INTRODUCTION TO
EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING
1 Basic Seismology
Concepts
Saulat Jillani
MSc. Structural Engineering
2 Definitions
Seismology (derived from Greek word Seismos meaning Earthquake
and Logos meaning science) is the science of Earthquakes and related
phenomena.
(Seismology is the study of the generation, propagation and recording of elastic
waves in the earth and the source that produces them)
Earthquakes are the manifestations of sudden release of strain energy
accumulated in the rocks over extensive periods of time in the upper part of
the Earth.
(An earthquake is sudden tremor and movement of earth’s crust, which
originates naturally at or below the surface)
3 Definitions
Aftershock
An earthquake that follows a large
magnitude earthquake called, ‘main
shock’ and originates in or around the
rupture zone of the main shock.
Generally, major earthquakes are
followed by a number of aftershocks,
which show a decreasing trend in
magnitude and frequency with time.
4 Definitions
Fault
A weak plane in the Earth's crust and upper
mantle along which two blocks of rock mass
rupture or slip past each other. Faults are caused
by earthquakes and earthquakes are likely to
reoccur on pre-existing faults, where stresses are
accumulated.
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6 Definitions
Seismograph/ Seismogram
Seismograph is an instrument that records the ground motions.
Seismogram is a continuous written record of an earthquake recorded
by a seismograph.
7 Seismograph/ Seismogram
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Seismogram Printout
9 Tsunami
A system of gravity waves formed in the sea due
to large scale disturbance of sea level over a short
duration of time. Tsunamis are caused by
earthquakes under the sea bottom, submarine
volcanic eruptions, displacement of submarine
sediments etc.
10 1. Nature of Earthquakes
An earthquake is an oscillatory, sometimes violent movement of the
Earth’s surface that follows a release of energy in the Earth’s crust.
Energy generated by;
Sudden dislocation of segment of the earth’s crust (most destructive)
A volcanic eruption
Man made explosion
11 2- Earthquake Terminology
Hypocenter or Focus
Source of the earthquake deep inside the earth
Epicenter
It is the point on earth’s surface directly above
the hypocenter (focus).
Location of an earthquake is commonly
described by geographical position of epicenter
and focal depth
Focal Depth
It is the depth from earth’s surface to the focus
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Focal Depth
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14 Classification of Earthquakes
Shallow Earthquakes
Earthquake with focal depths of less than
approximately 60 km , caused by fracturing of
brittle rock
Intermediate Earthquakes
Causes are not fully understood, focal depth
ranging from 60 to 300 km
Deep Earthquakes
May have focal depths up to 700 km
15 Continental Drift
Continents are moving relative to one another, movement is known
as continental drift
Continents have been moving slowly for million of years
Theory established during 1930’s
1950-1960 enormous amount of geophysical data was gathered from
oceanography
16 Plate Tectonics
"Plate Tectonics" is a theory which states that the lithosphere of
the earth is not a completely coherent shell, but rather is broken
into pieces called "plates." These plates move relative to one
another on the surface of the earth.
Modern plate tectonics theory didn't appear out of nowhere.
The seed was planted with the proposal, by Alfred Wegener (a
German meteorologist) in about 1915, of an idea that came to
be called "continental drift."
17 Plate Tectonics
Tectonic plates are gigantic pieces of the Earth's crust and uppermost
mantle. They are made up of oceanic crust and continental crust.
Earthquakes occur around mid-ocean ridges and the large faults which
mark the edges of the plates.
The World Atlas names seven major plates: African, Antarctic, Eurasian,
Indo-Australian, North American, Pacific and South American.
What is the Ring of Fire?
18 The Ring of Fire is in the Pacific Ocean. It is made up of a string of volcanoes,
deep ocean trenches, and high mountain ranges. It is the site of earthquakes
around the edges of the Pacific Ocean.
The tectonic plates map of the Earth shows where mountain building,
volcanoes, and earthquakes have occurred.
19 what is a tectonic plate boundary?
A tectonic plate boundary is the border between two plates. The tectonic
plates slowly and constantly move but in many different directions. Some are
moving toward each other, some are moving apart, and some are grinding
past each other. Tectonic plate boundaries are grouped into three main types
based on the different movements.
❖ Convergent Boundary
❖ Divergent Boundary
❖ Transform Boundary
20 Subduction Zone / Convergent Boundary
At subduction zones, a convergent boundary occurs when two tectonic
plates push together. When an ocean plate and a continental plate
collide, the ocean plate slides under the continental plate, and bends
downward.
21 Divergent Margin / Divergent Boundary
A divergent margin occurs when two plates are spreading apart, as at
seafloor ridges or continental rift zones such as the East Africa Rift.
Molten rock rises from the Earth’s center to fill the gap.
22 Transform Margin/ Transform Boundary
Transform margins mark slip-sliding plates, such as California's San
Andreas fault. The San Andreas fault marks the location where the
North America and Pacific plates grind past each other in a horizontal
motion.
23 Types of Fault
24 Blind Thrust Fault
A shallow dipping reverse fault
which terminates before it
reaches the surface, it may
produce uplift, but never any
clear surface rupture.
25 Seismic Waves
There are 4 types of seismic waves
1. Compression Waves (P-waves) Body Waves
2. Secondary Waves (S-waves)
3. Surface Waves
Surface Waves
4. Rayleigh waves
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27 1-Compression Waves (P-waves)
Longitudinal direction
Velocity 5800 m/sec in granite
This is the fastest kind of seismic wave
The first to 'arrive' at a seismic station
It pushes and pulls the rock it moves through just like sound
waves push and pull the air
Sometimes animals can hear the P waves of an earthquake.
Dogs, for instance, commonly begin barking hysterically
just before an earthquake 'hits'
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29 2- Secondary Waves (Shear-waves)
Transverse direction
Do not travel rapidly
Velocity 3000 m/sec in granite
Reach orderly later on the surface
Displace material at their right angle
Transmits more energy because they are slow
The wave motion is most damaging to the structures.
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31 3- Love Waves
It's the fastest surface wave and moves the ground from side-
to-side
May or may not form
Arrive after primary and secondary waves
Velocity 2700 m/sec in granite
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4-Rayleigh waves
• Most common surface waves similar to water waves except
they have backward rotation.
• Rolls along the ground just like a wave rolls across a lake or
an ocean.
• Most of the shaking felt from an earthquake is due to the
Rayleigh wave
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37 Location of Epicenter
Seismic wave behavior
P waves arrive first, then S waves, then L and R
Average speeds for all these waves is known
After an earthquake, the difference in arrival times at a seismograph
station can be used to calculate the distance from the seismograph to
the epicenter.
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Time-distance graph showing
the average travel times for
P- and S-waves. The farther
away a seismograph is from
the focus of an earthquake,
the longer the interval
between the arrivals of the P-
and S- waves
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43 Assignment # 1
Discuss major earthquakes in last ten years having
magnitude more than 7 on Richter’s Scale. Find
• Location of E.Q along with the fault it was present.
• Plate tectonic with geographical image.
Due Date: March 2, 2021.
