READING PASSAGE 1 You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 1-13, which are based on Reading Passage 1 below. CLASSIFYING SOCIETIES Although humans have established many types of societies throughout history socidlogists and anthropologists tend (o classify different societies according to the degree to which different ffoups within 2 society have unequal access to advantages such as resources, prestige or power, and usually refer to four basic types of societies. From least to most socially complex they are clans, tribes, chiefdoms and states, Clan ‘These are small-scale societies of hunters and gatherers, generally of fewer than 100 people, who move seasonally to exploit wild (undomesticated) food resources. Most surviving huntergatherer groups are of this kind, such as the Hadza of Tanwania or the San of southern Affiéa. Clan members are generally kinsfolk, related by descent or marriage, Clans lack formalsledders, so there are no marked economic differences or disparities in status among their members. Because clans are composed of mobile groups of huntet-gatherers, their sites consist mainly of seasonally ‘occupied camps, and other smaller and, morg’specialised sites. Among the latter are kill or butchery sites—locations where large mammals are killed and)sometimes butchered— and work sites, where tools, are made or other specific activities carried [Link] base camp of such a group may give evidence of rather insubstantial dwellings or tempoFary Shelters, along with the debris of residential occupation. Tribe ‘These are generally largef"than mobile hunter-gatherer groups, but rarely number more than a few thousand, and their diet or subsistence is based largely on cultivated plants and domesticated animals. ‘Typically they are settled\farmers, but they may be nomadic with a very different, mobile economy based on the intensiyé“exploifation of livestock. These are generally multi~community societies, with the individual communities integrated into the larger society through kinship ties. Although some tribes have officials and'eyen a “capital” or seat of government, such officials lack the economic base necessary for effective us® of power.The typical settlement pattern for tribes is one of settled agricultural homesteads or villages. CCharacteristically no one settlement dominates any of the others in the region. Instead, the archaeologist finds evidence for isolated, permanently occupied houses or for permanent villages. Such villages may be ‘made up of a collection of free-standing houses, like those of the first farms of the Danube valley in Europe. Or they may be clusters of buildings grouped together, for example, the pueblos of the American Southwest, and the early farming village or small (own of Qatalhdyuk in modem Turkey. Chiefelorn ‘These operate on the principle of ranking— differences in social status between people. Different lineages (a lineage isa group claiming descent from a common ancestor) are graded on a scale of prestige, and the senior lineage, and hence the society as a whole, is governed by a chief. Prestige and rank are determifiéd by how closely related one is to the chief, and there is no true stratification into classes. The role of the chief is crucial. Often, there is local specialisation in craft products, and surpluses of these and of foodstuffs are periodically paid as obligation to the chief. He uses these to maintain his retainers, and may use them for redistribution to his subjects. The chiefdom generally has a center of power, often withifemiples, residences of the chief and his retainers, and craft specialists. Chiefdoms vary greatly in sige, but the range is generally between about ‘5000 and 20,000 persons. Early State These preserve many of the features of chiefdoms, ‘but the ruler (perhaps a king or sometimes a queen) has explicit authority to establish laws and also to enfotce ther by the use ofa standing army. Society no longer depends totally upon kin relationships: itis now sttalfied into different classes, Agricultural workers and the poorer urban dwellers form the lowestclasseS, with the craft specialists above, and the priests and kinsolk of the ruler higher still. The fancions ofthe ruler are often separated from those of the priest palace is distinguished from temple. The sbciety is viewed as a territory owned by the ruling lineage and populated by tenants who have an obfigation to pay taxes. The central capital houses a bureaucratic administration of officials; sone of their principal purposes is fo collect revenue (often in the form of taxes and tolls) and distribute to government, army and craft specialists. Many early sates developed complex redistribution systems to sippot hese essential services. ‘This rather simple social typology set out by Elman Service and elaborated by William Sanders and Joseph Marino, can be crilitised, and it should not be used unthinkingly: Nevertheless, if we are seeking to talk about eatly societies, we must use words and hence concepts to do so. Service's categories provide a good frameworleto help organise our thoughtsQuestions 1-7 Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 1? In boxes 1-7 on your answer sheet, write TRUE if the statement agrees with the information FALSI if the statement contradicts the information NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this There's little economic difference between members of a clan. ‘The farmers of a tribe grow a wide range of plants. One settlement is more important than any other settlements ina tribe A member’ status in a chiefdom is determined by how much land he owns. There are people who craft goods in chiefdoms ‘The king keeps the order of a state by using an army. aay een e Bureaucratic officers receive higher salaries than other members. Questions 8-13 Answer the questions below. Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer. Write your answers in boxes, 8-13 on your answer sheet. What are made at the clan work sites? What is the other way of life for tribes besides settled farming? 10. How ate Qatalhoyuk’s housing units arranged? 11. What does a chief give to his subjects as rewards besides crafted goods? 12. What is the largest possible population of a chiefdom? 13. Which group of people is at the bottom of an early state but higher than the farmer?READING PASSAGE 2 You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 14-26, which are based on Reading Passage 2 on the following pages. Questions 14-20 Reading passage 2 has seven paragraphs, A-G. Choose the correct heading for each paragraph from the list of headings below. Write the correct number, i-viii, in boxes 14-20 on your answer sheet. List of Headings i How CSR may help one business to expand ii CSR in many aspects of a company's business ili A CSR initiative without a financial gain. iv Lack of action by the state of sogial issues Vv _ Drives or pressures motivate companies to address CSR, vi_ The past illustrates business are responsible for future outcomes vii Companies applying CSR should be selective viii__ Reasons that business and society benefit each other 14, Paragraph\A 15, Paragraph B 16, Paragraph C 17, Paragraph D 18. Paragraph E 19, Paragraph F 20. Paragraph GCorporate Social Responsibility Broadly speaking, proponents of CSR have used four arguments to make their case: moral obligation, sustainability, license to operate, and reputation. The moral appeal arguing that companies have a duty to be good citizens and to "do the right thing" is prominent in the goal of Business for Social Responsibility, the leading nonprofit CSR business association in the United States. It asks that its members "achieve commercial success in ways that honour ethical values and respect people, communities, and the natural environment." Sustainability emphasises environmental and community stewardship. A. An excellent definition was developed in the 1980s by Norwegian Prime Minister Gro Harlem Brundt- land and used by the World Business Council for Sustainable Development: "Meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs." Nowadays, governments and companies need to account for the social consequences of their actions. As a result, corporate social responsibility (CSR) has become a priority for business leaders around the world. When a well-run business applies its vast resources and expertise to social problems that it tinderstands and in which it has a stake, it can have a greater impact than any other organization. The notion of license to operate derives from the fact that evéty Company needs tacit or explicit permission from governments, communities, and numerous other stakeholders to justify CSR initiatives to improye’a company’s image, strengthen its brand, enliven morale and even raise the value ofits stock. To advance CSR, we must root it in a broad understanding of the interrelationship between a corporation and society. Successful corporations need a healthy society. Education, health care, and equal opportunity are essential to a productive workforce. Safe products and working conditions not only attract customers but lower the internal costs of accidents. Efficient utilization of land, water, energy, and other natural resources makes business more productive. Good government, the rule of law, and property rights are essential for efficiency and innovation, Strong regulatory standards protect both consumers and competitive companies from exploitation, Ultimately, a healthy society creates expanding demand for business, as more human needs are met and aspirations grow. Any business thatpursues its ends at the expense of the society in which it operates will find its success to be illusory and ultimately temporary. At the same time, a healthy society needs successful companies. No social program can rival the business sector when it comes to creating the jobs, wealth, and innovation that improve standards of living and social conditions over time. A company's impact on society also changes over time, as social standards evolve and science progresses. Asbestos, now understood as a serious health risk, was thought to be safe in the early 1900s, given the scientific knowledge then available. Evidence of its risks gradually mounted for more than 50. years before any company was held liable for the harms it can cause. Many firms that failed to anticipate the consequences of this evolving body of esearch have been bankrupted by the results. No longer can companies be content to monitor only the obvious social impacts of today. Without a careful process for identifying evolving social effects of tomorrow, firms may tisk their very survival No business can solve all of society's problems or bear the cost of doing so. Instead, each company must select issues that intersect with its particular business. Other social agendas are best left to those companies in other industries, NGOs, ‘or government institutions that are~better positioned to address them. The essential test that should guide CSR is not whether a cause is worthy but whether it presents an opportunity to-ereate shared value — that is, a meaningful benefit for society that is also valuable to the business. Each company can identify the particular set of societal problems that it is best equipped to help resolve and from which it can gain the greatest competitive benefit. The best corporate citizenship initiatives involve far more than writing a check: They spetify clear, measurable goals and track results over e. A good example is General Electronics's program to adopt underperforming public high schools near several of its major U.S. facilities. The company contributes between $250,000 and $1 million over a five-year period to each school and makes in-kind donations as well. GE managers and employees take an active role by working with school administrators to assess needs and mentor or tutor students. In an independent study often schools in the program between 1989 and 1999, nearly all showed significant improvement, while the graduation rate in four of the five worst performing schools doubled from an average of 30% to 60%. Effectivecorporate citizenship initiatives such as this one create goodwill and improve relations with local governments and other important constituencies. What's more, GE's employees feel great pride in their participation. Their effect is inherently limited, however. No matter how beneficial the program is, it remains incidental to the company's business, and the direct effect on GE's recruiting and retention is, modest. Microsoft's Working Connections partnership with the American Association of Community Colleges (ACC) is a good example of a shared-value opportunity arising from investments in context, The shortage of information. technology workers is a significant constraint on Microsoft's growth; currently, there are more than 450,000 unfilled IT positions in the United States alone. Community colleges, with an enrollment of 11.6 million students, representing 45% of all U.S. undergraduates, could be a major solution. Microsoft'tecognizes, however, that community colleges face special challenges: IT curricula are not standardized, technology used in classrooms is often outdated)yand there are no systematic professional development programs to keep faculty up to date. Microsoft's $50 million five-year initiative was aimed at all three problems. In addition to contributing money and products, Microsoft sent employee volunteers to colleges to assess needs, contribute 6 cuticulum development, and create faculty development institutes. Microsoft has achieved results that have benefited many communities while having a direct-and potentially significant-impact on the company, At the heart of any strategy is a unique value proposition: a set of needs a company can meet for its chosen customers that others cannot. The most strategic CSR oecurs when a company adds a social dimension to its value proposition, making-social impact integral to the overall strategy. Consider Whole Foods Market, whose value proposition is to sell organic, natural, and healthy food products to customers who are passionate about food and the environment. The company's sourcing emphasises purchases from local farmers through each store's procurement process. Buyers screen out foods containing any of nearly 100 common ingredients that the company considers unhealthy or environmentally damaging. The same standards apply to products made internally, Whole Foods! commitment to natural and environmentally friendly operating practices extendswell beyond sourcing. Stores are constructed using a minimum of virgin raw materials. Recently, the company purchased renewable wind energy credits equal to 100% of its electricity use in all of its stores and facilities, the only Fortune 500 company to offset its electricity consumption entirely. Spoiled produce and biodegradable waste are trucked to regional centers for composting. Whole Foods’ vehicles are being converted to run on biofuels. Even the cleaning products used in its stores are environmentally friendly. And through its philanthropy, the company has created the Animal Compassion Foundation to develop more natural and humane ways of raising farm animals. In short, nearly every aspect of the company's value chain reinforces the social dimensions of its value'proposition, distinguishing Whole Foods from its competitors. Questions 21-22 Complete the summary below: Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer. Write your answers in boxes 21-22 on your answer sheet. ‘The implement of CSR, HOW? Promotion of CSR requires the understanding of interdependence between business and society. Corporations workers’ productivity generally needs health care, education, and given21_\ _. Restrictions imposed by government and companies both protect consumers from being treated unfairly. Improvement of the safety standard can reduce the 22____of accidents in the workplace. Similarly society becomes a pool of more human needs and aspirations.Questions 23-26 Look at the following opinions or deeds (Questions 23-26) and the list of companies below. Match each opinion or deed -with the correct company, A, B or C. Write the correct letter, A, B or C in boxes 23-26 on your answer sheet: NB You may use any letter more than once. 23 The disposable waste 24 The way company purchases as goods 25 Helping the undeveloped 26 Ensuring the people have the latest information List of Companies A. General Electronics B ) Microsoft C_ Whole Foods MarketREADING PASSAGE 3 You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 27-40 which are based on Reading Passage 3 below. Amateur Naturalists From the results of an annual Alaskan betting contest to sightings of migratory birds, ecologists are using a wealth of unusual data to predict the impact of climate Change. A. TimSparks slides a small leather-bound notebook out of an envelope: The book's yellowing pages contain beekeeping notes made between. 1941 and 1969 by the late Walter Coates of Kilworth, Leicestershire. He adds it to-his growing pile of local journals, birdwatchers’ lists and gardening diaries, "We're uncovering about ‘one major new record each month," he says, "I still get surprised." Around two centuries before Coates, Robert Marsham, a landowner from Norfolk in the east of England, began recording the life eycles of plants and animals on his estate — when the first wood anemones flowered) the dates on which the oaks burst into leaf and the rooks began nesting, Sucgessive Marshams continued compiling these notes for 211 years. B. Today, such records afe being put to uses that their authors could not possibly have expected. These data sets, and others like them, are proving invaluable to ecologists interested in the timing of biological events, or phenology. By combining the records with climate data, researchers can reveal how, for example, changes in temperature affect the arrival of spring, allowing ecologists to make improved: predictions about the impact of climate change. A small band of researchers is combing through hundreds of years of records taken by thousands of amateur naturalists. And more systematic projects have also started up, producing an overwhelming response, "The amount of interest is almost frightening,” says Sparks, a climate researcher at the Centre for Ecology and Hydrology in Monks Wood, Cambridgeshire. C. Sparks first became aware of the army of "closet phenologists"as he describes them, when a retiring colleague gave him the Marsham records. He now spendsmuch of his time following leads from one historical data set to another. As news of his quest spreads, people tip him off to other historical records, and more amateur phenologists come out of their closets. The British devotion to recording and collecting makes his job easier — one man from Kent sent him 30 years’ worth of kitchen calendars, on which he had noted the date that his neighbour's magnolia tree flowered. Other researchers have unearthed data from equally odd sources. Rafe Sagarin, an ecologist at Stanford University California, recently studied records of a betting contest in which participants attempt to guess the exact time at which @ specially erected wooden tripod will fall through the surface of a thawing river. The competition has taken place annually on the Tenana River in Alaska since 1917, and analysis of the results showed that the thaw now arrives five days earlier than it did when the contest began. Overall, such records have helped to show that, ‘compared with 20 years ago, a raft of natural events now occur earlier across much of the northern hemisphere, from the opening of leaves to the réturn ‘of birds from migration and the emergence of butterflies from hibemation. The data can also hint at how nature will change in the future. Together with models of climate change, amateurs’ records could help guide conservation. Terry Root, an ecologist at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor, has collected birdwatchers’ counts of wildfowl taken between 1955 and1996, on seasonal ponds in the American Midwest and combined them with climate data and models of future warming. Her analysis shows that the ineteaSed droughts that the models predict could halve the breeding populations at the ponds. "The number of waterfowl in North America will most probably drop significantly with global warming," she says. But not all professionals are happy to use amateur data. "A lot of scientists won’t touch them, they say they’re too full of problems," says Root. Because different observers can have different ideas of what constitutes, for example, an open snowdrop. "The biggest concern with ad hoc observations is how carefully and systematically they were taken," says Mark Schwartz of the University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, who studies the interactions between plants and climate. "We need to know pretty precisely what a person’s been observing — if they just say ‘I noted when the leaves came out’, it might not be that useful." Measuringthe onset of autumn can be particularly problematic because deciding when leaves change colour is a more subjective process than noting when they appear. Overall, most phenologists are positive about the contribution that amateurs can make. "They get at the raw power of science: careful observation of the natural world," says Sagarin. But the professionals also acknowledge the need for careful quality control. Root, for example, tries to gauge the quality of an amateur archive by interviewing its collector. "You always have to worry— things as trivial as vacations can affect measurement. I disregard a lot of records because theyl re not rigorous enough’I she says. Others suggest that the right statistics can iron out some of the problems with amateur data. Together with colleagues at Wageningen University in the Netherlands, environmental scientist Amold van Vliet is developing statistical techniques to account for the uncertainty in amateur phenological data. With the enthusiasm of amateur phéfiologists evident from past records, professional researchers are now [Link] create standardized recording schemes for future efforts. They hope that well-designed studies will generate a volume of observations large enough"to drown out the idiosyncrasies of individual recorders. The data are cheap to collect, and can provide breadth in space, time and range of species. "It’svery difficult to collect data on a large geographical scale without enlisting an-army of observers," says Root Phenology also helps to drive-home messages about climate change, "Because the public understand these records, they accept them," says Sparks. It can also illustrate potentially ‘unpleasant consequences, he adds, such as the finding that more rat infestations are reported to local councils in warmer years. And getting people involved is great for public relations. "People are thrilled to think that the data they've been collecting as a hobby can be used for something scientific — it ‘empowers them," says RootQuestions 27-33 Reading Passage 3 has eight paragraphs A-H. Which paragraph contains the following information? Write the correct letter A-H in boxes 27-33 on your answer sheet. 27 The definition of phenology 28 How Sparks first became aware of amateur records 29 How people reacted to their involvement in data collection 30 The necessity to encourage amateur data collection 31 A description of using amateur records to make predictions 32 Records of a competition providing clues for climate change 33 A description of a very old record compiled by generations of amateur naturalists Questions 34-36 Complete the sentences below with NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage. Write your answers in boxes 34-36 on your answer sheet. 34 Walter Coates's records largely contain the information of. 35 Robert Marsham is famous for recording the of animals and plants on his land. 36 According to some phenologists, global warming may cause the number of waterfowl in North America to drop significantly due to increasedQuestions 37-40 Choose the correct letter A, B, C or D. Write your answers in boxes 3 7-40 on your answer sheet. 37 Why do a lot of scientists discredit the data collected by amateurs? A Scientific method was not used in data collection. B Amateur observers are not careful in recording their data C Amateur data is not reliable. D Amateur data is produced by wrong candidates. 38 Mark Schwartz used the example of leaves to illustrate that?. A Amateur records can't be used. B Amateur records are always unsystematic C The color change of leaves is hard to observe. D Valuable information is often precise 39 How do the scientists suggest amateur data should be used? A Using improved methods. B Be more careful in observation. C Use raw materials. D Applying statistical techniques in data collection. 40 What's the implication of phenology for ordinary people? A It empowers the public. B It promotes public relations C It wams people of animal infestation. D It raises awareness about climate change in the public