |
den
ssi WASTEWATER ENGINEERING
without producing undue acration. The reactions during denitrification
process form CO, and N gas bubbles that inhibit gravity settling
by adhering to the biological floc. Hence an open channel or tank
known as flash aerator is provided between the denitrification basin
and final clarifier, to provide short term acration as to relieve the
supersaturation of the mixed liquor with gascs. Duc to such air-stripping,
the settleability of sludge solids in the scdimentation tank increases.
Sludge-recirculation capacity equal to the average wastewater flow
is recommended. Withdrawal of excess microbial solids,10 keep the
biological system in balance, ranges from 0.2 to 0.3 kg/kg of methanol
applied. Fig. 18.15 shows the flow diagram for an advanced wastewalc!
treatment (AWT) pilot plant.
TRIN AMMONIA Crm mnt 21.1. INTRODUCTION
About 70% of India’s population lives in the villages. The
sanitary conditions in these villages, including some of the small
towns is quite ‘poor. The water supply is not adequate and hence
only conservancy system exists. The sullage water from kitchens, baths
etc. is let directly into streets, resulting in the forma ion of breeding
place for. flies and mosquitoes. In absence of availability of latrines,
children defecate in front of houses. Unless this faecal matter is
quickly removed, phathogenic bacteria thrive on this faecal matter,
resulting in spread of epidemics. The rural areas, consisting of villages
and small towns are mostly unsewered because of two main reasons:
(@ adequate water supply, necessary for efficient functioning of water
carriage system is not available, and (i?) population is not concentrated.
This is true even for the outskirts of urban areas. The most important
part of the work, which a sanitary engineer is called upon to do
in such unsewered rural areas, in this connection, consists of the
efficient collection, removal and disposal of the following :
(i) Night Soil from privies on the conservancy system.
(ii) Sullage, including urine and ablution water from previes
and (iii) All refuse solid matter.
21.2, RURAL SANITATION
Rural sanitation comprises of the following four essentials:
1. Provision of safe and potable water for domestic purposes:
2. Collection and disposal of dry refuse.
3. Collection and disposal of sullage.
4. Disposal of excretal waste.
(584) vision of safe and potable water for domestic purposes
Usual sources of water in rural areas are : rivers, lakes, ponds
ells. River water is generally not considered safe for domestic
and Wore it. may be polluted at the upstream.
use snakes and ponds may be considered as safe sources, provided
“nese are properly protected against contamination caused due to
Ue defecation by people or animals. Village tanks, [Link] mostly
dally of water, are generally unsafe because animals, mostly
" putfalos, swim in these throughout the day and some people also
swim and take bath, in these tanks. Due to this, epidemics .in the
form of some “thread disease’ is quite common. However, well water
js considered to be the safest of all the available sources. Though
limited quantity of water may be available from these wells, this
uantity may be sufficient for rural population. Sometimes, water
from the nearby canals may be collected in village tanks and sub-
sequently used. Such tanks may have storage for 1 to 4 weeks. Tanks,
wells and other sources of water used by the villagers for the drinking
purposes should be disinfected from time to time by potassium per-
manganate (KMnO,).
Alternatively, the available
source of water should be properly POLYETHYLENE
chlorinated using a pot chlorinator. COVER
4, Pro
In this method, an earthen pot,
having 2 to 10 mm holes in the 6mm DIA.
sides (Fig. 21.1) is used. About 1.5 one
et pene powder, mixed in
» kg of 2 mm size coarse sand is SO SNERAR
ct in the pot. This pot, after SAND
Bree with a polythelene cover 7
+ {ie top, is suspended 1 m below
j tn FIG. 21.1. SING!
© water level to be disinfected. CHLORINATOR
Beco has a capacity of dis-
ae tat cripating about 9000 to: 13000 litres, with a withdrawal
10 30 peo ie 1200 litres per day. Thus, the unit can serve 20
13 ple per day. The pot is refilled every week.
Ce
4 ‘OLLECTION AND DISPOSAL OF DRY REFUSE,
a ee in rural areas consists of (i) house sweepings, vegetable
except Mle Tags etc. In fact it consists. of all sorts of dry
BYe any bea ree waste from latrines. Such a waste does not
0 be collected foul smell, and does not create any nuisance. It
tty.) Keeps and disposed off by any of the following methods:
4) ‘hice pgPiNg dust ins in front of every house, and collecting
it ‘gluse from t ie bins daily and regularly. Sweepers may collect
|S litte pe ‘ian whole area, at one central place, from whe!
ically in a-bullock-cart or a lorry.” re WASTEWATER ENGINEERING
- 1 $0 collected may be dumped in a low
e refus'
it Or i » collected dry refuse may be burnt, ang
lying area. ornativelys the neg are?
ean aang is collected and dumped either in g
— ee eine time (about 1 — 2 months), this wily
it and cover » for agricultural field.
IN AND DISPOSAL OF SULLAGE
is stewater from bath
jer, sullage is merely the wastewa
AS: stated cate ashings, washing of clothes etc. It does not
rooms, eal refuse, and hence it is neither very dirty nor
ea nel It is collected and disposed off tby the following
crea .
Lary 4 its in which animal du
f stewater may be Ied to pits in WI ng
and ant net also dumped. Wastewater will help — decomposition
of waste refuse and convert it into refuse by composting.
(ii) Wastewater may be carried outside the village in open
drains and admitted into a nallah or a natural water course.
(iii) Wastewater may be used for watering trees or kitchen
gardens in the house. If the quantity is more, it can be utilized
for farm work in broad irrigation.
21.5. DISPOSAL OF EXCRETAL WASTE
____The excretal waste from house is collected by sweepers and
disposed off suitably. This system is called conservancy system of
disposal of night soil, and is still prevalent in most of the villages
in India. However, the best method is to construct any type of
rivy or latri i i oy
ny ‘atrine which can dispose off without the help of water
Seer system. This is described in subsequent articles. There is
cnsiriens _ Of open space available in the rural area, Hence
imaot poner eee or latrines, with self-disposal system
houses. The excretal ‘any times, soak pits are used for individual
etc. is led dlrcetly Net hes ai Sullage from bathrooms, kitchen
of 3 m dia. and Sige: the soak pit. Such soak pits are usually
Open joints, and are ce ech constructed of masonry walls with
Slab. Such a soak ni Ie to) igi concrt
126. Such a soak ge veted at the top by rigid stone or concrete
Of 5 to 15 years, Wh seins 4 © 8 people in a house has a lile
Cmptied and the mar ery ese Soak pits get filled up, these are
PIC is quite Somnni a is disposed off. Such a system of soak
216. NIGHT SOIL a Popular in the unsewered urban areas-
PREviEs’ DISPOSAL WITHOUT WATER CARRIAGE *
Followin,
8 are Ona
(1) should be Me, 8eneral requirements of a good pry :
sh
oul
2) Ns floor Saocated away from the building, on the leeward
Side, ¢
d be atleast 1.2 m above the general level sANITATION
587
hould be of impervi aleri
: Its Joor sl pervious material. (4
: ®, ventilated: (5) The receptable to receive Gack oa of
fi jent capacity so as to hold at least 24 hours the excreta, Site
sul plution water. (6) It should remain closely covered so" that
. fies donot reach there, (7) Contents should not be visible he
7 8 It should have moderate cost. : ote
previes may be of the following types :
1) Trench or earth privy, (2) Pit pri 3 i
pale or can privy, (5) Concrete Nant pred e) heal oe mr
Al toilet, (8) PRAL latrine. oa
The choice of a system depends on (i) the availability of water,
(ii) position of ground water, and (iii) available resources and human
6
Omi
pehaviour. ;
‘The prevy design depends upon : (i) number of persons and
wantity of excreta, (ii) method of decomposition (iii) availability
of water (@) permeability of soil (v) humidity and temperature con-
ditions, (vi) ground slope (vii) types of squatting plates available
(viii) availability of funds (ix) availability of man power (xi) cultural
and religious customs, and (vii) location of excreta disposal site.
1. Trench or Earth Privy : These are used for camps etc.
A shallow pit of either square or rectangular shape, 30 cm in width
and 50 to 100 cm in depth is excvated, for the accumulation of
excreta. The excavated earth is piled round the trench. Each user,
after use, has to throw equal quantity of earth on the faecal matter.
_ The urine falls outside the privy. One privy can be used for about
100 faecal droppings. After that, another trench is excavated nearby.
2. Pit Privy : It consists of a pit, 90 to 120 cm in diameter
(rim x 1m in plan) and 2 to 3 m deep. It may be lined
or unlined, but its bottom is not lined. i
The pit is covered with a squatting
slab with a hole or squatting plate.
Acover may also be provided to cover
the hole. The user discharges excreta
into the pit by sitting on the squatting
Plate, Faeces are stored in the pit
- while the urine seeps into the soil.
A super structure may be built ovet
ihe privy. A capacity of 40 — 60
es/person/year is provided. Storage
Period may be 4 to 6 years. A pit
~ Capacity of 1.5 m? can serve an average FIG. 21.2. PIT PRIVY
Si: e
‘wed family for several years. pega ar
3. Bore Hole Privy : Bore hole privy is similar to pit privy
Sep that si now Pmaller than the pit privy
E whi size of bore hole privy 1S smaller Pp
Pat its depth is very much ee Jt consists of a bore hole of
0 40 cm in diameter and 4 to 8 ™ in depth. Cover plate and a ivy. The upper portion of
7 are similar t0 the pit O13 @k
super strucnt Fined with clay [FB
the boreho
REMOVABLE
cov
WATER SEAL
BORE HOLE
5-7m DEEP
(6)
@)
FIG. 21.3. BOREHOLE LATRINE
Fig. 21.3 (b) shows another form of borehole latrine with
a pan and trap arrangement. When the bore hole gets filled up
with excreta, another bore hole is drilled in the vicinity and the
compartment and the seat are shifted. The old hole is covered with
thick layers of soil and abandoned.
4. Pale or Can Privy : This is also known as removable receptable
privy. This is the oldest and primitive type of privy, which is still
in use in rural areas. In this privy, excreta is collected in iron pales,
tubs or cans. These cans are 40 cm x 30 cm x 20cm in size
and are water tight. Fig. 21.4 (@) shows such a privy, where the
can is placed under the seat or squatting plate for the collection
for further disposal. Another
shown in Fig. 21.4 (6). A yraeer
‘5 concrete Vault Privy : This
improved form of pit or bore hole
is | sed in sandy soils, or in locations
pode y ound water table is high. Fig.
where BY such a privy in which a water
215 sno rele vault or chamber is con-
igh under ground for collection and
sirsof faccal matter. The squatting
seat is provided over the top of
e vault. ‘The! capacity of vault should
! sufficient for 6 no storage. When
is filled up, either fully or partially,
sat mptied Pi icieaned. Atier eter) oecere
sitting, soil is thrown over the excreta
so that bad odours are prevented. The squatting pan is so constructed
that no water enters the vault. ‘
6. Aqua Privy : This is also known as wet latrine. As shown
Ein Fig. 21.6, an aqua privy consists of three chambers : (/) the anaerobic
| digestion chamber, (ii) aerobic digestion/clarifying chamber and, (iii)
| filter chamber. The latrine pan is kept on the top of the anaerobic
chamber and its discharge pipe is taken 10 cm deep below the water
level in the first chamber (anaerobic chamber) to maintain water-seal.
Night soil, urine and ablution water falls smoothly into the first
chamber and is decomposed by anaerobic bacteria. The gases produced
escape through the vent pipe. In the second chamber (aerobic chamber),
further decomposition takes place by the action of aerobic bacteria.
The effluent from the second chamber is discharged into the third
chamber called the filter chamber containing brick bats/clinker as
the filter media. As the effluent rises in this chamber, it is purified.
Finally, the effluent is Jed out through the effluent chamber. This
'
EFFLUENT
CHANNEL
FIG. 21.6. AQUA PRIVY WADA nes ares cements
590
7 02 ing or farming. The digested sludge
effluent can be ves fe asco ciaibee which can be cleares
gets depo aie a eciialprt is considered to be quite useful method
once in two years. Aqua privy 1s i ah f sui :
“posal of human excreta, specially in absence oO "Suitable water
bas ae tem. It is quite economical and hygienic.
Ct vhemical Toilet ; In the chemical toilet, the concrete vault
is replaced by a acid proof metal tank. Caustic soda is added to
the water in the tank. This stabilises the organic matter present
in the excreta. The tank has generally a capacity of 600 litres, and
in this 10 kg of caustic soda, dissolved in 40 to 60 litres of water
is placed. The night soil is liquified and sterilised in the tank, and
pathogens are also destroyed. The spent chemical and accumulating
liquids and solids are removed at frequent intervals and drained
out in a cesspool. Such type of toilets are also’ used in aifcrafts.
There is no odour problem. However, its cost is more. E
8. PRAI Laterine
Planning, Research and Action
Institute (PRAT), Lucknow
(U.P.) has developed a latrine,
the details of which are shown
in Fig. 21.7. Itisa hand-flushed,
water seal, lateral pit laterine
used for disposal of night soil
in rural area.
The laterine essentially
consists of a pan which dischar-
ges the excreta etc. into a pit
which has honey comb masonry
in mud mortar. When one pit
gets filled up, another pit can
be excavated, as shown by the
dotted lines.
BRICK WALLS
HONEY COMB
MASONRY
FIG. 21.7. PRAI LATERINE
PROBLEMS Solid Waste Disposal
22.1. INTRODUCTION:
Solid waste, also known as dry refuse includes house refuse,
trade refuse and street refuse, and is practically in a dry state. Removal
and disposal of refuse or solid waste is a very important aspect
of environmental sanitation. Solid waste consists of (i) garbage (ii)
ashes (iif) rubbish (iv) dust etc. Solid waste or dry refuse can be
broadly divided into two heads (1) Organic or combustible matter,
and (2) inorganic or mineral or non-combustible matter.
(a) House refuse : This consists of vegetable and,animal waste
matters, ashes, cinders, rubbish, debris from cleaning and‘ demolition
of structures.
(b)-Street refuse : This consists empty packets and bottles, empty
matches and cigarette boxes, fruit peels, tree leaves, street sweepings
etc.
(c) Trade refuse : This consists of solid wastes from factories,
commercial and business centres, slaughter houses etc.
Garbage : This consists of all sorts of putrescible organic waste
from kitchens, hotels, restaurents, in the form of waste food articles,
vegetable and fruit peelings. It is organic in nature and decomposes
quickly. It normally weighs from 450 to 900 kg/m?. It should
be handled carefully, because flies, insects, rats etc. breed in it.
Ashes : Ashes are incombustible waste products from houses,
industries, hearths and furnaces. With the introduction of kerosene
oil and cooking gas, its quantity is now gradually decreasing. It
weighs between 700 to 850 kg/m’. po
Rubbish : It consists of all non-putrescible wastes, excluding
ashes. Common items that fall under this category are : Tags, paper
(591) b 592 tass and plastic pottles, eee Benes Of glass,
i ‘1 tionary items, card boards,
jieces, Pape! ken furniture and sta\ 0 s. 1
broken crockery de variety of Combustible and non combustible
thus includes 2 its weight varies from 50 to 400 kg/m’,
ry animal and vegetable refuse,
js lighter and ts
was Tate Tt includes 2 Msticks, plastic bot
Organic Ware pind, tree leavess SNe » Plastic les, paper
cow dung, exc i waste iS subject to decay with time and evolve
ee east ye odour and gases which are highly detrimental to
ighly :
titel waste : This consists of non-combustible materials
ch as grit, dust, mud, metal pieces, metal containers, broken glass
= t building material. It is not subject to
and crockery, tiles, waste .
decay and is therefore not harmful to public health.
22.2. QUANTITY AND COMPOSITION OF REFUSE
The quantity and composition of refuse varies from place to
place and also varies from season to season. Ashes increase in
winter and in Northern latitudes while these are less in summer
and in hot tropical countries. The quantity of garbage depends upon
the food available, food habits and standard of living. It also depends
upon whether the town is residential, commercial or industrial. For
an average Indian city, quantity of refuse varies from 0.4 to 0.5
kg per capita per day. The average composition of refuse by weight
is about 25% cinder, 27% fine dust, 15% ashes, 4% empty tins
and cans, 14% putrescible matter, 2% glass and crockery, 2% rags,
aa bone and 8% miscellaneous matter. Organic wastes are generally
Scinoaition ot ren wastes are 45%, Table 22.1 gives an average
Seas Aa efuse (by weight) for an average Indian city and
BC erican city, at the disposal site.
TABI
LE 22.1 AVERAGE COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES OF REFUSE
packelss 8
Average composition
% by weight at disposal site
Typical USA. ci
25
55
10
10
Constituent
Typical Indian ci
35
15
10
Unit wij 2
ee) 350-600
lorific value
ki 1500-1800
Garbage
22.3, COLLECTION AND
REMOVAL OF RE
_ The freque: OF REFUSE the
quantity of he ven Of collection of solid waste depends UP rece!
on
Tef
fuse and the season, Generally, refuse iS SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL.
593
in individual houses in small containers or cans kept outside the
0 house, from where it is removed daily by sweepers
public dust-bins are provided by the municipalities/ocal
boards at convenient places by the sides of roads. Di Pefuse Taller
on the public streets and roads, along with road swe} int arch i ily
collected once or twice 11 day by-the sweepers employed by the local
aa ee fd purpose, : porate ayanlzed tonieenae with
a closely , aving a capacity of 0.02 to 0. is genera
used. The containers or cans used for refuse esa be
clean, without any dirt left in, otherwise fresh refuse gets seeded
with the putrefactive organisms and start giving foul smell. The
frequency of refuse collection is kept such that the refuse may not
start giving nuisance by odour and fly breeding. The collection of
fetuse from the business areas should be done during non-working
jours.
22.4. TRANSPORT OF REFUSE
The refuse collected in the public dust bins located by the
sides of roads, is transported to the disposal site by means of following
vehicles : (i) Auto-rickshaws, (ii) Trailers, and (iii) Trucks.
‘Autorickshaws : These, having three or four wheels, have covered
bodies. Since their capacity is limited to + to } tonnes, these are
used only for those narrow localities where other heavy vehicles
cannot go.
. Trailors : Trailors have slightly larger capacity (2 to 3 tonnes).
"They are also used for localities where trucks cannot go. Loading
of trailors is done manually. However, they are of tilting-tipping
type and hence their unloading is done automatically with the help
of hydraulically operated jacks.
capacity (5-10 tonnes). They are
Trucks : Trucks have larger
generally of tilting-tipping type sO that unloading‘s automatic. Special
types of trucks, capable of bodily lifting covered skip boxes (in place
of ordinary dust bins) are now available, and should be used so
as to avoid nuisance of flies.
The vehicles employed for the transport of refuse should be .
of such pattern and design that collected garbage does not fall once
again on the road during the transport. The transport vehicle should
be strong durable and water tight. They should be made of stecl
with smooth interior surface and round edge and corners, so that
they can be kept clean.
22,5, DISPOSAL OF REFUSE
Refuse or solid waste cal
methods.
1. Controlled tipping:
2, - Filling of low lying a
1 be finally disposed of by the following
reas, (Jand filling). 504
jnto Se
3 pumping in’
4, Pulvel jon.
: ines ing i, uscful where adequal
composting: . This method IS usc H equate
Cc trolled tippine * pie. The thod consists of tipping
suc tor rouerelOP™ nt is a or 1 to 2™ While tipping, coarse
Ge refuse i pollows 10 a ca while fine material is tipped on
material ‘ at the Pyered with Soil xo as to provide a seal
the top. eal compositio takes place: fe end of
ee 12 months period, the ecomposition is comple if to which
isd * a hei : rmally, an area
the tip settles down to aheight of ~~ — y
2 ear iS required. 7
This method is quite
er capita per y
(landfilling) : The \
common. The garbage is dumped into low lying areas or depressions
available nearby. Dumping is done i of 1 to 2 m, and
each layer is. covered by 0.2 m thickness Of good earth. A rest
of 2 to 3 weeks is given before dumping the second layer. If dry
refuse is loosely packed, it may give rise to health hazards. Hence
each layer should be compacted by movement of dumping vehicles,
for its settlement, before starting filling the second layer of refuse.
aa ‘The advantages ofthe method are : (i) it issimple and economical
® mo plant/equipment is required ({ii) Separation of various materials
a th refuse is not required (iv) There are no by-products and
nce there is’ no problem of the dis 1
The low lying areas can be i Poe by Pe a
pated rhe aeniveni ae and put to better use by this
nearby, (ii) wind ee io (i) proper site may not be available
areas are required (iv) It ea a be favourable (iii) large land
of eovering material and (v) di y be difficult to: get large quantities
aén-biodegradable matt ) dumped garbage containing carcinogenic
er (Such as plastics, unysed medicines, paint’
insecticides, sanit
" it A,
of leachate comi ary napkins etc) m:
comin; ay cause trouble later because
from tl ig Out of the i ii
othe dumped garage may poll during rainy season (vi) Teachate
they pollute surface water as well as groun
Wying areas, are mat aunt :
: This i
2103 m wide and aais method is generally adopted when
2m. These nd 1 to 2 m de reriches of size, 4 to 10 ™ lone
Of 13 em HES trenches ae. then fille creavated with a cleat spare
a ne ot the tp af then filled with refuse/garbage in t
oye animal dung ch layer, 5 em thick sandwiching tayo
800d earth oe ine 03 lg Habe in semi iiquid. form a
other above rT 3
oer, other mon grount ayer
Sie geecomel aha a Soe
ped gare ness and wind does not BIO a
converted into a type of com
of 0.3 10 0.5 m a
2, Filling of low lying area soLID WASTE DISPOSAL, _
py the fermentation carried out by anaerobic bacteria, within a period
UG months. The compost available from trenching is of low apricul-
ural value ; on the contrary, it may sometimes have elements which
: ta be harmful to the soil.
4, Dumping into the sea : Solid waste/refuse can also be disposed
of by bargeing out into the sea, after carrying it at reasonable distance”
(ay 15 t0 20 km) into the sea. This is necessary to prevent. the
shores from refuse nuisance, because sea waves can carry. back the
_ refuse to the shores. The depth at such disposal. point should not
pe less than 30 m. The following “are the defects of this method
; (i) bulky and lighter matter in the refuse may float, spread out
‘and tend to return to the shores during high tides, (ii) during stormy
_ weather and monsoons, it is not possible to send barges out into
"the sea, and (iii) inspite of best care, some portion of refuse may
return the shores and spoil them. Also, the method “is possible
only in cases of coastal cities.
; 5. Pulverisation : In this method, the dry refuse is pulverised
to powder form, without changing its chemical form. The powder
can either be used as a poor qualitity manure, or else be disposed
“of by land filling. In some countries the pulverised refuse is discharged
in the sewer. The method is quite costly and hence not commonly
used in India. wey :
‘ 6. Incineration : This consists of burning the refuse in the
incinerator plant. This is commonly used in disposing of garbage
rom hospitals and industrial plants. Before incineration, non-com-
bustible and inert material like earth, broken glass, chinaware, metal
tlc are separated, so as to reduce the load on the hearth. The
)y product of this method is ash and clinker which can be easily
Aisposed of by land filling. The heat. generated by burning the dry
i efuse May be utilized for Taising steam power. The quantity and
Wuality (moisture and calorific value) of refuse is, however, ‘changing:
nd hence the power generated will fluctuate. Emission of air pol-
lutants from incinerators includes particulates such as flyash, unburnt
& per standard:cubic metre of
Smoke includes all liquid and solid matter in he
inders visibility. Smoke can be eliminated by mixin
ith hot air to complete combustion, but black- smoke
high air temperatures. staal
ineratio following points should be carefully- ‘observed: during: in,
© exhaust wi
ites fairly
Contin g The refuse charging should be thorough, Tapid and as nearly
ew as possible.
» Each batch of refuse entering furnace shouild be well mixed: ~ i e the refuse to
nstalled above
. f ws peginning of the cycle.
aren the moisture content .of air
ignite mor
. le in th combustion chamber should
is PSY inimum temperature | organic matier is incinerated
4 i g70°C) 0 that all the
sufficie oxidis ,
es art : .
ad foul smell ae re sometimes required, together with par-
oat 1 devices such as settling chambers or scrubbers.
sjuate remon™ can be (i) vertical, (ii) circular (iii) rotary multicell
odie jn the vertical circular furnace,
Vv ngular in their design. * tic f
ae r Ye parged through a door in the ceiling and drops into
a central cone grate surrounded by a circular grate. Primary com-
pustion is supported by underfire air. In the rotary kiln furnace,
the wastes aré «partially burnt in a rectangular furnace and then
fed, via grates, t0 a rotating kiln. The rotary action exposes the
unburnt material for combustion. Final combustion takes place in
the chamber after the kiln discharge point. The multicell furnace
(Fig. 22.1) has cells side by sid. Each cell has grates for moving
the refuse across them. Several cells have a common combustion
chamber and residue hopper. In rectangular furnace unit, two or
more) grates are arranged in tiers so that the refuse is agitated as
nn fuls fom one level to the next. Secondary combustion is usually
ee or aihilpaical waste incinerator handle organic wastes of
imal origin and crematory furnaces, Sych incinerators
SOLID REFUSE
FROM HOPPERS
OVERFIRE
AIR INLET
SECON
ONDARY
COMBUS'
CHAMBERON
vee STOKING
PRIMARY
com
FURNACE US TION
RESIDUE
HOPPER
FG. 22.
Hu My
LTIC
TICELI tachremaTiION BIRNACE- SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL
are multiple chamber units which release fluids as the material is
being destroyed. These fluids do not evaporate quickly and, therefore,
solid hearth rather than grating is required.
SO" Advantages of incineration : (i) This is most hygienic method,
since it ensures complete destruction of pathogens (ii) There is no
odour [Link] dust nuisance (iii) The heat generated can be used
for raising steam power (iv) Clinker préduced can be used for road
purposes (v) The disposal site (i.e. incineration site) can be located
at a convenient distance (vi) Lesser space is required for disposal
of residues (vii) Modern incineraters can burn a great variety of
refuse materials which are otherwise not biodegradable (viii) Adverse
weather condition have no effect on the incinerator’s operation.
Disadvantages : (i) Large initial expenditure (ii) Improper opera-
tion results in air pollution problems and incomplete reduction- of
the waste materials (iii) Disposal of the remaining residue is required
(iv) High stacks needed for natural draft chimneys present safety
problems.
It should be clearly noted that municipal incineration of solid
waste or refuse is a volume reduction process and not one of complete
‘or ultimate disposal: Safe disposal of remaining residue is an essential
requirement. Also, the plant need be operated properly so that
the gases are completely burned and a stable residue is produced:
_ 22.6. COMPOSTING
; Composting is a method in which putrescible organic matter
__ in the solid waste/refuse is digested anaerobically and converted into
humus and stable mineral compounds. It is a hygienic method which
Coverts the refusc into manure through the bacterial agencies, Compest
“is widely used as a manure which is rich in nitrogen content. Due
to composting, the volume of refuse is very much reduced, and the
resulting matter can be safely handled since it becomes free from
Pathogenic organisms, In India normally, night soil of the conservancy
system is also dis; i i r
valuable aati oe of simultaneously along with refuse, producing
There are three methods of composting.
0, Composting by trenching
i Pen window composting
Comechanical Composting
™ long, 2 to a8 PY trenching : In this method, trenches 4 to 10
a clear spacing or wide and 0,7 to 1 m deep are excavated with
in layers of 15 q % The trenches are then filled with refuse/garbage
n ie {sp of each layer, 5 cm thick. sandwichin|
er, protuay ung is spread in semi-liquid form.
210 cm layey ae Bea 0.3 m above the original Toa nee
the refuse and at ant is spread so that flies do not get access
© same time, the refuse d Not get blown i jve biological
on 2-3 days, intensive ‘
ae ‘matter present in the refuse. In this proc
by wh s
destroy/redu' , generated and the temperature of the composting
to about 75°C. Due to this reason the breeding of flies
ace. The refuse gets stabilised in about 4-5 months
anged into a brown coloured odourless innocuous
form known as humus, which has high manure value because
The stabilised mass 1s removed from the
trenches, sieved through 12.5 mm sieve to exclude coarse inert materials
like stones, brick pats, broken stone etc. The sieved material js
then sold out as a manure.
Open Window Composting : In this method, a large proportion
of mineral matter like dust, stone, broken glass pieces etc. are first
removed from the refuse. The refuse is then dumped on the ground
‘in the form of 0.6 to 1 m high, 6 m long and 1 to 2 m wide
piles at about 60% moisture content. The pile is then covered
with night soil, cowdung, cattle urine etc. through which the organisms
or germs that are necessary for fermentation are added. Due to
biological activity through aerobic bacteria, heat starts developin|
upto about 75°C in the refuse piles. Due to this, the microbial
i a eG to thermophilic stage. After this,
pea ae pete cooling and aeration to avoid anaerobic
e perature of pile again rises to 75°C, and the
process of turning, cooling and aeration is rey ated. Th i
ee may take about 4-6 weeks, after sahich the eoripeel ie ee
use
ee eee ae falls considerably.
posting is very laborious and nie consume ae Pee : see
large area of land which may not be eet ae eee
difficulties are overcome by adopt available in big cities. These
the process of stabilization ee amas composing ae
turning the compost. The mechanic ve es mechss ical devices of
compost only within 3-6 days. ea method stabilizes the ref
scale composting plant dha he operations involved in a large
Reception of refuse (2) a m in Fig. 22.2 are as follows : (1)
(4) Stabilisation, (5) Marketing the ae Shredding or pujverie
The ref ‘ e humus. :
_ Aerial awe at the plant site in quantities of 210
capacity of about 25 to 50% the plant site must have a storage
be segregated and shreded Yo of total daily arrival, before it can
picking on smaller plant pulveriied. Segregation 6 Ot by
plants and by: mechanical devices on large P ate
to remove
ape!
metals are temiert ees metals and large objects. Fer
y magnetic separators, Finer ‘material SU
as ash, parti
Particles of garbage etc. are removed by passing the re & a
& 2
= =
é 3
& 9 zg
@ a a —
a an
= y 2 6
o 5
