MCHEM122-ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY

Module 4 Volumetric Analysis

Module Overview:
Volumetric method of analysis is a classical quantitation analytical technique
which involve an absolute method based on the accurate volume measurement
of an analytical standard that is incrementally added to react quantitatively with
the analyte, thus it is also called titration method. The reagent solution added to
react stoichiometrically with the analyte is named titrant, while the solution
containing the component being titrated is named the analyte.

In this module, you will learn how to carry out titration procedures and perform
calculation in the determination of titrant concentration and weight of analyte.

Module Outcomes:

In this module, students are expected to be able to:

 Determine the endpoint and equivalence point in titration

 Calculate amount and concentration of analyte by titration methods
 Identify different types of indicators
 Prepare titrants and perform calculation in calculating the concentration of
titrant
 Appreciate the balancing of redox reactions and calculations involving
redox reactions and titrations
 Perform computation on the amount of substance in precipitation equilibria
and titration
 Perform computation on complexometric titration and equilibrium
 Appreciate the potentiometric titration method
 Calculate amount and concentration of substance by potentiometric
methods

The topics are structured as follows:

Lesson 1 – Introduction to Titration Analysis

Lesson 2 – Word Problems in Titration

Are you ready? Then start the lessons.

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Lesson 1
Introduction to Titration

Learning Outcomes:
1. Appreciate the principles of titration technique.
2. Define the basic terminologies used in titration analysis.
3. Identify general classes of titration based on chemical reaction.
4. Identify the types of indicators use in titration analysis.
5. Appreciate the ways it is being applied in research and industry.

Time Frame: Week 14

Introduction:

It is an utmost importance to know the principles behind titration method of

analysis, the classes of titration based on chemical reaction, the terminologies
like titrant, analyte, equivalence point, end point, indicator and standardization of
solution prior to the calculation and problem solving in titration.

ACTIVITY
KWL Chart
Direction: Based on your experiences and understanding, write brief statement in
each column below.
K W H L
What I know or What I want to How I learn What I learn about
think I know about learn about Titration Method of titration method of
Titration method of Titration method analysis Analysis
analysis

ANALYSIS

In 100 words, discuss what you have written in the activity above.

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ABSTRACTION
Principles of Titration Method of Analysis

Titration method of analysis is a rapid techniques where a volumetrically

measured
quantity of reagent called titrant ( solution inside the burette) is added to
completely
react with the analyte ( solution inside the flask).

The general formula of titration is

aA + tT P

where a moles of A (analyte) will react with t moles of T(titrant). The titrant should
be a standard solution which is added incrementally, normally from a burette in
the form of a solution of known concentration.

P – product ( 2 or more)

Equivalence point
The point at which an equivalent or stoichiometric amount of the titrant that is
added is proportional to the amount of analyte present. This point can be visibly
detected by adding chemical substance called indicator to the unknown solution
(analyte) before beginning of the titration.

Indicator
It is a substance which will responds to the appearance of an excess
titrant by changing color. This may or may not occur precisely at the
equivalence point.

Endpoint
The point at which the titration is observed to be complete, the point in titration at
which the indicator changes color also refers to the experimental estimation of
the equivalence point.

 It is desirable then that the endpoint be as close as possible to the

equivalence point.

Titration error
It is the difference between equivalence pint and end point of titration.

Titration
Refers to the process of measuring the volume of titrant to reach the equivalence
point.

Requirements of Titration
 Reaction should be stoichiometric

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 Reaction should be rapid

 There should be no side reaction (specific)
 There should be a mark change in some property of the solution when the
reaction is complete ( example, change in pH)
 Reaction should be quantitative.

Titrants
The titrant is chosen partly on the basis of its reaction with the analyte. It must be
stable and of known concentration

Standardization of Titrants or Solutions:

Standardization
This is the process in which accurate concentration of a titrant or solution is
determine against a primary or secondary standards.

Primary standard
It is a material that is sufficiently pure (generally at least 99.98%), stable,
high equivalent weight, soluble in a suitable solvent and not hygroscopic
which is accurately weighed, and it is used to determine the concentration
of a solution or titrant.

Example:
 For strong base solutions:
KHP ( potassium acid phthalate, KHC8H4O4)
HSO3NH2, sulfamic acid
KH(IO3)2, potassium hydrogen iodate
 For strong acid solutions:
Na2CO3, sodium carbonate
(CH2OH)3CNH2, tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane

 For Redox Reagents

Solutions to be Primary
standardized standards
KMnO4 As2O3
KMnO4 Na2C2O4
KMnO4 Fe
Ce(SO4)2 Fe
K2Cr2O7 Fe
Na2S2O3 K2Cr2O7
Na2S2O3 Cu
I2 As2O3

Secondary Standard
A previously standardized solution that is used to standardized another
solution.

Example: Standardized NaOH used to standardized HCl solution

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For high accurate work it is best to standardize both acid and base
independently against a primary standard.

Four General Classes of Titration Methods based on reaction:

1. Acid- Base titration ( neutralization)

This is the most common type of titration.
Acid + Base Salt + H2O
HA + OH- A- + H2O
B + H3O+ BH+ + H2O

Acidimetry - measuring the acid in the sample, where the analyte is an

acid
and the titrant is a base
Alkalimetry - measuring the base in the sample, where the analyte is a
base and the titrant is an acid.

There are three types of acid-base titrations, namely:

a. Strong acids with strong bases
b. Weak acids with strong bases
c. Strong acids with weak bases

The titration technique is the same for each but the indicator may need to
change to reveal the specific end point as each end point occurs over a
different pH range.

Case a: Strong acids with strong base Titration

Example: Titration of HCl solution with NaOH solution

A( basic medium) B(Acidic Medium)

Figure 1. Color changes in methyl orange indicator during acid-base titration

Methyl orange indicator is usually used in this titration. It is
yellow in basic medium and reddish in acidic medium.

Case b: Weak Acid-Strong Base Titrations

Titration of potassium hydrogen phthalate (KHC8H4O4) with NaOH
solution.

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A B C

Figure 2. adapted fromhttps://derekcarrsavvy-

chemist.blogspot.com/2016/01/volumetric-analysis-
1-carrying-out-acid.html

a. NaOH solution inside the 50-mL burette and known amount

of KHC8H4O4 dissolved in distilled water with indicator inside
the Erlenmeyer flask
b. NaOH solution is incrementally added to the solution inside the flask
c. The change in color of indicator marks that endpoint is reach.

Potassium hydrogen phthalate, KHC8H4O4(KHP) is an acid in aqueous

solution with 1 hydrogen atom that will dissociate. It is a primary standard
used to determine the unknown concentration of NaOH (titrant).

Phenolphthalein is the indicator to be used for this titration. It is colorless in

acidic solution and changes to magenta in alkaline solution, around pH 8.
The point at which a drop of the alkaline solution (or even less) turns the
indicator the faintest pink is the end point of the titration. Dark pink or
magenta, indicates the an excess alkaline was added to the analyte and
requires back titration method.

Figure 3. The correct color change of Phenolphthalein indicator during

Acid-base titration at the Equivalent point

Back-titration -is a method where the excess amount of titrant that was
added to the analyte will be determined by using a known concentration of
reagent.

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Case c. Strong acids with weak bases

Example: Ammonia and HCl
NH3 (aq) + HCl (aq) NH4 (aq) + Cl-(aq)

HCl is titrated into the NH3. Figure 4 shows the titration curve, a graph of
pH of analyte vs. volume of HCl titrant. In this titration curve, the pH of the
NH3 starts high and drop rapidly with the additions of HCl. As the
equivalence point is approached, the pH changes more gradually, until
finally one drop cause a rapid pH transition through the equivalence point.
Methyl orange indicator would be a good choice in this case since it
changes from its basic to its acidic color.

Figure 4. Titration of a weak base with a strong acid

(https://courses.lumenlearning.com/introchem/chapter/strong-acid-weak-base-
titrations/, n.d.)

In strong acid-weak base titrations, the pH at the equivalence point is not 7

but below it. This is due to the production of a conjugate acid during the
titration; it will react with water to produce hydronium (H3O+) ions.

In the example of the titration of HCl into ammonia solution, the conjugate
acid formed (NH4+) reacts as follows:

NH4+ + H2O H3O+ + NH3

2. Reduction- Oxidation Titration

Redox titrations make use of an oxidation-reduction exchange between reactants

which involves the transfer of electrons from one reactant

Reduction - involves gain of electron , there is an algebraic decrease in

oxidation number.
Oxidation - involves loss of electron , there is an algebraic increase in
oxidation number.

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Oxidizing agent(OA) or oxidant - it is a substance that is reduced.

Reducing agent( RA) or reductant - it is a substance that is oxidized.
Example: Determination of the concentration of KMnO4 against oxalic acid

In this titration, the analyte is oxalic acid and the titrant is potassium
permanganate. The oxalic acid acts as a reducing agent, and the KMnO 4 acts as
an oxidizing agent. Since the reaction takes place in an acidic medium, the
oxidizing power of the permanganate ion is increased. This acidic medium is
created by the addition of dilute sulfuric acid.
MnO4-+8H++5e−→Mn2++4H2O

KMnO4 acts as an indicator of where the permanganate ions are a deep purple
color. In this redox titration, MnO 4– is reduced to colorless manganous ions (Mn 2+)
in the acidic medium. The last drop of permanganate gives a light pink color on
reaching the endpoint. Below is the reaction that occurs in acidic medium.
Complete Reaction
2KMnO4+3H2SO4+5H2C2O4.2H2O→K2SO4+2MnSO4+18H2O+10CO2

Ionic equation
MnO4- + 8H++ 5e−→ Mn2++4H2O]×2
C2O4−2→2CO2+2e−]×5

Complete Reaction
2MnO4−+16H++5C2O4−2→2Mn2++8H2O+10CO2
From the above-balanced chemical reaction, it can be observed that 2 moles of
KMnO4 reacts with 5 moles of oxalic acid.

3. Precipitation

Titrant form an insoluble product (precipitate) with the analyte.

Example: Titration of Cl- with AgNO3 solution.

Cl- + Ag+ ------ AgCl
A T P( white precipitate)

4. Complexometric ( Complex Formation) Titration

 Complexometric titrations rely on the formation of a largely undissociated

complex.
 The titrant is a complexing agent forms a water soluble complex with the
analyte “ a metal ion”
 The titrant is often a chelating agent (type of complexing agents that
contains 2 or more groups capable of complexing with a metal ion)
 Example: EDTA ( ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid), one of the most
useful chelating agents used for titration.

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Potentiometric Titration

Potentiometric titrations are those where the potential from an electrode system
is used as the analytical signal for the change occurring during the titration.
Examples include pH electrodes used for acid-base titrations, ORP electrodes
(platinum) used in a redox titration, ion selective electrodes used in a specific ion
titration, and silver electrodes used to follow the silver ion concentration in
argentometric titrations.
A. Acid-base titration of solution of 0.1 M HCl with one solution of 0.1 M
NaOH using pH electron to record the hydrogen activity. The graph below
shows variation of pH during the titration.

Figure 5. Potentiometric curve of an acid -base titration

Source: (Hanna Instruments, n.d.)

For acid-base potentiometric titration, the titration curve is obtained by plotting the
pH of solution with volume of titrant added. The end point is taken as the
inflection point of the titration curve which there is a stoichiometric equal amount
of acid and base in a solution. The extrapolation of the linear part enables a
more accurate determination of endpoint.

APPLICATION
Based on your knowledge gained in this lesson, make an illustration and
identify the steps in making a table salt.

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CLOSURE

Congratulation. You have just finished Lesson 1. In this lesson, titration method
of chemical analysis was introduced with its important terminologies. Below is a
figure that will summed up the basics in titration method.

Figure 6. Illustration of a titration method of analysis

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Lesson 2

Word Problems in Titration

Learning Outcomes:
1. Calculate amount and concentration of titrant by titration methods.
2. Perform computation the amount of substance or analyte in titration.

Time Frame: Week 15, Week 16, Week 17

Introduction
Solving word problem in titration where formulas are manipulated to determined
concentration of titrate or weight of analyte will enhance knowledge and skills in
titration as a quantitative method in chemical analysis.

Activity
Identify on environmental problem and use titrimetric method of analysis to solve
just problem. Enumerate the steps on how to solve the problem.

ANALYSIS
Based on the activity above, what are data that you need to gather to solve the
environemental problem you identified.

ABSTRACTION

Sample Problems

1. Direct Titration using primary and secondary standards Problem

A. Calculate the percent Na2CO3 from the following data

Weight sample = 1.000g

1.0 mL NaOH = 0.008473 g KHC8H4O4
1.0 mL HCl = 2.500 mL NaOH
Volume HCl used = 55.90 mL

KHC8H4O4 + NaOH H2O + NaKC8H4O4(aq)

HCl + NaOH NaCl + H 2O

Na2CO3 + 2HCl 2 NaCl + H 2O + CO2(g)

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Solution:
% Na2CO3 = Wt Na2CO3 X 100%
MW Na2CO3
Weight sample = 1.000g
2.0 mL NaOH = 0.008473 g KHC8H4O4
1.0 mL HCl = 2.500 mL NaOH
Volume HCl used = 55.90 mL
KHC8H4O4 is a primary standard use to in standardization of NaOH
NaOH is used as secondary standard to determine the % Na2CO3
At equivalence point: moles of NaOH = moles of KHC8H4O4
MNaOH VNaOH = g KHC8H4O4 X 1 mole of NaOH
MW KHC 8H4O4 1 mole KHC8H4O4
From the periodic table values: MW KHC8H4O4 = 204g/mole
MNaOH = 0.008473 g KHC8H4O4 X 1 mole of NaOH
204g/mole (0.001L NaOH) 1 mole
KHC8H4O4
MNaOH = 0.04153 mole/L
At equivalence point: moles of NaOH = moles of Na2CO3
MNaOH VNaOH = MHCl VHCl
MHCl = (0.04153 mole/L)(0.0025L NaOH)
0.001L HCl
0.01.1.1.1
MHCl = 0. 103825 moles/L
To determine percent Na2CO3 (MW= 105.9888g/mol)
MHCl VHCl = g Na2CO3 X 2 moles HCl
MW Na 2CO3 1 mole Na2CO3

g Na2CO3 = MHCl VHCl (MW Na2CO3)(1 mole Na2CO3)

2 moles HCl
g Na2CO3 = (0.103825 moles/L HCl)( 0.0559 mL HCl)( 105.9888g/mol Na2CO3) )(1 mole Na2CO3)
2 moles HCl

g Na2CO3 = 0.30756 g
% Na2CO3 = 0.30756 g X 100%
1.000g
% Na2CO3 = 30.7570

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2. Indirect Titration/Back-titration Problem

A 0.4755 g sample containing (NH4)2C2O4 and inert materials was

dissolved in H2O and made strongly alkaline with KOH, which converted
NH4+ to NH3. The liberated NH3 was distilled into exactly 50.00mL of
0.05035 M H2SO4. The excess H2SO4 was back-titrated with 11.13 mL of
0.1214M NaOH. Calculate the
a. %N (14.007 g/mole)
b. %(NH4)2C2O4 (124.10g/mole)
The reaction is:
(NH4)2C2O4 + H2SO4 2NH3
Solution:
a. %N = wt N x 100
wt sample
Total H2SO4 added is
0.0500L (0.05035 mol/L) = 0.0025175mole
H2SO4 consumed by the NaOH solution in back-titration:
0.01113 L (0.1214mol/L) NaOH X 1 mole H2SO4 = 0.0006756mol
2 mole NH 3
Amount H2SO4 used to liberate NH3

0.0025175mole -0.0006756mol = 0.0018419 moles

To calculate %N
0.0018419 moles H2SO4 = wt NH3 X 1 mole H2SO4
MW NH 3 2 moles NH3
Wt NH3 = 0.0626246g
Wt N = 0.0626246g NH3 X 1N X 14 g/mole
NH 3 17g/mole
Wt N = 0.0515732g
% N = 0.0515732g x 100% = 10.84%
0.4755
b. % %(NH4)2C2O4 (124.10g/mole)
%(NH4)2C2O4 = 0.0626246g NH3 X MW(NH4)2C2O4
2MW NH3 X 100%
0.4755g
%(NH4)2C2O4 = 0.0626246g NH3 X 124.10g/mole

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2(17g/mole) X 100%
0.4755g
%(NH4)2C2O4 = 48.07%

3. A 10.0-mL blood sample from a patient is diluted to 50.0mL in

volumetric flask. A 20.0-mL aliquot from the flask is treated with
excess oxalate to precipitate CaC2O4. The precipitate is dissolved in
acid and titrated with 1.52 mL of 0.0018M KMnO4. Calculate the
number of mg of Ca2+ per 10.0 mL of blood

Solution:

APPLICATION
Direction. Show your solution and enclosed in a box your final answer.

1. A sodium hydroxide solution is standardized using potassium hydrogen

phthalate abbreviated as KHP with a formula of (KHC8H4O4) as a primary
standard. A sample of KHP weighing 0.8482-g required 42.30mL of NaOH
for titration. Calculate the molarity of the NaOH. Show the reaction.

2. A 1.876-g sample containing oxalic acid (H2C2O4) requires 38.84mL of

0.1032M NaOH for titration.

H2C2O4 + 2NaOH  Na2C2O4 + 2H2O

1.38 mL of 0.0992M HCl is used in back-titration, Calculate the percentage

of H2C2O4 in the sample.

3. A sample containing arsenic and weighing 3.458-g is dissolved and diluted

to exactly 250.0 mL in a volumetric flask. A 50-mL aliquot is withdrawn
with a pipet and titrated with 34.15 mL of a 0.0566M solution of I 2.
Calculate the percentage As in the sample.
HAsO2 + I2 +2H2O  H3AsO4 + 2I- +2H+

4. A solution of sodium thiosulfate, Na2S2O3, is standardized using pure

copper as the primary standard. A sample of copper weighing 0.2624-g is
dissolved in acid, excess KI is added, and the liberated I2 titrated with
42.18mL of Na2S2O3 solution. Calculate the molarity of the Na2S2O3
solution.
The reactions are given below:
2Cu2+ + 4I-  2CuI(s) + I2
I2 + 2S2O32-  2I- + S4O62-

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5. Calculate the Na2CO3 titer in mg/mL of a 0.1200 M solution HCl. The

reaction is
CO32- + 2H+  H2O + CO2

6. EDTA titration is a kind of complexometric titration used to determine

water hardness. Using your knowledge in chemical equilibrium, pH,
chemical equation, ouline how you will determine Ca+2 with EDTA at
pH=10.

CLOSURE
Congratulation. You have just finished Lesson 2. In this lesson, you learned how
to calculate the concentration of the titrant and the analyte by manipulating the
formula where amount of analyte is equal to amount of titrant at the equivalence
point.

Module Summary

In this module we learned how to determine the endpoint and equivalence point
in titration, calculate amount and concentration of analyte by titration methods,
identify different types of indicators, prepare titrants and perform calculation in
calculating the concentration of titrant, appreciate the balancing of redox
reactions and calculations involving redox reactions and titrations, perform
computation on the amount of substance in precipitation equilibria and titration,
perform computation on complexometric titration and equilibrium, appreciate the
potentiometric titration method, and calculate amount and concentration of
substance by potentiometric methods.

Module Assessment

Definition of Terms. Supply the correct terms for the following definition below
given the following choices.( 2 points each)

Back-titration indicators analyte

qualitative analysis fusion standard solution
masking titration titration error
primary standard interference titrants
titration secondary standard standardization
endpoint titer
quantitative analysis equivalence point

____________________1. It is the reagent of known concentration that is used

to carry out a titrimetric analysis.

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____________________2. Is a process in which a standard solution from a

buret or other liquid dispensing device is added to a solution of the analyte until
the reaction between the two is judged complete.
____________________3. Is the point in a titration when the amount of added
titrant is chemically equivalent to the amount of analyte in the sample.
____________________4. Is the point in titration when a physical change that is
associated with the condition of chemical equivalence occurs.
____________________5. The difference in volume or mass between the
equivalence point and the endpoint.
____________________6. Substance often added to the analyte solution on
order to give an observable physical change at or near the equivalence point.
____________________7. Is a highly purified compound that serves as a
reference material in all volumetric and mass titrimetric methods.
____________________8. Is a compound whose purity has been established by
chemical analysis and serves as the reference material for a titrimetric method of
analysis. ____________________9. Is a process in which the excess of a
standard solution used to react with an analyte is determined by titration with a
second standard solution. ____________________10. Is a process in which
concentration of a volumetric solution is determined by using it to titrate a known
mass of a primary or secondary standard or an exactly known volume of another
standard solution.
____________________11. It is the elimination of an interference from a
substances by converting it to a noninterfering form.
____________________12. It is a process were samples that fail to dissolved in
aqueous or organic solvents will be dissolved in molten solvent that has acidic,
basic or oxidizing properties.
____________________13. An analysis used to determined the concentration
or amount of substances.
____________________14. Is a species that causes an error by enhancing or
attenuating the quantity being measured in an analysis.
____________________15. The components of a sample that are to be
determined.

Problem solving. Show your solution and enclosed in a box your final answers.

1. Can I titrate a solution of unknown concentration with another solution of

unknown concentration and still get a meaningful answer? Explain your answer
in a few sentences.

2.Explain the difference between an endpoint and equivalence point in a titration.

3. It takes 26.23 mL of a 1.008 M NaOH solution to neutralize a solution of 5g of

an unknown monoprotic acid in 150.2 mL of solution. What is the molecular
weight of the unknown?

4.A solution is made by dissolving 12.50 g of NaOH in water to produce 2.0 L of

solution. What is the pH of this solution?

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5.What volume of 0.150 M HCl is needed to neutralize each solution listed

below?
a)25.0 mL of 0.135 M NaOH
b)20.0 mL of 0.185 M NH4OH
c)80.0 mL of 0.0045 M Ca(OH)2

6.The following data were collected during a titration. Calculate the concentration
of the sodium hydroxide solution.

Titration Data
Volume of HCl=10.00 mL
Final volume of NaOH= 23.08 mL
Initial volume of NaOH=1.06 mL
Concentration of HCl=0.235 M

7 Calcium can be determined in blood by precipitating CaC2O4, dissolving the

precipitate in H2SO4, and titrating the oxalate ion with a standard solution of
KMnO4. A 10.0mL blood sample from a patient is diluted to 50.0mL in volumetric
flask. A 20.0mL aliquot from the flask is treated with excess oxalate to precipitate
CaC2O4 . The precipitate is dissolved in acid and titrated with 1.52 mL of 0.00108
M KMNO4. Calculate the number of mg of Ca2+ per 10.0mL of blood.

5C2O42+ + 2 MnO4- + 16H+ 2Mn2+ + 10CO2 + 8H2O

8. The organic matter in a 3.776-g sample of mercuric ointment is decomposed

with HNO3. After dilution, the Hg2+ is titrated with 21.30mL of 0.1144M solution
of NH4SCN. Calculate the percent Hg (200.59g/mol) in the ointment. The titration
involves the formation of a stable neutral complex Hg(SCN)2.

Hg2+ + 2SCN- Hg(SCN)2(aq)

9. The sample of antihistamine, brompheniramide maleate, weighing 4.6330-g

was dissolved in alcohol and decomposed with metallic sodium. The resulting
solution was treated with 10.00mL of 0.2500 M AgNO3, an amount sufficient to
precipitate all of the liberated bromide ion as AgBr. The excess AgNO3 was
titrated with 0.1214 M KSCN, requiring 14.42 mL to reach the endpoint.

Ag+ + SCN- AgSCN(s)

Calculate the % Br in the sample.

10. The CO in a 20.3-L sample of gas was converted to CO 2 by passing the gas
over iodine pentoxide heated to 150oC.

I2O5(S) + 5CO(g) ----------- 5CO2(g) + I2(g)

The iodine distilled at this temperature and was collected in an absorber

containing 8.25mL of 0.01101 M Na2S2O3

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I2(aq) + 2S2O3-2(aq) --------- 2I-(aq) + S4O6-2(aq)

The excess Na2S2O3 was back-titrated with 2.16 mL of 0.00947 M I2

solution. Calculate the number of milligrams of CO(28.01g/mol) per liter of
sample.

References
(n.d.). Retrieved from
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/introchem/chapter/strong-acid-weak-
base-titrations/
Hanna Instruments. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://www.hannanorden.se/literature/Titration%20Introduction.pdf
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/introchem/chapter/strong-acid-weak-base-
titrations/. (n.d.).

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