THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

• Gonads—primary sex organs

– Testes in males

– Ovaries in females

• Gonads produce gametes (sex cells) and

secrete hormones

– Sperm—male gametes

– Ova (eggs)—female gametes

• Remaining structures are accessory

reproductive organs

• Reproductive systems

– Produce offspring via gametes

– Sperm and egg fuse to form a

zygote

– Female uterus houses the

embryo, and later the fetus,
until birth

ANATOMY OF THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE

SYSTEM

• Testes

• Duct system

– Epididymis

– Ductus (vas) deferens

– Urethra

• Accessory organs
TESTES
– Seminal glands (vesicles)
• Each testis is connected to the trunk via
– Prostate the spermatic cord, which houses:
– Bulbourethral glands – Blood vessels
• External genitalia – Nerves
– Penis – Ductus deferens
– Scrotum • Coverings of the testes
 – Tunica albuginea—capsule that DUCT SYSTEM
surrounds each testis
• The duct system transports sperm from
– Septa—extensions of the the body and includes:
capsule that extend into the
– Epididymis
testis and divide it into lobules
– Ductus deferens

– Urethra

• Epididymis

– Highly convoluted tube 6

meters (20 feet) long

– Found along the posterior

lateral side of the testis

– First part of the male duct

system

– Temporary storage site for

immature sperm

– Sperm mature as they journey

through the epididymis

– During ejaculation, sperm are

propelled to the ductus
deferens

• Ductus (vas) deferens

– Runs from the epididymis via

the spermatic cord through the
inguinal canal and arches over
• Each lobule contains one to four
the urinary bladder
seminiferous tubules
• Ampulla—end of the
– Tightly coiled structures
ductus deferens, which
– Function as sperm-forming empties into the
factories ejaculatory duct

– Empty sperm into the rete testis • Ejaculatory duct—

passes through the
• Sperm travels from the rete testis to the prostate to merge with
epididymis the urethra
• Interstitial cells in the seminiferous – Moves sperm by peristalsis into
tubules produce androgens such as the urethra
testosterone
• Ductus (vas) deferens Accessory Glands and Semen

– Ejaculation—smooth muscle in • Seminal vesicles

the walls of the ductus deferens
• Prostate
create peristaltic waves to
squeeze sperm forward • Bulbourethral glands
– Vasectomy—cutting of the • Seminal vesicles
ductus deferens prevents
transportation of sperm (form • Located at the base of the
of birth control) bladder

• Promotes sterility • Produce a thick, yellowish

secretion (60% of semen) that
• Male retains secondary contains:
sex characteristics
• Fructose (sugar)
• Urethra
• Vitamin C
– Extends from the base of the
urinary bladder to the tip of the • Prostaglandins
penis • Other substances that
– Carries both urine and sperm nourish and activate
sperm
– Sperm enters from the
ejaculatory duct • Duct of each seminal vesicle
joins that of the ductus
Urethra regions deferens on each side to form
the ejaculatory duct
1. Prostatic urethra—surrounded
by prostate gland • Prostate
2. Membranous urethra— • Encircles the upper (prostatic)
prostatic urethra to penis part of the urethra
3. Spongy (penile) urethra—runs • Secretes a milky fluid
the length of the penis to the
external urethral orifice • Helps to activate sperm

2. Ejaculation causes the internal urethra • Fluid enters the urethra

sphincter to close through several small
ducts
1. Prevents urine from passing
into the urethra • Bulbourethral glands

2. Prevents sperm from entering • Pea-sized glands inferior to the

the urinary bladder prostate

• Produce a thick, clear mucus

 • Mucus cleanses the • Maintains testes at 3 degree
spongy (penile) urethra Celsius lower than normal body
of acidic urine prior to temp
ejaculation
• Penis
• Mucus serves as a
• Male organ of copulation that
lubricant during sexual
delivers sperm into the female
intercourse
reproductive tract
• Semen
• Regions of the penis
• Milky white mixture of sperm
• Shaft
and accessory gland secretions
• Glans penis (enlarged
• Components of accessory gland
tip)
secretions
• Prepuce (foreskin)
• Liquid portion acts as a
transport medium to • Folded cuff of
dilute sperm skin around
proximal end
• Sperm are streamlined
cellular “tadpoles” • Often removed
by circumcision
• Fructose provides
energy for sperm cells • Penis
• Alkalinity of semen • Internally there are three areas
helps neutralize the of spongy erectile tissue around
acidic environment of the urethra
vagina
• Erections occur when this
• Semen inhibits bacteria erectile tissue fills with blood
during sexual excitement
External Genitalia
• Serves as male organ of
• Scrotum
copulation
• Penis
• Chief roles of the male in the
• Scrotum reproductive process

• Divided sac of skin outside the • Produce sperm

abdomen that houses the testes
• Produce a hormone,
• Viable sperm cannot be testosterone
produced at normal body
Spermatogenesis
temperature
• Sperm production
 • Begins at puberty and continues • Each division of a spermatogonium
throughout life stem cell produces:

• Millions of sperm are made – Type A daughter cell, a stem

every day cell, that continues the stem cell
population
• Sperm are formed in the seminiferous
tubules of the testis – Type B daughter cell, which
becomes a primary
• Spermatogonia (primitive stem
spermatocyte, destined to
cells) begin the process by
undergo meiosis and form four
dividing rapidly
sperm
• During puberty, follicle-
• Meiosis
stimulating hormone (F S H) is
secreted in increasing amounts – Special type of nuclear division
that differs from mitosis

– Occurs in the gonads

– Includes two successive

divisions of the nucleus (meiosis
I and II)

– Results in four daughter cells

(gametes)

• Gametes are spermatids with 23

chromosomes

– 23 chromosomes are half the

usual 46 found in other body
cells

– 23 is known as the haploid

number (n)—half the genetic
material as other body cells

• Union of a sperm (23 chromosomes, n)

with an egg (23 chromosomes, n)
creates a zygote (2 n, or 46
chromosomes)

THE HUMAN LIFE CYCLE

• Spermiogenesis

– Spermatids are nonmotile and

not functional as sperm

– A streamlining process is
needed to strip excess
cytoplasm from a spermatid
and modify it into a sperm

– A sperm has three regions:

head, midpiece, tail

– Acrosome sits anterior to the

sperm head (nucleus) TESTOSTERONE PRODUCTION
– The entire process of • During puberty:
spermatogenesis, including
spermiogenesis, takes 64 to 72 – Follicle-stimulating hormone (F
days S H) begins prodding
seminiferous tubules to
STRUCTURE OF SPERM produce sperm

– Luteinizing hormone (L H)
begins activating the interstitial
cells to produce testosterone

• Testosterone
– Most important hormonal
product of the testes

– Stimulates reproductive organ

development

– Underlies sex drive

– Causes secondary sex

characteristics

• Deepening of voice

• Increased hair growth

• Enlargement of skeletal
muscles

• Increased bone growth

and density
 • Ovaries

• Duct system

– Uterine (fallopian) tubes

– Uterus

– Vagina

• External genitalia

OVARIES

• Ovaries
 – Produce eggs (ova) and – Ovarian ligaments anchor
hormones (estrogen and ovaries to the uterus medially
progesterone)
– Broad ligaments, a fold of
– Each ovary houses ovarian peritoneum, enclose and hold
follicles consisting of: the ovaries in place

▪ Oocyte (immature egg)

▪ Follicle cells—layers of
different cells that
surround the oocyte

• Ovarian follicles

– Primary follicle—contains an
immature oocyte DUCT SYSTEM
– Vesicular (Graafian) follicle— • Uterine (fallopian) tubes
growing follicle with a maturing
oocyte • Uterus

– Ovulation—the follicle ruptures • Vagina

when the egg is mature and
• Uterine (fallopian) tubes
ready to be ejected from the
ovary; occurs about every 28 • Form the initial part of the duct
days system

– The ruptured follicle is • Receive the ovulated oocyte

transformed into a corpus from the ovaries
luteum
• Usual site for fertilization
• Ovary support
• Empty into the uterus
– Suspensory ligaments secure
• Little or no contact between
the ovaries to the lateral walls
ovaries and uterine tubes
of the pelvis
 • Supported and enclosed by the • Cervix—narrow outlet that
broad ligament protrudes into the vagina

• Uterine (fallopian) tube structure • Layers of the uterus

• Infundibulum • Endometrium

• Distal, funnel-shaped • Inner layer (mucosa)

end
• Site of implantation of a
• Fimbriae fertilized egg

• Fingerlike projections of • Sloughs off if no

the infundibulum pregnancy occurs
(menstruation or
• Receive the oocyte
menses)
from the ovary
• Myometrium is the middle layer
• Cilia located inside the
of smooth muscle that contracts
uterine tube transport
during labor
the oocyte
• Perimetrium (visceral
• Uterus
peritoneum) is the outermost
• Situated between the urinary serous layer of the uterus
bladder and rectum
• Vagina (birth canal)
• Size and shape of a pear, in a
• Passageway that extends from
woman who has never been
cervix to exterior of body and is
pregnant
located between urinary
• Receives, retains, nourishes a bladder and rectum
fertilized egg
• Serves as the canal that allows a
• Uterine support baby or menstrual flow to leave
the body
• Broad ligament suspends the
uterus in the pelvis • Female organ of copulation

• Round ligament anchors the • Receives the penis during sexual

uterus anteriorly intercourse

• Uterosacral ligament anchors • Hymen—partially closes the

the uterus posteriorly vagina until it is ruptured

• Regions of the uterus • The female external genitalia, or vulva,

includes:
• Body—main portion
• Mons pubis
• Fundus—superior rounded
region above where uterine • Labia
tube enters
• Clitoris
 • Urethral orifice – Enclosed by labia majora

• Vaginal orifice – Contains external openings of

the urethra and vagina
• Greater vestibular glands
• Greater vestibular glands

– One is found on each side of the

vagina

– Secretions lubricate vagina

during intercourse

– The clitoris is similar to the

penis in that it is:

• Hooded by a prepuce

• Composed of sensitive
External Genitalia and Female Perineum erectile tissue

• Mons pubis • Swollen with blood

during sexual
– Fatty area overlying the pubic excitement
symphysis
– The clitoris lacks a reproductive
– Covered with pubic hair after duct
puberty
• Perineum
• Labia—skin folds
– Diamond-shaped region
– Labia majora between the anterior ends of
• Hair-covered skin folds the labial folds, anus
posteriorly, and ischial
• Enclose the labia tuberosities laterally
minora
Female Reproductive Functions and Cycles
• Also encloses the
vestibule • The total supply of eggs is determined
by the time a female is born
– Labia minora—delicate, hair-
free folds of skin • Ability to release eggs begins at puberty
with the onset of the menstrual cycle
• Clitoris
• Reproductive ability ends at menopause
– Contains erectile tissue (in female’s fifties)
– Corresponds to the male penis Oogenesis and the Ovarian Cycle
• Vestibule
• Oogenesis is the process of producing the 23 chromosomes of the sperm to
ova (eggs) in a female form the fertilized egg (zygote)

– Oogonia are female stem cells • If the secondary oocyte is not

found in a developing fetus penetrated by a sperm, it dies and does
not complete meiosis to form an ovum
– Oogonia undergo mitosis to
produce primary oocytes that OVULATION
are surrounded by cells that
form primary follicles in the
ovary

• Primary oocytes are inactive until

puberty

• Follicle-stimulating hormone (F S H)
causes some primary follicles to mature
each month

• Cyclic monthly changes constitute the

ovarian cycle

• Meiosis starts inside maturing follicle • Mature follicles that are not ovulated
will deteriorate
– First meiotic division produces a
larger secondary oocyte and a • Luteinizing hormone (L H)
smaller first polar body
– Triggers ovulation
– A vesicular follicle contains a
secondary oocyte (maturation – Causes the ruptured follicle to
from a primary follicle takes transform into a corpus luteum
about 14 days) • Meiosis differences between males and
• Ovulation of a secondary oocyte occurs females
with the release of luteinizing hormone – Males—produces four
(L H) functional sperm
• Secondary oocyte is released and – Females—produces one
surrounded by a corona radiata functional ovum and three tiny
• Meiosis is completed after ovulation polar bodies
only if sperm penetrates the oocyte • Sex cell size and structure differences
– Ovum is produced between sperm and eggs

– Two additional polar bodies are – Sperm are tiny, motile, and
produced equipped with nutrients in
seminal fluid
• Once ovum is formed, the 23
chromosomes can be combined with
 – Egg is large, is nonmotile, and
▪ Widening and
has nutrient reserves to nourish
the embryo until implantation lightening of the pelvis

EVENTS OF OOGENESIS ▪ Onset of menses

(menstrual cycle)

• Progesterone is produced by the corpus

luteum

– Production continues until L H

diminishes in the blood

– Does not contribute to the

appearance of secondary sex
characteristics

– Other major effects

▪ Helps maintain
pregnancy

▪ Prepares the breasts for

milk production
Hormone Production by the Ovaries
– Placenta is the major source of
• Estrogens are produced by follicle cells
progesterone by the second
– Cause secondary sex month of pregnancy
characteristics
Uterine (Menstrual) Cycle
▪ Enlargement of • Cyclic changes of the endometrium,
accessory organs of the about 28 days in length
female reproductive
• Regulated by cyclic production of
system
estrogens and progesterone by the
ovaries
▪ Development of breasts
• F S H and L H, from the anterior
▪ Appearance of axillary pituitary, regulate the production of
and pubic hair estrogens and progesterone by the
ovaries
▪ Increase in fat beneath • Ovulation typically occurs about midway
the skin, particularly in through cycle, on day 14
hips and breasts
• Stages of the menstrual cycle

• Menstrual phase
 • Proliferative stage and menses to begin on
day 28
• Secretory stage

• Days 0–4: menstrual phase

• Functional layer of the

endometrium is sloughed off

• Bleeding occurs for 3 to 5 days

• By day 4, growing ovarian

follicles are producing more
estrogen

• Days 5–14: proliferative stage

• Regeneration of functional layer

of the endometrium

• Endometrium is
repaired, thickens, and
becomes well
vascularized

• Ovulation occurs in the ovary at

the end of this stage

• Days 15–28: secretory phase

• Levels of progesterone rise and

increase the blood supply to the
endometrium

• If implantation does occur:

• Embryo produces a
hormone that causes
the corpus luteum to
continue producing its
hormones

• If fertilization does not occur:

• Corpus luteum
degenerates as L H
blood levels decline

• Lack of ovarian
hormones causes
endometrial cells to die
Mammary Glands

• Present in both sexes, but function only

in females

– Modified sweat glands

• Function is to produce milk to nourish a

newborn

• Stimulated by sex hormones (mostly

estrogens) to increase in size

• Parts of the mammary gland that form

the breast

– Areola—central pigmented area

of the breast

– Nipple—protruding central area

of areola

– Lobes—internal structures that

radiate around nipple

– Lobules—located within each

lobe and contain clusters of
alveolar glands

– Alveolar glands—produce milk

when a woman is lactating
(producing milk)

– Lactiferous ducts—connect
alveolar glands to nipple

– Lactiferous sinus—dilated
portion where milk accumulates

FEMALE MAMMARY GLANDS

Mammography

• Mammography is X-ray examination

that detects breast cancers too small to
feel

• American Cancer Society recommends

mammography annually for women
between 45 and 54 years old and every
 2 years thereafter if the results are • An oocyte is viable up to 24 hours after
normal ovulation

• Breast cancer is often signaled by a • Sperm are viable up to 48 hours after

change in skin texture, puckering, or ejaculation
leakage from the nipple
– For fertilization to occur, sexual
Figure 16.14 Mammograms intercourse must occur no more
than 2 days before ovulation
and no later than 24 hours after

• Sperm cells must make their way to the

uterine tube for fertilization to be
possible

– Sperm cells are attracted to the

oocyte by chemicals
Pregnancy and Embryonic Development
• When sperm reach the oocyte:
• Pregnancy—time from fertilization until
– Enzymes break down the follicle
infant is born
cells of the corona radiata
• Conceptus—developing offspring around the oocyte

– Embryo—period of time from – Sperm undergo an acrosomal

fertilization until week 8 reaction

– Fetus—week 9 until birth • Enzymes are released

that digest holes in the
• Gestation period—from date of last oocyte membrane
period until birth (approximately 280
days) – Membrane receptors on the
oocyte pull in the head of the
Figure 16.15 Diagrams Showing the first sperm cell to make contact
Approximate Size of a Human Conceptus From
Fertilization to the Early Fetal Stage – Oocyte undergoes second
meiotic division to produce an
ovum and a polar body

Figure 16.16 Sperm and Oocyte During

Fertilization

Accomplishing Fertilization
 • Blastocyst

– Hollow, ball-like structure of

100 cells or more

– Secretes human chorionic

gonadotropin (h C G) to induce
the corpus luteum to continue
producing hormones,
preventing menses, until the
placenta assumes its role

• Functional areas of the blastocyst

– Trophoblast—large fluid-filled
• Fertilization occurs when the genetic
sphere
material of a sperm combines with that
of an ovum to create a fertilized egg or – Inner cell mass—cluster of cells
zygote to one side
Events of Embryonic & Fetal Development • By day 7 after ovulation, the blastocyst
has attached to the endometrium and
• Zygote
implantation is complete by day 14 after
– First cell of a new individual ovulation
– The zygote is the result of the Figure 16.17 From Fertilization and Cleavage to
fusion of D N A from sperm and Implantation
ovum

– The zygote begins rapid mitotic

cell divisions, known as
cleavage, 24 hours after
fertilization

– The zygote journeys down the

uterine tube, moving toward
the uterus

• Cleavage

– Rapid series of mitotic divisions

that begins with the zygote

– Provides a large number of cells

to construct the embryo

– 3 days after ovulation, the

embryo reaches the uterus and
floats as a morula, a ball of 16
cells
 ▪ Endoderm—inside
layer, which forms
mucosae and
associated glands

▪ Mesoderm—middle
layer, which gives rise to
everything else

Figure 16.18 Embryo of Approximately 18 Days

• After implantation, the trophoblast of

the blastocyst develops chorionic villi
(projections)

– Chorionic villi combine with

tissues of the uterus to form the
placenta

• Once the placenta has formed, the

amnion is attached to the placenta by
an umbilical cord
• Inner cell mass of blastocyst develops – Amnion is a fluid-filled sac that
into: surrounds the embryo
– Primary germ layers – Umbilical cord is a blood vessel–
containing stalk of tissue
▪ Ectoderm—outside
layer, which gives rise to
nervous system and
epidermis of skin
 • Fetal changes are summarized in Table
16.1
Figure 16.19 The 7-Week Embryo
Figure 16.20 Examples of Fetal Development

Table 16.1 Development of the Human Fetus

• Placenta

– Forms a barrier between

mother and embryo (blood is
not exchanged)

– Delivers nutrients and oxygen

– Removes wastes from

embryonic blood

– Becomes an endocrine organ

and takes over for the corpus
luteum (by end of second
month); produces estrogen,
progesterone, and other
hormones that maintain
pregnancy

• All organ systems are formed by the end

of the eighth week

• Activities of the fetus are growth and

organ specialization

• The fetal stage is one of tremendous

growth and change in appearance
 ▪ Morning sickness is
common and is due to
elevated progesterone
and estrogens

▪ Heartburn is common
because of organ
crowding by the fetus

▪ Constipation is caused
by declining motility of
Effects of Pregnancy on the Mother the digestive tract

• Pregnancy—period from conception • Physiological changes

until birth
– Urinary system
• Anatomical changes
▪ Kidneys have additional
– Enlargement of the uterus
burden and produce
– Accentuated lumbar curvature more urine
(lordosis)
▪ The uterus compresses
– Relaxation of the pelvic
ligaments and pubic symphysis the bladder, causing
due to production of the stress incontinence
hormone relaxin • Physiological changes
Figure 16.21 Relative Size of the Uterus Before – Respiratory system
Conception and During Pregnancy
▪ Nasal mucosa becomes
congested and swollen

▪ Vital capacity and

respiratory rate
increase

▪ Dyspnea (difficult
breathing) occurs
during later stages of
Effects of Pregnancy on the Mother pregnancy
• Physiological changes • Physiological changes
– Gastrointestinal system – Cardiovascular system
 baby deeper into the mother’s
▪ Blood volume increases
pelvis
by 25% to 40%
CONCEPT LINK 3
▪ Blood pressure and
Remember the concept of the feedback loop
pulse increase (see Chapter 1, p. 41). A stimulus triggers a
receptor, the information is sent to the brain for
▪ Varicose veins are processing, and a signal is sent to an effector
common with instructions for a response. Most of the
feedback in the body is negative feedback, in
Childbirth (Parturition)
which the response decreases the initial
• Initiation of labor stimulus. Labor, however, involves positive
feedback: The response (stronger contractions)
– Labor—the series of events that
actually increases the initial stimulus (oxytocin
expel the infant from the uterus
release) until the child is born.
▪ Rhythmic, expulsive
contractions
Figure 16.22 Oxytocin Promotes Labor
Contractions During Birth by a Positive
▪ Operates by the
Feedback Mechanism (1 to 7)
positive feedback
mechanism

– False labor—Braxton Hicks

contractions are weak, irregular
uterine contractions

• Initiation of labor

– Estrogen levels rise

– Uterine contractions begin

– The placenta releases

prostaglandins

– Oxytocin receptors increase in

the myometrium

▪ Oxytocin is released by
the posterior pituitary

– Combined effects of rising levels

of hormones—oxytocin and
prostaglandins—initiates
contractions and forces the
 – The amnion ruptures (“breaking
the water”)

– Longest stage, at 6 to 12 hours

Figure 16.23a The Three Stages of Labor

• Stage 2: Expulsion stage

Stages of Labor – Infant passes through the cervix
• Stage 1: Dilation stage and vagina

– Cervix becomes dilated – Can last as long as 2 hours, but

typically is 50 minutes in the
– Full dilation is 10 centimeters first birth and 20 minutes in
subsequent births
– Uterine contractions begin and
increase – Normal delivery is head-first
(vertex position)
– Cervix softens and effaces
(thins)
 – Breech presentation is buttocks- – Males have X Y sex
first chromosomes

– Females have X X sex

chromosomes

• Reproductive system structures of

males and females are identical during
early development (indifferent stage)

• Gonads do not begin to form until the

eighth week

• The presence or absence of

testosterone determines whether male
or female accessory reproductive
organs will form

• The reproductive system is inactive

during childhood
• Stage 3: Placental stage
• Reproductive system organs do not
– Delivery of the placenta
function for childbearing until puberty
– Usually accomplished within 15
• Puberty usually begins between ages 10
minutes after birth of infant
and 15
– Afterbirth—placenta and
• Puberty
attached fetal membranes
– Males
– All placental fragments should
be removed to avoid • Enlargement of testes
postpartum bleeding and scrotum signals
onset of puberty (often
around age 13)

– Females

• Budding breasts signal

puberty (often around
age 11)

• Menarche—first
menstrual period
(usually occurs about 2
years later)
Developmental Aspects of the Reproductive
System • Menopause—a whole year has passed
without menstruation
• Gender is determined at fertilization
 – Ovaries stop functioning as – Only birth control method that
endocrine organs is 100% effective

– Childbearing ability ends

– Hot flashes and mood changes

may occur

• There is a no equivalent of menopause

in males, but there is a steady decline in
testosterone

A Closer Look: Contraception

• Contraception—birth control

• Birth control pill—most-used

contraceptive

– Relatively constant supply of

ovarian hormones from pill is
similar to pregnancy

– Ovarian follicles do not mature,

ovulation ceases, menstrual
flow is reduced

• Morning-after pill (M A P) or emergency

contraceptive pill (EC)

– Taken within 3 days of

unprotected intercourse

– Disrupts normal hormonal

signals to the point that
fertilization is prevented

• Sterilization techniques

– Tubal ligation (females)—cut or

cauterize uterine tubes

– Vasectomy (males)—cut or
cauterize the ductus deferens

• Barrier methods

– Diaphragms

– Condoms

• Abstinence