OPERATING SYSTEMS
CS3500
PROF. SUKHENDU DAS DEPTT. OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGG., IIT
MADRAS, CHENNAI – 600036.
Email: [email protected]
URL: http://www.cse.iitm.ac.in/~vplab/os.html
Aug. – 2022.
CPU SCHEDULING
Basic Concepts
Maximum CPU utilization obtained with
multiprogramming
CPU–I/O Burst Cycle – Process execution
consists of a cycle of CPU execution and
I/O wait
CPU burst followed by I/O burst
CPU burst distribution is of main concern
Histogram of CPU-burst Times
Large number of short bursts
Small number of longer bursts
CPU Scheduler
The CPU scheduler selects from among the processes in ready queue, and allocates a CPU core to one of
them
Queue may be ordered in various ways
CPU scheduling decisions may take place when a process:
1. Switches from running to waiting state
2. Switches from running to ready state
3. Switches from waiting to ready
Terminates
For situations 1 and 4, there is no choice in terms of scheduling. A new process (if one exists in the ready
queue) must be selected for execution.
For situations 2 and 3, however, there is a choice
Preemptive and Nonpreemptive Scheduling
When scheduling takes place only under circumstances 1 and 4, the
scheduling scheme is nonpreemptive.
Otherwise, it is preemptive.
Under Nonpreemptive scheduling, once the CPU has been allocated
to a process, the process keeps the CPU until it releases it either by
terminating or by switching to the waiting state.
Virtually all modern operating systems including Windows, MacOS,
Linux, and UNIX use preemptive scheduling algorithms.
Preemptive scheduling can result in race conditions when data are
shared among several processes.
Consider the case of two processes that share data. While one process
is updating the data, it is preempted so that the second process can
run. The second process then tries to read the data, which are in an
inconsistent state.
Dispatcher
Dispatcher module gives control of the CPU to
the process selected by the CPU scheduler;
this involves:
Switching context
Switching to user mode
Jumping to the proper location in the user
program to restart that program
Dispatch latency – time it takes for the
dispatcher to stop one process and start
another running
Scheduling Criteria
CPU utilization – keep the CPU as busy as possible
Throughput – # of processes that complete their execution per
time unit
Turnaround time – amount of time to execute a particular process
Waiting time – amount of time a process has been waiting in the
ready queue
Response time – amount of time it takes from when a request was
submitted until the first response is produced
Scheduling Algorithm Optimization Criteria
What should be optimization criteria???
Max CPU utilization
Max throughput
Min turnaround time
Min waiting time
Min response time
First- Come, First-Served (FCFS) Scheduling
Process Burst Time
P1 24
P2 3
P3 3
Suppose that the processes arrive in the order: P1 , P2 ,
P3
The Gantt Chart for the schedule is:
P1 P2 P3
0 24 27 30
Waiting time for P1 = 0; P2 = 24; P3 = 27
Average waiting time: (0 + 24 + 27)/3 = 17
FCFS Scheduling (Cont.)
Suppose that the processes arrive in the order:
P2 , P3 , P1
The Gantt chart for the schedule is:
P2 P3 P1
0 3 6 30
Waiting time for P1 = 6;P2 = 0; P3 = 3
Average waiting time: (6 + 0 + 3)/3 = 3
Much better than previous case
Convoy effect - short process behind long process
Consider one CPU-bound and many I/O-bound processes
Shortest-Job-First (SJF) Scheduling
Associate with each process the length of its next CPU burst
Use these lengths to schedule the process with the shortest time
SJF is optimal – gives minimum average waiting time for a given set of
processes
Preemptive version called shortest-remaining-time-first
How do we determine the length of the next CPU burst?
Could ask the user
Estimate
Example of SJF
Process Burst Time
P1 6
P2 8
P3 7
P4 3
SJF scheduling chart
P4 P1 P3 P2
0 3 9 16 24
Average waiting time = (3 + 16 + 9 + 0) / 4 = 7
Determining Length of Next CPU Burst
Can only estimate the length – should be similar to the previous one
Then pick process with shortest predicted next CPU burst
Can be done by using the length of previous CPU bursts, using
exponential averaging
Commonly, α set to ½
Prediction of the Length of the Next CPU Burst
Examples of Exponential Averaging
α =0
τn+1 = τn
Recent history does not count
α =1
τn+1 = α tn
Only the actual last CPU burst counts
If we expand the formula, we get:
τn+1 = α tn+(1 - α)α tn -1 + …
+(1 - α )j α tn -j + …
+(1 - α )n +1 τ0
Since both α and (1 - α) are less than or equal to 1,
each successor predecessor term has less weight than
its predecessor
Shortest Remaining Time First Scheduling
Preemptive version of SJN
Whenever a new process arrives in the ready queue,
the decision on which process to schedule next is
redone using the SJN algorithm.
Is SRT more “optimal” than SJN in terms of the
minimum average waiting time for a given set of
processes?
Example of Shortest-remaining-time-first
Now we add the concepts of varying arrival times and preemption to the analysis
Process Burst Time Arrival Time
P1 8 0
P2 4 1
P3 9 2
P4 5 3
Preemptive SJF Gantt Chart
P1 P2 P4 P1 P3
0 1 5 10 17 26
Average waiting time = [(10-1)+(1-1)+(17-2)+(5-3)]/4 = 26/4 = 6.5
Round Robin (RR)
Each process gets a small unit of CPU time (time quantum q), usually 10-100
milliseconds. After this time has elapsed, the process is preempted and added to
the end of the ready queue.
If there are n processes in the ready queue and the time quantum is q, then each
process gets 1/n of the CPU time in chunks of at most q time units at once. No
process waits more than (n-1)q time units.
Timer interrupts every quantum to schedule next process
Performance
q large FIFO (FCFS)
q small RR
Note that q must be large with respect to context switch, otherwise overhead is
too high
Example of RR with Time Quantum = 4
Process Burst Time
P1 24
P2 3
P3 3
The Gantt chart is:
P1 P2 P3 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
0 4 7 10 14 18 22 26 30
Typically, higher average turnaround than SJF, but better response
q should be large compared to context switch time
q usually 10 milliseconds to 100 milliseconds,
Context switch < 10 microseconds
Time Quantum and Context Switch Time
Turnaround Time Varies With The Time Quantum
80% of CPU burst should be shorter than qs
Priority Scheduling
A priority number (integer) is associated with each process
The CPU is allocated to the process with the highest priority (smallest
integer ≡ highest priority)
Preemptive
Nonpreemptive
SJF is priority scheduling where priority is the inverse of predicted next
CPU burst time
Problem ≡ Starvation – low priority processes may never execute
Solution ≡ Aging – as time progresses increase the priority of the process
Example of Priority Scheduling
Process Burst Time Priority
P1 10 3
P2 1 1
P3 2 4
P4 1 5
P5 5 2
Priority scheduling Gantt Chart
Average waiting time = 8.2
Priority Scheduling w/ Round-Robin
Run the process with the highest priority. Processes
with the same priority run round-robin
Example:
Process Burst Time Priority
P1 4 3
P2 5 2
P3 8 2
P4 7 1
P5 3 3
Gantt Chart with time quantum = 2
Multilevel Queue
The ready queue consists of multiple queues
Multilevel queue scheduler defined by the following
parameters:
Number of queues
Scheduling algorithms for each queue
Method used to determine which queue a process
will enter when that process needs service
Scheduling among the queues
With priority scheduling, have separate queues for each
priority. Then use Round-robin
Schedule the processes in the highest-priority queue!
Multilevel Queue
Prioritization based upon process type; eg Foreground vs background
The foreground queue might be scheduled by an RR algorithm, for example, while the
background queue is scheduled by an FCFS algorithm.
There must be scheduling among the queues, which is commonly implemented as fixed-
priority preemptive scheduling. For example, the real-time queue may have absolute priority
over the interactive queue.
An example of a multilevel queue scheduling algorithm with four queues, listed below in
order of priority:
1. Real-time processes
2. System processes
3. Interactive processes
4. Batch processes
No process in the batch queue, for example, could run unless the queues for real-time
processes, system processes, and interactive processes were all empty. If an interactive process
entered the ready queue while a batch process was running, the batch process would be preempted.
Time-slice among the queues: each queue gets a certain portion of the CPU time, which it
can then schedule among its various processes. For instance, in the foreground–background
queue example, the foreground queue can be given 80 percent of the CPU time for RR
scheduling, among its processes, while the background queue receives 20 percent of the CPU to
give to its processes on an FCFS basis.
Multilevel Feedback Queue
A process can move between the various queues. The idea is to separate
processes according to the characteristics of their bursts. If a process
uses too much CPU time, it will be moved to a lower-priority queue
Multilevel-feedback-queue scheduler defined by the following parameters:
Number of queues
Scheduling algorithms for each queue
Method used to determine when to upgrade a process
Method used to determine when to demote a process
Method used to determine which queue a process will enter when that
process needs service
Aging can be implemented using multilevel feedback Q. To prevent
starvation, a process that waits too long in a lower-priority Q may
gradually be moved to a higher-priority Q.
Example of Multilevel Feedback Queue
Three queues:
Q0 – RR with time quantum 8 milliseconds
Q1 – RR time quantum 16 milliseconds
Q2 – FCFS
Scheduling
A new process enters queue Q0 which is served
in RR
When it gains CPU, the process receives 8
milliseconds
If it does not finish in 8 milliseconds, the
process is moved to queue Q1
At Q1 job is again served in RR and receives 16
additional milliseconds
If it still does not complete, it is preempted
and moved to queue Q2
