LESSON 1: DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER

Differential Amplifier
Amplifiers are components that produce an output signal proportional to an
input signal. While differential amplifiers are amplifiers that compare the difference of
the input signals and produce an output proportional to the difference of the two input
signals.
Before the development of differential amplifiers, transistors and resistors were
the common components used in building ICs. The traditional layout using transistors
and resistors forced the IC designers to use an emitter bypass.
Differential amplifiers are used in modern-day ICs. The technology today is
capable of producing integrated circuits which are compact compared to putting other
components to produce the same function of differential amplifiers. It is not expensive,
takes up less space, and consumes low power.

Amplifier symbol

Figure 1-1

Differential amplifier symbol

Figure 1-2
BASICS:

The differential amplifier produces an output based on the difference in the

voltage level of two input signals.
 Figure 1-3

V1 is the voltage level of the first input.

V2 is the voltage level of the second input.
Vd is the difference of the input levels.
Vo is the output voltage of the circuit.

The output voltage of an ideal differential amplifier is always proportional to the

difference of the input. It is also called a differential output.

Vo α (V1-V2)

From this, we can say that

Vo = Ad (V1-V2)

Figure 1-4

In the figure, V1 and V2 are the input voltages. V1 is called the non-inverting input
since the output voltage Vo is in phase with V1, while V2 is called the inverting input
because the output voltage Vo is out of phase with V2.
In an ideal set up where the resistor and transistor values are the same,

 the output voltage is equal to zero when V1 is equal to V2;

 When V1 is greater than V2, the polarity of the output voltage is positive as
seen in the figure;
  When V1 is greater than V2, the polarity of the output voltage is negative as
seen in the figure.

In other applications, only the non-inverting input is present, which means that
the inverting input is grounded. Some applications only require the inverting input,
therefore, the non-inverting input is grounded.
When the two inputs, non-inverting and inverting input, are present in the circuit,
it is called the differential input. The output voltage Vo is equal to the voltage gain
Av, times the differential input.

Recall that Vo = Av (V1 - V2);

Vo = Av (Vd)
Where, Vo = Output voltage
Av = Voltage gain
Vd = Differential Input

Single-ended output
In the differential output configuration, there are two outputs which requires the system
to have a load in either of the output side because it cannot be connected to the
ground. In most of the applications, the system only requires one output, or single
load, that is why the single-ended output configurations are commonly used. This
makes one output “loaded”, and one output is grounded.

Figure 1-5

The figure displays the differential input and output and single-ended output. Note that
the collector resistor on the other output is removed since there is no output on that
side.

The output voltage is still determined by the equation Vo = Av (V1 - V2) since the input
is still differential. But in single-ended output, the voltage gain is only half of the
double-ended, because we only get one collector voltage.

Noninverting input
The term non inverting means the output is in-phase with the input signal applied.
 Noninverting input, differential output
 The figure below shows a non-inverting input, differential output configuration.
Since V2 is connected to the ground, V2=0. The output voltage Vo is equal to
the voltage gain times the input voltage V1.

Vo = V1 (Av)
Av= voltage gain, factor, or rate at which the signal is amplified.

Figure 1-6
 Noninverting input, single-ended output
The figure below shows a non-inverting input, single-ended output. V2 is
connected to the ground, V2 = 0. The output voltage Vo is still given by the
equation,

Vo = V1 (Av)
Av = voltage gain, factor or rate at which the signal is amplified
However, the voltage gain is only half of the gain using a differential output
configuration because the output is taken only at one side of the circuit.

Figure 1-7
Inverting input

 Inverting input, differential output

The figure below shows an inverting input, differential output configuration.
Since V1 is connected to the ground, V1=0. The output voltage Vo is equal to
20
 the voltage gain times the input voltage V2. But note that the output has an
“inverted” phase or negative sign because it has input in the inverted side.

Vo = -V2 (Av)
Av= voltage gain, factor, or rate at which the signal is amplified.

Figure 1-8
 Inverting input, single-ended output
The figure below shows an inverting input, single-ended output. V1 is
connected to the ground, V1=0. The output voltage Vo is still given by the
equation,

Vo = -V2 (Av)
Av = voltage gain, factor or rate at which the signal is amplified
However, the voltage gain is only half of the gain using a differential output
configuration because the output is taken only at one side of the circuit.

Figure 1-9
SUM IT UP

21
INPUT OUTPUT INPUT OUTPUT
CONFIGURATION CONFIGURATION EQUATION EQUATION

22
 Differential Differential V1-V2 Vc2-Vc1
Differential Single-ended V1-V2 Vc2
Single-ended Differential V1 or V2 Vc2-Vc1
Single-ended Single-ended V1 or V2 Vc2

Note: Vc1 is the voltage taken from the collector terminal of the first transistor.
Vc2 is the voltage taken from the collector terminal of the second transistor.

THINK OF THIS!

Answer the following questions based on your understanding of the lesson.

1. Explain the difference between inverting and non-inverting input.

2. Why is the voltage gain from the single-ended configuration only half compared
to the differential configuration?

3. If you were to design a circuit, which do you think is the best configuration to be
used? Why do you think is it the best?

KEEP LEARNING!

In a clean paper or digital pad, try drawing the different differential amplifier
configurations. Try not to look at the figures in the module!
After drawing, point out the differences in each configuration, you can list it up. Grab
a partner and share your insights!

23
24
Differential Amplifiers
 • Amplifies the difference between two
input voltages but suppresses any voltage
What is a common to the two inputs.
differential • Are normally intended for voltage
amplification
amplifier? • Can be bipolar, it can be MOS
• Superb in eliminating noise
Advantages of differential amplifier over a single
transistor amplifier

• can amplify down to DC

• thermal drift is compensated by the symmetrical design and use
of a constant current source
• the two transistors are identical
• does not amplify noise
Basic Bipolar Differential Amplifier
+Vss

Rc Rc
The two transistors should be biased in the
forward-active region. Vo1 Vo2
Normally uses dual supplies which eliminate Q1 Q2
the use of capacitor coupling.
V1 V V V2
Basic CMOS Differential Amplifier
VDD

Inputs are applied to the gates, outputs RD RD

are taken across the drain.
Same configuration as the bipolar, differs Vo
only in notation. Vi1 M1 M2 Vi2
Differential amplifier configurations
1. Single-ended input, single-ended output (unbalanced
in/unbalanced out)
2. Single-ended input, dual-ended output
3. Dual-ended input, single-ended output
4. Dual-ended input, dual-ended output (balanced input/output)
Single-ended input, single-ended output
+Vss •May be used in
dc amplifier
Rc Rc circuits where
noise is tolerable
Vo
•One of the
Q1 Q2
inputs is
grounded, and
V1 V
the output is
RE taken across one
-Vss of the collectors.
Single-ended input, differential output
+Vss •The input is
applied to only
Rc Rc one of the bases
Vo1 with the other
Vo one being
Vo2 grounded.
Q1 Q2
•The output is
V1 V the difference
between Vo1
RE
and Vo2.
-Vss
Differential-input, single-ended output
+Vss •Typically employed in
instrumentation
Rc
Rc amplifiers

Vo
•Also used as middle
Q1 Q2 stages of differential
amplifier and operational
V1 V amplifier circuits.
RE •Also termed as balanced
-Vss input/unbalanced output
amplifier.
Differential input-differential output
+Vss •Practicable in
long distance
Rc Rc
transmission
Vo1
Vo •Has a very
Vo2 high CMRR
Q1 Q2
•Also a
V1 V balanced
input/balanced
RE
output amplifier
-Vss
Differential amplifier Operation
1. Single ended
• input is applied to one input, while the other input is grounded.
• has only half the gain of the differential circuit.
2. Double ended or differential input
• opposite polarity signals are applied to the inputs. Balanced circuits help to
reduce noise and interference problems.
3. Common mode
• same polarity, same amplitude and same frequency signals ride on the two
inputs.
Sources of common mode signals
1. radiated energy on input lines
2. radiated energy on adjacent lines
3. 60 Hz hum
Bipolar differential amplifier analysis
• DC analysis
• AC analysis
• Differential mode
• Common mode
Differential mode vs common mode

V1 Differential
amplifier Vo
V2

Differential mode input

𝑣𝑑 = 𝑉1 − 𝑉2

Common-mode input
𝑉1 + 𝑉2
𝑣𝑐𝑚 =
2
Example 2.1
Find 𝑣𝑑 and 𝑣𝑐𝑚 for the following input voltages:
1. 𝑉1 = 10 mV, 𝑉2 = -10 mV
2. 𝑉1 = -10 mV, 𝑉2 = 10 mV
3. 𝑉1 = 50 mV, 𝑉2 = 30 mV
4. 𝑉1 = -50mV, 𝑉2 = -30 mV
Example 2.1 (Solution)
1. 3.
𝑉𝑑 = 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 = 10 mV − −10 mV = 20 mV 𝑉𝑑 = 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 = 50 mV − 30 mV = 20 mV
𝑉1 + 𝑉2 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 50 mV + 30 mV
𝑉𝑐𝑚 = = 10 mV − 10 mV /2 = 0 mV 𝑉𝑐𝑚 = = = 40 mV
2 2 2

2. 4.
𝑉𝑑 = 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 = −10 mV − 10 mV = −20 mV 𝑉𝑑 = 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 = −50 mV − −30 mV = −20 mV
𝑉1 + 𝑉2 𝑉1 + 𝑉2
𝑉𝑐𝑚 = = −10 mV + 10 mV /2 = 0 mV 𝑉𝑐𝑚 = = −50 mV − 30 mV /2 = −40 mV
2 2
Bipolar diff amp operation: DC analysis
DC analysis: At the base-emitter loop, the
bias current is:
Vcc
𝑉𝐸𝐸 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸1 − 𝐼𝐸𝐸 𝑅𝐸 = 0
Rc Rc
+ Vo1 or
IC1
Vo 𝑉𝐸𝐸 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸2 − 𝐼𝐸𝐸 𝑅𝐸 = 0
- Vo2
Q1 Q2
VEE − VBE1
IE1 IE2 I EE =
RE
IEE
RE
-VEE 𝐼𝐸𝐸 = 𝐼𝐸1 + 𝐼𝐸2 = 2𝐼𝐸
where
𝐼𝐸1 = 𝐼𝐸2 = 𝐼𝐸
Bipolar diff amp operation: DC analysis
With inputs V1 & V2 applied: At the b-e loops:

+Vss
𝑉1 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸1 + 𝑉𝐵𝐸2 − 𝑉2 = 0 (1)
Rc Rc
+ Vo1
Vo
Recall:
IE
Q1 Q2
- Vo2
VBE = VT ln (2)
V1 V2
Is
V V Where:
IEE VT – thermal voltage, 26 mV
RE
-Vss Is – reverse-bias saturation current,
10-15 to 10-12 A.
Bipolar diff amp operation: DC analysis
Substituting equation 2 to equation 1 gives

I E1 IE2
V1 − VT ln + VT ln − V2 = 0
Is Is
* Assuming the two transistors are identical, their VT and IS
are equal.

Simplifying the above equation gives:

V1 −V2
I E1 (3)
=e VT
IE2
Bipolar diff amp operation: DC analysis
From the Figure: Substituting equation 4 to
I EE = I E1 + I E 2 (4) 3, gives:

I EE
I E1 =
+Vss

V −V
Rc Rc
− 1 2 
 VT 
+ Vo1
Vo
- Vo2
1+ e
Q1 Q2
V1 V2
V V
I EE
RE
IEE

-Vss
IE2 = V1 −V2
1+ e VT
Bipolar diff amp operation: DC analysis
• Taking the KVL at the collector- Case 1: 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 ≫ 100 mV
emitter loops:
𝑉𝑜 = 𝐼𝐶2 − 𝐼𝐶1 𝑅𝑐
𝐼𝐸1 ≈ 𝐼𝐸𝐸 , Q1 saturates
+Vss 𝐼𝐸2 ≈ 0, Q2 is cut-off
Rc Rc
+ Vo1
Vo
- Vo2

V1
Q1 Q2
V2
𝑉𝑜 ≅ 𝐼𝐸𝐸 𝑅𝑐 = −𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡
V V
IEE
RE
-Vss
Bipolar diff amp operation: DC analysis
Case 2: 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 ≫ −100 mV Case 3: 𝑉1 = 𝑉2

𝐼𝐸1 ≈ 0, Q1 is cut-off 𝐼𝐸1 = 𝐼𝐸𝐸 /2,

𝐼𝐸2 ≈ 𝐼𝐸𝐸 , Q2 saturates 𝐼𝐸2 = 𝐼𝐸𝐸 /2,

𝑉𝑜 ≅ 𝐼𝐸𝐸 𝑅𝑐 = 𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝑉𝑜 = 0
DC transfer characteristics of the BJT diff amp
To maintain operation of the amplifier in the linear
region, vd should be small.

N 1
o 0.8
r 0.6 iE2/IEE
m 0.4 iE1/IEE
a 0.2
li 0
z -0.1 -0.06 -0.02 0 0.02 0.06 0.1

e Differential Input voltage, Vd

d
Bipolar diff amp operation: DC analysis

Summary

Output Remarks
Case 1 Vo = - Vsat Q1 is the
V1 >> V2 inverting input

Case 2 Vo = + Vsat Q2 is the non-

V1 << V2 inverting input

Case 3 Vo = 0 Common
V1 = V2 mode
condition
Example 2.2
Given 𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 10 V, 𝑉𝐸𝐸 = -10 V, 𝐼𝐸𝐸 = 1 mA, 𝑅𝐶 = 10
k, 𝑉𝐵𝐸𝑜𝑛 = 0.7 V. Determine 𝐼𝐶1 , 𝑉𝐶𝐸1 and
𝑉𝐶𝐸2 for the following common mode inputs:
1. 𝑉𝑐𝑚 = 0 V
2. 𝑉𝑐𝑚 = 5 V
3. 𝑉𝑐𝑚 = -5 V
Example 2.2 (Solution)
Bipolar diff amp operation: Differential mode
+Vss

Rc The inputs to Q1 and

Rc
Vo1 Q2 are of opposite
Vo polarity, that is
Vo2 𝑉𝑑 = 𝑉1 − 𝑉2
Q1 Q2
Let 𝑉1 = 𝑉𝑑 /2
Vd V 𝑉2 = − 𝑉𝑑 /2
RE
-Vss
Bipolar diff amp operation: Differential mode

+Vss
The emitter currents will have
Rc Rc
opposite changes
+ Vo1
Vo
I EE
Q1 Q2
- Vo2
I E1 = + I
V1 V2 2
V V
IEE
I EE
IE2 = − I
RE
-Vss
2
**The opposite change in
the emitter currents, IE IEE = IE1 + IE2
maintained the voltage
across RE at a constant value.
Bipolar diff amp operation: Differential mode

+Vss
• In ac analysis, constant
Rc Rc
voltages (dc) are
+ Vo1
Vo eliminated.
- Vo2
Q1 Q2
• Recall:
V1 V2
V V
26mV and
RE
IEE
re =
-Vss IE

I CQ
gm =
VT
Bipolar diff amp operation: Differential mode

+Vss
The transconductance gm, is
Rc Rc
simply
+ Vo1
Vo
1
Q1 Q2
- Vo2
gm =
V1 V2 re
V V
IEE
RE
-Vss From these equations, ic
can be computed as
follows:
Vd
ib = g m
2
Bipolar diff amp operation: Differential mode
Small signal equivalent circuit of the diff amp
ib1 Vo1 Vo2 ib2
+ Vo -
ib1 ib2
Vd/2 r Vd/2
ro ro r
Rc Rc
Vd

**Since Q1 and Q2 are symmetrical and the circuit is

operated in the differential mode, analysis can be done
using the half-circuit only.
Bipolar diff amp operation: Differential mode

Half-circuit analysis
ib1 Voltage gain:
+ Vo1

ib1 Vo
Vd/2 r
ro Rc
Ad =
Vi

*d subscript
Note:
denotes
r =  re differential.
Bipolar diff amp operation: Differential mode
Half-circuit analysis
ib1
+ Vo1

ib1
Vd/2 r
ro Rc

The differential gain for Q1

only (single-ended output) is
Vo1 Rc gmRc
Ad(1) = =− =−
Vd 2re 2
Bipolar diff amp operation: Differential mode

Vo2 ib2
-
ib2
Vd/2
ro r
Rc Rc

The differential gain of the other

half is (single-ended output):
Vo2 Rc gmRc
Ad( 2) = = =
Vd 2re 2
Bipolar diff amp operation: Differential mode

The double-ended (output) differential gain is:

Vo Vo1 − Vo2 Rc
Ad = = = − = − gmRc
Vd Vd re

The differential gain with ro included is:

Rc // ro
Ad = − = − gm( Rc // ro)
re
 The output resistance 𝑟𝑜
• The output resistance ro of a
bipolar transistor is affected by the
early voltage and the bias current. 𝑉𝐴
𝑟𝑜 =
𝐼𝐸

ib1
+ Vo1

ib1
Vd/2 r
ro Rc
Bipolar diff amp operation: Common mode

+Vss
• Same amplitude,
same polarity, same
Rc
Rc
frequency signal is
+ Vo1
Vo applied at the
- Vo2 inputs.
Q1 Q2
Vcm + + Vcm • The two transistor
V V circuits are
RE
IEE effectively in
-Vss
parallel.
Bipolar diff amp operation: Common mode
Small signal ac equivalent circuit
B1 ib1 Vo1 Vo2 ib2
Vo - B2
+
ib ib
r Rc Rc
r
ro ro
Vcm Vcm

RE

There is a small variation in voltage across RE caused by the same

input vcm applied to the two transistors, hence RE remains in the
small signal equivalent for the common mode operation.
Bipolar Diff amp operation: Common mode
Small signal ac equivalent circuit
showing separation of RE into each half.
Note: The parallel of 2RE is RE.
B1 ib Vo1 Vo2 ib2
Vo - B2
+
ib ib
r Rc Rc
ro ro r
Vcm Vcm

2RE 2RE
Bipolar Diff amp operation: Common mode

Half-circuit analysis vo1 = ib Rc

B1 ib
+

r
ib
Vo1c vcm = ib r + ( + 1)ib 2 RE
Vcm Rc

ie=(+1)ib Vo1 −  Rc
2RE Ac(1) = =
vc r + 2(  + 1) RE
-

r =  re
Bipolar Diff amp operation: Common mode

If  >> 1, then the common mode gain is

− g m RC
Ac =
1+ 2 g m RE

Since gmRE>> 1, then

RC
Ac  −
2 RE
Example 2.3
Determine the differential and common mode gains of a diff-amp that
has the following circuit components: Vcc = 10V, VEE = -10V, IEE =
0.8mA, Rc = 12 k, =100, RE=25 k. Use a single-ended output at
Vc1.
Example 2.3 (Solution)
Since 𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝐸𝐸 /2, 𝐼𝐸 = 0.8 mA/2 = 0.4 mA

Emitter AC resistance: 𝑟𝑒 = 26 mV/𝐼𝐸 = 26 mV/0.4 mA = 65 Ω

𝑅𝐶 12 kΩ
𝐴𝑑 1 =− =− = −92.31
2𝑟𝑒 2 × 65 Ω
𝛽𝑅𝐶 12 kΩ
𝐴𝑐𝑚 =− =− = −0.24
𝛽𝑟𝑒 + 2 𝛽 + 1 𝑅𝐸 100 65 Ω + 2 100 + 1 25 kΩ
Input resistance: Bipolar diff amp
Differential mode
ib1 Vo1 Vo2 ib2
+ Vo -
ib1 ib2
Vd/2 r Vd/2
ro ro r
Rc Rc
Vd

For single-ended For dual-ended

Rid = r Rid = 2 r
Input resistance: Bipolar diff amp
Common mode
B1 ib1 Vo1 Vo2 ib2
Vo - B2
+
ib ib
Rc Rc
r ro ro r
Vcm Vcm

RE

Ric = 2  RE
Diff amp with both differential and common mode signals

• Since actual input may contain common mode signals, the output
voltage must represent the effects of both the differential input and
the common mode input.
• Recall:
𝑉𝑑
𝑉1 = 𝑉𝑐𝑚 +
𝑉𝑑 = 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 2

𝑉𝑐𝑚 = (𝑉1 + 𝑉2 )/2 𝑉𝑑

𝑉2 = 𝑉𝑐𝑚 −
2
Diff amp with both differential and common mode signals

Taking the KCL at e:

V 1 V 2 Ve
+ g mV 1 + g mV 2 + − =0
r r RE
Diff amp with both differential and common mode signals

From the Figure

V 1 = V 1 − Ve
V 2 = V 2 − Ve

Substituting these to the equation in the previous

page and simplifying:

V1+ V 2
Ve =
r
2+
(1 +  )RE
Diff amp with both differential and common mode signals

Taking the output across collector of Q2:

Vo = vc 2 = − g mV 2 Rc

Substituting V2 in terms of V2, and V1, V2 in terms

of Vcm and Vd gives
g m Rc Rc
Vo = Vd − Vcm
2 2 RE
Vo = AdVd + AcmVcm
Example 2.4
• Given the following inputs, determine the output of a diff-amp
given that 𝐴𝑑 = 100, 𝐴𝑐𝑚 = 0.1. All inputs in V.
1. 𝑉1 = 10 sin 𝜔𝑡, 𝑉2 = -10 sin 𝜔𝑡
2. 𝑉1 = 20 sin 𝜔𝑡, 𝑉2 = -20 sin 𝜔𝑡
3. 𝑉1 = 120 sin 𝜔𝑡, 𝑉2 = 100 sin 𝜔𝑡
4. 𝑉1 = 100 sin 𝜔𝑡, 𝑉2 = 140 sin 𝜔𝑡
Example 2.4 (Solution)
Common mode rejection ratio
• A figure of merit for the performance of a differential amplifier.
• Is the ratio of the differential gain to the common mode gain.

𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝑐
𝐴𝑑 −
CMRR = = 2 = 𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐸
𝐴𝑐𝑚 𝑅𝑐
−
2𝑅𝐸
Common mode rejection ratio
• In decibels,

𝐴𝑑
CMRR dB = 20 log10
𝐴𝑐𝑚
• Gives the ability of the circuit to respond to the difference of input
signals while being insensitive to in-phase signals (common mode
signals).
Example 2.5
Determine the CMRR expressed in decibels for the differential amplifier
circuit described in Example 2.3.
Example 2.5 (Solution)

Since 𝐴𝑑 = −92.31 and 𝐴𝑐𝑚 = −0.24,

−92.31
CMRR dB = 20 log 𝐴𝑑 /𝐴𝑐𝑚 = 20 log = 51.7 dB
−0.24
How to improve the CMRR
1. By increasing IE > problem is, the transistor will be too large for IC
fabrication.
2. By increasing RE > problem is, IE will decrease, it follows that gm will
decrease. Solution, increase the power supply; problem, not
practicable with portable applications.
3. Use a constant current source with very high resistance. Examples:
Widlar current source, Wilson, cascode, etc.
The simple current source
At the BE loop,
VBE 1 − VBE 2 = 0
Vcc
IREF R

Iout
IC1 I E1 IE2
Q1 Q2
VT 1 ln − VT 2 ln =0
+
VBE1 IB1 IB2
+
VBE2
I s1 I s2
-
-
If Q1 and Q2 are identical,
-VEE
then VT1=VT2=VT; Is1 = Is2

I E1 = I E 2
The simple current source
Vcc Recall
IREF R I E = ( + 1)I B
Iout
IC1 IE
IB =
Q1
+
VBE1 IB1 IB2
+
VBE2
Q2
 +1
-
-
I REF = I c1 + I B1 + I B 2
-VEE

 +2
I REF = IE
 +1
The simple current source
Vcc Since Iout = Ic2=(/+1) IE2
IREF R

I out = I REF
 +2
Iout
IC1
Q1 + Q2
+ IB1 IB2
VBE1 VBE2
-
-

-VEE
The effective internal
resistance of the current
source is
VA VA
RE = ro = 
I out I REF
Example 2.6
For a two-transistor current source, determine the required resistor R
to provide an output current of 200 uA using 𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 5 V and 𝑉𝐸𝐸 =
0 V. The transistor parameters are 𝑉𝐵𝐸 on = 0.6 V and 𝛽 = 100.
Example 2.6 (Solution)
Calculate the reference current,
Vcc
𝛽+2 100 + 2
𝐼REF = 𝐼 = 200 μA = 204 μA IREF R
𝛽 out 100
Iout
𝑉𝐶𝐶 + 𝑉𝐸𝐸 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸 on 𝑉𝐶𝐶 + 𝑉𝐸𝐸 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸 on IC1
𝐼REF = →𝑅=
𝑅 𝐼REF Q1 + Q2
+ IB1 IB2
VBE1 VBE2
5 V + 0 V − 0.6 V -
𝑅= = 21.57 kΩ -
204 μA
-VEE
Wilson Current Source
• Useful for obtaining high output resistance
• Has low sensitivity to transistor base currents.
• Its change in bias current Io is much smaller for a change in output
collector voltage compared to that of a two-transistor current source.
Wilson Current Source
Vcc
The KCL at emitter of IREF
Iout
R
Q2 is
I E 2 = I C 3 + I B3 + I B1 Q2

IC1 IE2
Since IC3
Q1 + Q3
+ IB1 IB3
 VBE1 VBE3
-
IC 2 = IE2 -
 +1

2
𝛽 𝐼𝐶3 𝐼𝐶1 𝐼𝐶3 1 + 𝛽
𝛽
𝐼𝐶2 = 𝐼𝐶3 + + =
𝛽+1 𝛽 𝛽 𝛽+1
Wilson Current Source
Vcc
The reference current is IREF
Iout
R

𝐼REF = 𝐼𝐶1 + 𝐼𝐵2 = 𝐼𝐶3 + 𝐼𝐶2 /𝛽 Q2

IC1 IE2
Using the relation between 𝐼𝐶2 and IC3
𝐼𝐶3 : Q1
+ + Q3
VBE1 IB1 IB3 VBE3
𝛽+1 1 -
-
𝐼REF = 𝐼𝐶2 + 𝐼𝐶2
𝛽+2 𝛽
1 The effective emitter resistance is
𝐼𝐶2 = 𝐼𝑂 = 𝐼REF
2  ro VA
1+
𝛽 𝛽+2 RE = =
2 2IC 2
Example 2.7
For the Wilson current source, the transistor parameters are 𝑉𝐵𝐸 on =
0.7 V, 𝛽 = 50, and 𝑉𝐴 = 80 V. For an 𝐼𝑅𝐸𝐹 = 0.5 mA, determine the
output current 𝐼𝑂 and effective emitter resistance.
Example 2.7 (Solution)
1 Vcc
𝐼𝑂 = 𝐼REF
2 IREF
1+
𝛽 𝛽+2 R Iout

1
𝐼𝑂 = 0.5 mA = 0.4996 mA Q2
2
1+
50 50 + 2 IC1 IE2
𝛽𝑉𝐴 50 80 V
𝑅𝐸 = = = 4 MΩ IC3
2𝐼𝑂 2 0.4996 mA Q1 + Q3
+ IB1 IB3
VBE1 VBE3
-
-
Widlar Current Source
• Useful for obtaining small output currents
• Uses low value of reference resistor
Widlar current source
Analysis:
Vcc
IREF R1 At the base-emitter loop
IC1
Iout VBE1 − VBE 2 − I E 2 R2 = 0
Q1
+ + Q2
 IE 
VBE1 IB1 IB2 VBE2
- VBE = VT ln 
 Is 
-
R2

I E1 IE2
-VEE VT ln − VT ln − I E 2 R2 = 0
Is Is
I E1
VT ln − I E 2 R2 = 0
IE2
Widlar current source equivalent circuits
1
At node 1: +
V1
iTH =  iB 2 + ib2 ro
V1
ro r
2 -
+
At node 2: R1 re R2
v1 v2 V2
 iB 2 + − + iB 2 = 0 -
ro R2
1
The effective output resistance +
ib2 ro
 r  ib2
ro 1 +  +  + r
 2
V1
-
RTH = RE =
vth
=  R2  +
ith r
1+ r R2
V2
R2 -
Widlar Current Source
Since
Vcc
IREF R1
𝑟𝜋
≫ 1, 𝑟𝑜 ≫ 𝑟𝜋
Iout
𝑅2
IC1
Q1
+ + Q2 The effective emitter resistance is
VBE1 IB1 IB2 VBE2
-
-
 I c 2 R2 
R2 RE = ro 1 + 
 VT 
-VEE
The value of R1 that will give IREF
VCC + VEE − VBE1
R1 =
I REF
Example 2.8
For a Widlar current source, determine the required resistors 𝑅1 and
𝑅2 to produce 𝐼REF = 1 mA and 𝐼𝑂 = 12 μA using 𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 5 V and
−𝑉𝐸𝐸 = −5 V. Assume 𝑉𝐵𝐸1 = 0.7 V at the reference current of 1 mA.
Example 2.8 (Solution)
Vcc
𝑉𝐶𝐶 + 𝑉𝐸𝐸 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸1 5 V + 5 V − 0.7 V
𝑅1 = = = 9.3 kΩ IREF R1
𝐼REF 1 mA
Iout
𝐼𝐸1 𝑉𝑇 𝐼REF IC1
𝑉𝑇 ln = 𝐼𝐸2 𝑅2 → 𝑅2 = ln Q1 Q2
𝐼𝐸2 𝐼𝑂 𝐼𝑂 + IB1 IB2
+
VBE1 VBE2
-
26 mV 1 mA -
𝑅2 = ln = 9.58 kΩ R2
12 μA 12 μA

-VEE
Example 2.9
Determine the equivalent resistance of a Widlar current source with
the following circuit parameters: 𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 5 V, −𝑉𝐸𝐸 = −5 V, 𝑅1 =
9.3 kΩ, 𝑅2 = 9.58 kΩ, 𝑉𝐴 = 80 V and 𝛽 = 100.
Example 2.9 (Solution)
𝑉𝐶𝐶 + 𝑉𝐸𝐸 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸1 5 V + 5 V − 0.7 V
𝐼REF = = = 1 mA
𝑅1 9.3 kΩ

Solve for 𝐼𝑂 ,
𝐼REF
𝑉𝑇 ln = 𝐼𝑂 𝑅2
𝐼𝑂
1 mA
26 mV ln = 𝐼𝑂 9.58 kΩ → 𝐼𝑂 = 12 μA
𝐼𝑂

The effective resistance is,

𝑉𝐴 𝐼𝑂 𝑅2 80 V 12 μA 9.58 kΩ
𝑅𝐸 = 1+ = 1+ = 36.14 MΩ
𝐼𝑂 𝑉𝑇 12 μA 26 mV
Current Mirror
IREF Iout1=Ic2 Iout2 =Ic3
Iout3
Ic1
Q2 Q3
Q4
Q1

-VEE

By changing the emitter area of Q2, Q3

and Q4 relative to Q1, the currents Ic2,
Ic3, and Ic4 will be multiples of Ic1.
Current Mirror
The saturation current of the BJT is
proportional to its emitter area 𝐴𝐸 and is
given by
A
Is = Iso
IREF Iout1=Ic2
AE
Iout2 Iout3
Ic1
Q2 A = 1xAE Is = Iso
Q1

AE 2
R I C 2 = n1I R EF n1 =
-VEE AE1
AE 3
I C 3 = n2 I R EF n2 =
AE1
Current Mirror
For 𝑛 match transistors
used in the circuit, it
can be shown that the
collector currents are

𝛽
𝐼1 , 𝐼2 , … , 𝐼𝑛−1 = 𝐼𝐶 = 𝐼
𝛽+𝑛
Example 2.10
For the circuit shown here,
calculate the value of resistance 𝑅
required so that the collector
currents of Q2 to Q5 transistors
have to be equal to 2.9 mA.
Assume that 𝑉𝐵𝐸 on = 0.7 V and
𝛽 = 110.
Example 2.10 (Solution)

𝑛 5
𝐼 = 𝐼𝐶2 1+ = 2.9 mA 1+ = 3.03 mA
𝛽 110
𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸 on 9 V − 0.7 V
𝑅= = = 2.74 kΩ
𝐼 3.03 mA
Differential amplifier with current source
The differential gain is
Vcc

Ad = − g m RC
Rc Rc

V1 V2
Q1 Q2

Vcc The common mode gain is

RC
Iref R1
Ac  −
Ic4
Ic3 2 RE
Q4 Q3

where
R2
𝐼𝐶3 𝑅2
𝑅𝐸 = 𝑟𝑜 1+
𝑉𝑇
Example 2.11
For the diff-amp circuit shown
here, calculate the differential
gain, common mode gain and the
CMRR in decibels for the following
parameters: 𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 10 V, 𝑉𝐸𝐸 = 0 V,
𝑅𝐶 = 12 k,  = 100, 𝐼𝑅𝐸𝐹 =
1 mA, 𝑅2 = 1 k, 𝑉𝐴 = 75 V.
Assume 𝑉𝐵𝐸4 = 0.7 V at the
reference current of 1 mA.
Example 2.11 (Solution)
Solve for 𝐼𝐸𝐸 = 𝐼𝐶3 first,
𝐼REF
𝑉𝑇 ln = 𝐼𝐶3 𝑅2
𝐼𝐶3
1 mA
26 mV ln = 𝐼𝐶3 1 kΩ → 𝐼𝐶3 = 69.37 μA
𝐼𝐶3
𝐼𝐸𝐸 μA
𝐼𝐸1 = 𝐼𝐸2 = 𝐼𝐸 = = 69.37 = 34.69 μA
2 2
26 mV 26 mV
𝑟𝑒 = = = 749.5 Ω
𝐼𝐸 34.69 μA
Example 2.11 (Solution)
Calculate the effective resistance 𝑅𝐸 ,
𝑉𝐴 𝐼𝐶3 𝑅2 75 V 69.37 μA 1 kΩ
𝑅𝐸 = 1+ = 1+ = 3.97 MΩ
𝐼𝐶3 𝑉𝑇 69.37 μA 26 mV

Differential gain: 𝐴𝑑 = −𝑅𝐶 /𝑟𝑒 = −12 kΩ/749.5 Ω = −16.01

Common-mode gain: 𝐴𝑐𝑚 = −𝑅𝐶 /(2𝑅𝐸 ) = −12 kΩ/ 2 × 3.97 MΩ = −1.51 × 10−3

−16.01
Common-mode rejection ratio: CMRR dB = 20 log 𝐴𝑑 /𝐴𝑐𝑚 = 20 log = 80.51 dB
−1.51×10−3
Differential amplifier with active loads
Vcc

•Q1 and Q2
Q5
Q6 comprised the
diff amp pair.
Q7

R1
Vo
IREF •Q3 and Q4
in1 Q1 Q2 in2
R2 form the
constant
current source
Q4
Q3
•Q5, Q6, and
Q7 are the
-VEE
active loads.
Supply independent biasing
Drawback of the simple current
source:
• The output current is proportional to
the power supply voltage. I C 2
• A 3 times increase in the power supply, IC 2
would give a 3 times increase in the bias S IC 2 =
current. This means a sensitivity of 1. VC 2 VCC
• Sensitivity of the circuit is defined as the VCC
change of the output current per change
in the power supply voltage.
Sensitivity of Widlar Current Source

Recall:
Vcc
 Ic 
IREF R1 VBE = VT ln  
 Is 
Iout
IC1
Taking the KVL at the base-
Q1 + Q2
+
VBE1 IB1 IB2 VBE2 emitter loops of the 2 transistors:
-
-
R2
VBE1 − VBE 2 − I E 2 R2 = 0

 I C1   IC 2 
 
VT ln   − VT ln   − I C 2 R2 = 0
 Is   Is 
Let:
IC1 = IREF  I REF 
VT ln   = I C 2 R2
IE2=IC2  IC 2 
Sensitivity of Widlar Current Source

The sensitivity of IC2 to the power supply is determined by taking

the derivative of IC2 with respect to VCC.

 I REF I C 2
VT ln = R2
VCC IC 2 VCC

 I C 2  1 I REF I REF I C 2   I C 2 
VT   −  = R2 
 
 
 I REF  I C 2 VCC I C 2 VCC   VCC 
2
Sensitivity of Widlar Current Source
 
 
VCC I C 2  1  VCC I REF
S IC 2 = =
I C 2 VCC  I C 2 R2  I REF VCC
1+ V
VCC

 T 

Since IREF  VCC/R, then S of IREF to VCC is unity.

 
 
S IC 2 =  1 S
 I C 2 R2  VIREF
1+ V
VCC

CC

 T 
 Current Reference
VBE-Based reference
Neglecting IB2
IC2 VEE − VBE1 − VBE 2 VEE − 1.4V
R1 I C1 = 
+
Q2 R1 R1
VBE2
-
Q1 +
VBE1 R2
VBE1  Ic 
-
IC 2  but VBE = VT ln  
-VEE R2  Is 

VT VEE − 1.4V
IC 2  ln
R2 I S1 R1
The output current is only logarithmically dependent on the
changes in the supply voltage VEE.
Enhancement MOSFET
• Widely used in digital IC.
• Now utilized for analog circuits.
• The basis of CMOS technology
• CMOS offers low power dissipation
• CMOS has high density of components.
• With analog and digital circuits on the same chip, a single IC for a system can
be designed (SoC, aka System-on-chip)
Symbols of MOSFET (EMOSFET)
4-terminal 3-terminal Digital symbols
D D
G G

NMOS S S

D D
G G

PMOS
S S
EMOSFET Construction

• there is no physical channel

between the drain and the source.
• the gate is isolated from the
channel by an oxide layer.
 NMOS Operation
• W/o any bias applied, no current
can flow from source to drain.

• The application of a positive gate

voltage forms the depletion layer
under the oxide.
 NMOS Operation
• Figure D shows the inversion layer
formed after applying VGS > VTH.

• Inversion means that the channel has

become more of an n-type than p-
type.
PMOS Operation
The operation of PMOS is similar to that of NMOS except that all the
voltages are negative.
MOS Transfer Characteristics
• The EMOS transistor produces current only when the gate-source potential
exceeds the threshold.
MOS Output Characteristics
MOS Small-Signal Model
NMOS Model
Threshold voltage:
VTN = VTO +  ( vSB + 2 F − 2 F )
All regions:

′′
𝑊 𝑊
𝐾𝑛 = 𝜇𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑥 = 𝐾𝑛 ′ iG = 0 iB = 0
𝐿 𝐿

Cut-off region:

iD = 0 for vGS  VTN

NMOS Model
Linear region:
𝑣𝐷𝑆
𝑖𝐷 = 𝐾𝑛 𝑣𝐺𝑆 − 𝑉𝑇𝑁 − 𝑣𝐷𝑆 for 𝑣𝐺𝑆 − 𝑉𝑇𝑁 ≥ 𝑣𝐷𝑆 ≥ 0
2

Saturation region:
𝐾𝑛 2
𝑖𝐷 = 𝑣𝐺𝑆 − 𝑉𝑇𝑁 1 + 𝜆𝑣𝐷𝑆 for 𝑣𝐷𝑆 ≥ 𝑣𝐺𝑆 − 𝑉𝑇𝑁 ≥ 0
2
If  = 0,
𝐾𝑛 2
𝑖𝐷 = 𝑣𝐺𝑆 − 𝑉𝑇𝑁
2
NMOS Model
• VTO – zero-substrate-bias value for VTN (V)
• VTN – threshold voltage
• VSB – source to bulk voltage
• 2F – surface potential parameter (V)
•  - body-effect parameter (V)
• Kn – NMOS transistor conduction parameter (A / V2)
NMOS Model
′′ =  /T
• 𝐶𝑜𝑥 ox ox
ox – oxide permittivity (F/cm)
Tox – oxide thickness (cm)

• n – electron mobility
• W/L – aspect ratio, width/length of transistor
•  - channel-length modulation
0.001 V-1    0.1 V-1
NMOS Biasing
• Analog circuit
• Saturation region
• Digital circuit
• Cut-off
• Edge of saturation
• Voltage-controlled resistor
• Ohmic region (also linear region)
• Some current sources
• Deep triode region
Basic MOS Differential Amplifier
VDD

RD RD
Vo
Vi1 M1 M2 Vi2

This circuit shows a three-terminal NMOS transistor.

Basic MOS Differential Amplifier
VDD

RD RD
Vo1 Vo2
Vi1 Vi2

The circuit shows the connection of

the fourth terminal (substrate).
MOS Differential Amplifier
The current Is = ID and is
DC Analysis:
I SS
VDD IS = ID = = ID
ID1 2
ID2
RD RD
To operate as an amplifier, the
MOS transistor must be biased in
Vo
M1 M2 the saturation region
Is1
vDS  (vGS − VTN )  0
Is2
Rs
Iss
-Vss

iD =
Kn
(vGS − VTN )2 (1 + vDS ) for vDS  (vGS − VTN )  0
2
MOS Differential Amplifier
DC Analysis:
If  is assumed to be zero, then
VDD
ID1 ID2 ID =
Kn
(VGS − VTN )2
RD RD 2
Vo 2I D
M1 M2 VGS = VTN +
Is1
Kn
Is2
Rs
Iss At the drain source loop:
-Vss
VD = VDD − I D RD
MOS differential amplifier
DC analysis
At the drain-source loop:
VDD
VD1 = VDD − I D1RD
RD RD
Vo
VD 2 = VDD − I D 2 RD
Vi1 M1 M2 Vi2
Vo = VD1 − VD 2 = (I D 2 − I D1 )RD
Rs
Iss
-VDD
Example 2.12
Find the Q-point for the
MOSFETs in the differential
amplifier shown if 𝑉𝐷𝐷 = 𝑉𝑆𝑆 =
12 V, 𝐼𝑆𝑆 = 200 μA, 𝑅𝑆𝑆 = 500
kΩ, 𝑅𝐷 = 62 kΩ, 𝐾𝑛 = 5 mA/V2, λ
= 0 V −1 , and 𝑉𝑇𝑁 = 1 V.
Example 2.12 (Solution)
Compute 𝐼𝐷 first by using 𝐼𝐷1 = 𝐼𝐷2 = 𝐼𝑆𝑆 /2,
200 μA
𝐼𝐷 = = 100 μA
2
Compute for 𝑉𝐺𝑆 to compute 𝑉𝑆 (set 𝑣1 = 𝑣2 = 0):

2 100 μA
𝑉𝐺𝑆 = 𝑉𝑇𝑁 + 2𝐼𝐷 /𝐾𝑛 = 1 V + 2
= 1.2 V
5 mA/V
𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉𝐺 − 𝑉𝐺𝑆 = 0 − 1.2 V = −1.2 V
𝑉𝐷𝑆 = 𝑉𝐷𝐷 − 𝐼𝐷 𝑅𝐷 − 𝑉𝑆 = 12 − 100 μA 62 kΩ − −1.2 V = 7 V
Transconductance of a MOS
Transconductance is defined as the rate of change of 𝐼𝐷 with respect to the
applied gate voltage 𝑉𝐺𝑆 ,

𝜕𝐼𝐷 𝜕 𝐾𝑛 2
𝑔𝑚 = = 𝑉𝐺𝑆 − 𝑉𝑇𝑁
𝜕𝑉𝐺𝑆 𝜕𝑉𝐺𝑆 2
𝑔𝑚 = 𝐾𝑛 𝑉𝐺𝑆 − 𝑉𝑇𝑁
In terms of drain current 𝐼𝐷 ,

2𝐼𝐷
𝑔𝑚 = 2𝐾𝑛 𝐼𝐷 =
𝑉𝐺𝑆 − 𝑉𝑇𝑁
Differential mode: MOS
AC analysis •Since the voltage drop
VDD across RS is constant, it is
eliminated from the small
RD signal-equivalent.
RD
Vod/2 Vod/2 •Transistors M1 and M2
are identical.
Vid/2 M1 M2 Vid/2
•In the differential mode,
a difference signal is
Virtual
Rs applied at the inputs.
ground
Differential mode: MOS
Half-circuit analysis Small-signal equivalent circuit
VDD

RD
vod/2

vid/2
Differential mode: MOS
Half-circuit analysis The output voltages are given by:
VDD
vid vid
vod 1 = − g m RD vod 2 = g m RD
RD 2 2
vod/2
For the single-ended circuit
vid/2
gmRD
Ad (1) = −
2
The differential gain is:
Ad = − gmRD
Differential mode: MOS
Input and Output resistances
VDD
Rid = 
Rod = 2 RD
RD
vod/2

vid/2
With ro included:

Rod = 2(RD // ro )
1
where ro =
I D
Common mode operation: MOS
Small-signal equivalent circuit
VDD

RD
G
Vo + D
B
vgs gmVgs gmbvbs
+ ro
Vi Vgs - S
-
Vo
RS RS B

* Take note of the gmbVbs, this appears in the circuit

because there is now a potential difference that exists
between the substrate, B and the source, S.
Common mode operation: MOS
Half-circuit analysis Let
VDD
g mb
=
RD gm
voc

vic The common mode gain is

 gm 
2Rs
Ac =   Rout
1 + 2 Rs(1 +  )gm 
where
Rout = 2 Rs + ro1 + 2 Rsgm(1 +  )// RD
Common mode operation: MOS
Small-signal equivalent

If we can ignore the body effect

and the channel-length
modulation parameter, the
common-mode gain simplifies to

𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐷 𝑅𝐷
𝐴𝑐𝑚 =− ≈−
1 + 2𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝑆 2𝑅𝑆
Common-Mode Rejection Ratio: MOS

The common-mode rejection ratio

is given by

1
CMRR = 1 + 2 2𝐾𝑛 𝐼𝐷 𝑅𝑆
2

Similar to BJT (simplifying),

CMRR = 𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝑆
Example 2.13
Determine the single-ended
differential-mode gain,
common-mode voltage gain and
CMRR for the following MOSFET
diff-amp parameters: 𝐾𝑛1 =
𝐾𝑛2 = 0.5 mA/V 2 , 𝐾𝑛3 =
𝐾𝑛4 = 2 mA/V 2 , 𝜆 = 0, 𝑉𝑇𝑁 =
1 V. Assume that 𝐼𝑆𝑆 =
0.587 mA and 𝑅𝑆 = 170 kΩ.
Example 2.13 (Solution)
Calculate transconductance 𝑔𝑚 ,
𝑔𝑚 = 2𝐾𝑛 𝐼𝐷 = 𝐾𝑛 𝐼𝑆𝑆 = 0.5 mA/V 2 0.587 mA = 541.76 μS
𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐷
𝐴𝑑 = − = −0.5 541.76 μS 16 kΩ = −4.33
2
−𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐷 − 541.76 μS 16 kΩ
𝐴𝑐𝑚 = = = −0.0468
1 + 2𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝑆 1 + 2 541.76 μS 170 kΩ
−4.33
CMRR dB = 20 log 𝐴𝑑 /𝐴𝑐𝑚 = 20 log = 39.33 dB
−0.0468
Simple current mirror: MOS
If transistors M1 and M2 are
matched,
𝐼𝑂 = 𝐼REF
However, for most circuit
applications where 𝑉𝐷𝑆2 ≠
𝑉𝐷𝑆1 ,

1 + 𝜆𝑉𝐷𝑆2
𝐼𝑂 = 𝐼REF
1 + 𝜆𝑉𝐷𝑆1
Example 2.14
Calculate the output current 𝐼𝑂
and effective resistance 𝑟𝑜 for the
current mirror shown here for the
following circuit parameters: 𝑉𝑆𝑆 =
10 V, 𝐾𝑛 = 250 μA/V 2 , 𝑉𝑇𝑁 = 1 V, 𝜆
= 0.0133 V-1, and 𝐼𝑅𝐸𝐹 = 150 μA.
Example 2.14 (Solution)
Solve for 𝑉𝐺𝑆 (since 𝑉𝐷𝑆1 = 𝑉𝐺𝑆 ),

𝐼REF = 𝐼𝐷1 = 𝐾𝑛 /2 𝑉𝐺𝑆 − 𝑉𝑇𝑁 2 1 + 𝜆𝑉𝐺𝑆

250 μA/V 2 2
150 μA = 𝑉𝐺𝑆 − 1 V 1 + 𝑉𝐺𝑆 0.0133 → 𝑉𝐺𝑆 = 2.08 V
2
𝑉𝐷𝑆1 = 𝑉𝐺𝑆 = 2.08 V
1 + 𝜆𝑉𝐷𝑆2 1 + 0.0133 10 V
𝐼𝑂 = 𝐼𝑅𝐸𝐹 = = 165.38 μA
1 + 𝜆𝑉𝐷𝑆1 1 + 0.0133 2.08 V
1 1
𝑟𝑜 = = = 454.65 kΩ
𝜆𝐼𝑂 0.0133 165.38 μA
Cascode current mirror: MOS
Cascode current mirrors helps achieve
higher effective resistance to improve the
stability of the current source to changes in
output voltage.
Assuming all transistors are identical,
𝐼𝑂 = 𝐼REF
The effective resistance is,
𝑅𝑜 = 𝑟𝑜4 + 𝑟𝑜2 1 + 𝑔𝑚4 𝑟𝑜4
Example 2.15
For the cascode current source,
determine 𝑉𝐺𝑆 of each transistor
and the output resistance if
𝐼𝑂 = 20 μA, 𝑉𝐷𝐷 = 10 V, 𝐾𝑛 =
160 μA/V 2 , 𝑉𝑇𝑁 = 1 V, and 𝜆 =
0.02 V-1.
Example 2.15 (Solution)
𝐾𝑛 2
𝐼𝑂 = 𝑉𝐺𝑆 − 𝑉𝑇𝑁 1 + 𝜆𝑉𝐺𝑆 , since 𝑉𝐷𝑆 = 𝑉𝐺𝑆 for transistors 𝑀1 and 𝑀3 .
2

160 μA/V 2
20 μA = 𝑉𝐺𝑆 − 1 V 2 1 + 𝑉𝐺𝑆 0.02 → 𝑉𝐺𝑆 = 1.49 V
2
2𝐼𝑂 2 20 μA
𝑔𝑚4 = = = 811.85 μS
𝑉𝐺𝑆 − 𝑉𝑇𝑁 1.49 V − 1 V
1 1
𝑟𝑜2 = 𝑟𝑜4 = = = 2.5 MΩ
𝜆𝐼𝑂 0.02 20 μA
𝑅𝑜 = 𝑟𝑜4 + 𝑟𝑜2 1 + 𝑔𝑚4 𝑟𝑜4
𝑅𝑜 = 2.5 MΩ + 2.5 MΩ 1 + 811.85 μS 2.5 MΩ = 512.41 MΩ
Wilson current mirror: MOS
• Wilson current mirror is used for
applications requiring precisely
matched current sources.
• Output current:
1 + 𝜆𝑉𝐺𝑆
𝐼𝑂 = 𝐼REF
1 + 2𝜆𝑉𝐺𝑆

2𝐼REF
𝑉𝐺𝑆 ≅ 𝑉𝑇𝑁 +
𝐾𝑛
Modified Wilson current mirror: MOS
• In modified Wilson current mirror,
the ratio of 𝐼𝑂 /𝐼REF is matched.
• Effective resistance is the same as
original,
1
𝑅𝑜 = 𝑟𝑜4 𝑔𝑚2 𝑟𝑜2 + +2
𝑔𝑚2 𝑟𝑜2
Usually 𝑔𝑚2 𝑟𝑜2 ≫ 2,
𝑅𝑜 = 𝑔𝑚2 𝑟𝑜2 𝑟𝑜4
Example 2.16
Calculate 𝑉𝐺𝑆 for each
transistors and the output
current 𝐼𝑂 for the Wilson
current source shown if the
circuit has the following
parameters: 𝑉𝑆𝑆 = 5 V, 𝑉𝑇𝑁 =
1 V, 𝐾𝑛 = 0.3 mA/V 2 , 𝐼REF =
200 μA and 𝜆 = 0.02.
Example 2.16 (Solution)
Solve for 𝑉𝐺𝑆 (note that 𝑉𝐷𝑆2 = 2𝑉𝐺𝑆 ):
𝐾𝑛
𝐼REF = 𝑉𝐺𝑆 − 𝑉𝑇𝑁 2 1 + 2𝜆𝑉𝐺𝑆
2
0.3 mA/V 2
200 μA = 𝑉𝐺𝑆 − 1 V 2 1 + 2 0.02 𝑉𝐺𝑆 → 𝑉𝐺𝑆 = 2.11 V
2
𝐾𝑛
𝐼𝑂 = 𝑉𝐺𝑆 − 𝑉𝑇𝑁 2 1 + 𝜆𝑉𝐺𝑆
2
0.3 mA/V 2
𝐼𝑂 = 2.11 − 1 V 2 1 + 0.02 2.11 = 192.22 μA
2
Example 2.17
Determine 𝑉𝐺𝑆 for all the
transistors and the effective
resistance for the modified
Wilson current source shown if
the circuit has the following
parameters: 𝑉𝐷𝐷 = 5 V, 𝑉𝑇𝑁 =
1 V, 𝐾𝑛 = 0.3 mA/V 2 , 𝐼REF =
200 μA and 𝜆 = 0.02.
Example 2.17 (Solution)
Solve for 𝑉𝐺𝑆 in transistor 𝑀3 :
𝐾𝑛 2
𝐼REF = 𝑉𝐺𝑆 − 𝑉𝑇𝑁 1 + 𝜆𝑉𝐺𝑆
2
0.3 mA/V 2 2
200 μA = 𝑉𝐺𝑆 − 1 V 1 + 0.02 𝑉𝐺𝑆 → 𝑉𝐺𝑆 = 2.13 V
2
𝐼𝑂 = 𝐼REF = 200 μA
2𝐼𝑂 2 200 μA
𝑔𝑚2 = = = 35.37 μS
𝑉𝐺𝑆 − 𝑉𝑇𝑁 2.13 V − 1 V
1 1
𝑟𝑜2 = 𝑟𝑜4 = = = 2.5 MΩ
𝜆𝐼𝑂 0.02 200 μA
𝑅𝑜 = 𝑔𝑚2 𝑟𝑜2 𝑟𝑜4 = 35.37 μS 2.5 MΩ 2.5 MΩ = 22.11 MΩ
Example 2.18
Using the circuit from Example
2.13, calculate the new
common-mode gain and CMRR
in decibels if the two-transistor
current source is replaced with a
cascode current source.
Example 2.18 (Solution)
Compute for the transconductance and resistance first before proceeding to equivalent resistance 𝑅𝑜 ,

𝑔𝑚4 = 2𝐾𝑛 𝐼𝑆𝑆 = 2 2 mA/V 2 0.587 mA = 1.53 μS

1 1
𝑟𝑜 = = = 170.36 kΩ
𝜆𝐼𝑆𝑆 0.01 0.587 mA
𝑅𝑜 = 𝑟𝑜4 + 𝑟𝑜2 1 + 𝑔𝑚4 𝑟𝑜4 = 170.36 kΩ + 170.36 kΩ 1 + 1.53 μS 170.36 kΩ = 44.8 MΩ
−𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐷 − 541.76 μS 16 kΩ
𝐴𝑐𝑚 = = = −0.000179
1 + 2𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝑆 1 + 2 541.76 μS 44.8 MΩ
−4.33
CMRR dB = 20 log 𝐴𝑑 /𝐴𝑐𝑚 = 20 log = 87.67 dB
−0.000179
References
• Jaeger and Blalock Microelectronic Circuit Design 4th
ed.
• Basak, Amitava Analogue Electronic Circuits and
Systems
• Millman, Jacob and Arvin Grabel Microelectronics
2nd ed.
• Neamen, Donald A. Electronic Circuit Analysis and
Design 2nd ed.
 LESSON 2: DC and AC Analysis of
Differential Amplifier

DURATION: 90 minutes

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After the lesson, the student must be able to:
 Define tail current;
 Compute for tail current, emitter current, and collector voltage;
 Identify the effect of base resistor on the tail current;
 Point out the relationship between emitter current and tail current.

LET’S HAVE A SELF ASSESSMENT!

Answer the following questions based on your knowledge about the topic:

1 - I have never heard of it.

2 - I have heard of it, but don't know what it is.
3 - I have some idea of what it is, but it’s not very clear.
4 - I know what it is and could explain what it is.

Questions 1 2 3 4
1. How familiar are you with DC analysis of
amplifiers?

2. How familiar are you with the AC analysis of

amplifiers??

3. How confident are you in solving circuit

problems?

4. How familiar are you with the terms like tail

current, input impedance, voltage gain?
 WHAT IS IT?

DC analysis of differential amplifier

The figure shows the dc equivalent circuit of a differential amplifier. It can be seen that
the ac input (V1 and V2 as discussed in the previous lesson) was removed. In this
model, it is considered that the transistors and the value of collector resistors (Rc)
were identical.

Tail current is the current flowing through the emitter resistor RE. Why is it called the
tail current? Differential amplifier is also called long-tail pair because of the sharing of
emitter resistor, RE.

Ideal Approximation/ Analysis

The tail current, as mentioned in the current in the emitter resistor, to compute for the
tail current, IT:
I= V/R
The voltage drop across the resistor RE in the ideal analysis, is equal to VEE, since the
voltage across the transistor diode VBE is disregarded.
Therefore, IT = VEE/RE, where IT is the tail current. And since half of the circuit is
identical, and it shares the same emitter resistor, it can be said that the emitter current
is half of the tail current.

IE = IT/2

IE = emitter current

Second Approximation

The voltage drop in the transistor diode VBE is already considered when using the
second approximation. In effect, the tail current will not be equal to VEE over the emitter
resistor only. The tail current will be:

IT = (VEE-VBE)/RE

The value of VBE is 0.7V for silicon transistor, and 0.3V for germanium. But the most
commonly used is silicon transistor.

The value of the emitter current is still given by the previous equation.

Base Resistors
Base resistors are directly connected to the ground in the dc analysis to simplify the
circuit. When these resistors are used, it has a negligible effect on the tail current.

Example 2-1
Compute for the ideal currents of a differential amplifier whose DC input voltage is 10
V, collector resistor is 4k ohm and emitter resistor is 6k ohm.
Given that VEE = 10V
RC= 4K ohm
RE= 6K ohm
IT = VEE/RE
IT = 10V/6Kohm
IT = 1.67 mA

IE = IT/2
IE = 1.67mA/2
IE = 833.333 uA

Vc= Vcc- ICRC

To compute for the collector voltage of each transistor,
Vc= 15V- (833.333 uA)(4K ohm)
Vc= 11.67 V

Example 2-2
Compute the previous example using the second approximation.

IT = (VEE-VBE)/RE
IT = (15-0.7V)/6k ohm
IT = 2.38 mA

IE = IT/2
IE = 2.38 mA/2
IE = 1.19mA

Vc= Vcc- ICRC

To compute for the collector voltage of each transistor,
Vc= 15V- (1.19mA)(4K ohm)
Vc= 10.24 V
Example 2-3
Compute for the currents of the circuit given using the first and second approximations.

IT = VEE/RE
IT = 10V/3Kohm
IT = 3.33mA

IE = IT/2
IE = 3.33mA/2
IE = 1.67mA

Vc= Vcc- ICRC

To compute for the collector voltage of each transistor,
Vc= 10V- (1.67mA)(2K ohm)
Vc= 6.67 V

AC Analysis of Differential Amplifier

The ac analysis of differential amplifier requires the computation of the ac emitter

resistance re’. Ac emitter resistance is defined as the change in the voltage level in
the base-emitter region as the emitter current changes.

The ac emitter resistance of an emitter diode is given by:

∆𝑉𝐵𝐸
Rac =
∆𝐼𝐸
Rac = 25mV/ IE

re’= 25mV/ IE

Below is the table describing the voltage gain and output voltage for different
configuration of differential amplifier for AC analysis:
 Input Output Voltage gain Output Voltage
Configuration Configuration Non-inverting Inverting
Differential Differential Rc/re’ Av(V1-V2)
Differential Single-ended Rc/2re’ Av(V1-V2)
Single-ended Differential Rc/re’ Av(V1) -Av(V2)
Single-ended Single-ended Rc/2re’ Av(V1) -Av(V2)

The voltage gain of a differential amplifier in the ac analysis is defined by the equation
Rc/re’, but for the single-ended output, the voltage gain is only half of the differential.

The input impedance of a circuit can be calculated through beta and the ac resistance
values. In a simple CE (Collector-Emitter) stage amplifier, the input impedance Zin is
equal to the transistors forward current gain (β) times the ac emitter resistance.
However, for differential amplifiers, there are two CE stages in the circuit, so the
equation now becomes:

Zin = 2βre’

Example 2-4
Solve for the ac output voltage and input impedance of the circuit below. Assume
β=300.

Differential amplifier configuration: Single-ended input, noninverting, differential

output.

Before starting with the ac analysis, compute first for the DC emitter current.

IT = VEE/RE
IT = 10V/3Kohm
IT = 3.33mA

IE = IT/2
IE = 3.33mA/2
IE = 1.67mA

After getting the value of the emitter current, compute for the ac equivalent resistance

re’= 25mV/ IE
re’= 25mV/ 1.67mA
re’= 15 ohms

Then the voltage gain is defined by:

Av = Rc/re’
Av = 2K ohms/ 15 ohms
Av = 133

Note that the voltage gain has no unit, it is only the measure by which the
signal is amplified.

The output voltage is computed by the equation:

Vout = Av(Vin)
Vout = 133(1mV)
Vout = 133mV, the output voltage is positive because the input is non-
inverting.

For the input impedance,

Zin = 2βre’
Zin = 2(300)(15)
Zin = 9K ohm

Example 2-5
Solve the example 2-4 using the second approximation.
Differential amplifier configuration: Single-ended input, noninverting, differential
output.

Before starting with the ac analysis, compute first for the DC emitter current using the
second approximation.

IT = (VEE-0.7)/RE
IT = (10V-0.7V)/3Kohm
IT = 3.1mA

IE = IT/2
IE = 3.1mA/2
IE = 1.55mA
After getting the value of the emitter current, compute for the ac equivalent resistance

re’= 25mV/ IE
re’= 25mV/ 1.55mA
re’= 16.13 ohms

Then the voltage gain is defined by:

Av = Rc/re’
Av = 2K ohms/ 16.13 ohms
Av = 124

Note that the voltage gain has no unit, it is only the measure by which the
signal is amplified.

The output voltage is computed by the equation:

Vout = Av(Vin)
Vout = 124(1mV)
Vout = 124mV, the output voltage is positive because the input is non-
inverting.

For the input impedance,

Zin = 2βre’
Zin = 2(300)(16.13ohms)
Zin = 9.68K ohm

SUM IT UP

 The emitter current is half of the tail current.

 In ideal analysis, the voltage drop at the base-emitter junction is
approximated to zero.
 In the second approximation, the voltage drop along the base-emitter
junction is considered.
 0.7V is used as the base-emitter voltage drop.

30
  In AC analysis, the abbreviations used are in the lower case format,
while in DC analysis, upper case letters are used to distinguish the two.
 The voltage gain for the single-ended output is half of the differential
configuration.
 The output voltage is the voltage taken from the collector times the
amplification factor.

THINK OF THIS!

1. Solve for the DC current of the circuit in the example 2-3 if the emitter
resistor value is changed to 1.5K ohms. Solve using first and second
approximations.

2. How did the value of the tail current changed as the emitter resistor was
reduced from 3K ohms to 1.5K ohms? Does it doubled? Halved? Why do you
think it changed that way?

3. Analyze how the DC current flows through the circuit in example 2-3. Draw
the circuit and label the current flowing through the circuit. Use your circuit
simulation tool as a guide.

4. Compute for the output voltage if the example 2-4 has a differential input, if V2
= 3mV. What is the sign of the output voltage? Describe why.

31
 KEEP LEARNING!

Try plotting the circuit diagrams in the lesson in any of the circuit simulation software
available to you. Check the answers in the example given if it matches!

32
 LESSON 3: Input Characteristics of an
Operational Amplifier

DURATION: 60 minutes

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After the lesson, the student must be able to:
 Define input bias current, input offset current, and input offset voltage.
 Describe the effects of the above-mentioned parameters
 Solve for the value of each parameter.

LET’S HAVE A SELF ASSESSMENT!

Answer the following questions based on your knowledge about the topic:

1 - I have never heard of it.

2 - I have heard of it, but don't know what it is.
3 - I have some idea of what it is, but it’s not very clear.
4 - I know what it is and could explain what it is.

Questions 1 2 3 4
1. How familiar are you with the terms input bias
current, input offset current, and voltage?

2. How familiar are you with the effects of the

above-mentioned parameters?

3. How confident are you in solving circuit

problems?

WHAT IS IT?

In applications requiring high precision, approximating that the two sides of the
differential amplifier is completely symmetrical is not advisable.
Three parameters are present in every manufacturer’s datasheet that must be given
consideration when designing a circuit for high precision purposes. These parameters
are input bias current, input offset current, and input offset voltage.

Input Bias Current

 In a practical op amp, the βdc of the first transistor is slightly different, which
means the base current of the two transistors is not always identical. Op amps have a
small amount of current flowing in the input called input bias current. It is described by
the average of the two input current or base current.

Ibias(in)= (IB1+IB2)/2
The value of the input bias current is typically expressed in nano amperes. That
is the reason why for most applications, it is approximated to zero. These current if
present, will flow in the resistors between the base of the transistors and the ground.

Example 3-1
Solve for the input bias current of the differential amplifier whose current in the base
of transistor 1 is 100nA and current in the base of transistor 2 is 90nA.
Ibias(in)= (100nA+90nA)/2
Ibias(in)= (190nA)/2
Ibias(in)= 95nA

Input Offset Current

The input offset current (Ios(in)) is the difference between the two base currents.
It describes how much the two transistors are identical. When two transistors are
completely identical, the input offset current is equal to zero.
The ideal value must be approximately zero or zero. The higher the value of
the input offset current, the larger is the deviation of the two transistors.

Ios(in) = IB1-IB2

Example 3-2
Solve for the input offset current of the differential amplifier whose current in the base
of transistor 1 is 100nA and current in the base of transistor 2 is 90nA.
Ios(in) = IB1-IB2
Ios(in) = 100nA-90nA
 Ios(in) = 10nA
The answer tells that the first transistor has 10nA current more than the second.

Input bias current and input offset current are typically present in the manufacturer’s
datasheets, but the values of the base current itself is not usually given. To compute
for the values of the base currents, these equations are used:
IB1 = Ibias(in) + (Ios(in)/2)
IB1 = Ibias(in) - (Ios(in)/2)

These equations are derived from the first two formulas from the lesson.

Input offset Voltage

Input offset voltage is also one of the important parameters of a differential
amplifier. Ideally, the output voltage of a differential amplifier is equal to zero volts,
when the base terminal of the transistor is connected to the ground, but since there is
a small current, called input bias voltage present in the base terminal, input offset
voltage must be added to the circuit to make the output voltage zero.
Input offset voltage is represented by a dc source in the input of the amplifier.

Differential Amplifier with Input Offset Voltage in LT Spice

Image retrieved from: http://www.ecircuitcenter.com/Circuits/op_voff/op_voff.htm

Input offset voltage is used in the design to compensate in the unbalances in a

differential amplifier. If a designer has a differential amplifier and inputs 0V, the
expected output is also zero, but in reality, the output will not be zero because of the
error voltage.

VOS(IN)=Verr/Av

Example 3-3
What is the input offset voltage if the error voltage is 0.5V and the voltage gain is 100?
VOS(IN)=Verr/Av
VOS(IN)=0.5/100
VOS(IN)=5mV

Three error voltages can be considered in the differential amplifier. These error
voltages are due to the input offset current, and input bias current.

Error due to input bias current is defined by the expression:

V1err = (RB1-RB2)IBIAS(IN)

Error due to the input offset current is defined by the expression:

V2err = (RB1+RB2)(IOS(IN)/2)
Error due to input offset voltage is defined by the expression:
V3err = (VOS(IN))

The sum of all the error voltages is:

Verr = Av(V1err+V2err+V3err)

These errors for some applications, can be ignored but for some, these must be taken
into consideration. One of the solutions to avoid the complexity of these errors is to
use equal base resistance.

If RB1 is equal to RB2 the equations will be simplified.

V1err = 0
V2err = (RB)(IOS(IN))
V3err = (VOS(IN))

When setting the base resistances to equal values is not enough to eliminate the
errors, nulling methods are applied.

Example 3-4
Compute for the error voltages of the circuit below if the input bias current is 5uA, input
offset current is 0.8uA, input offset voltage is 1mV and the voltage gain is 300.

V1err = (RB1-RB2)IBIAS(IN)
V1err = (1K)(5uA)
V1err = 5mV

V2err = (RB1+RB2)(IOS(IN)/2)
V2err = (1K)(0.8uA/2)
V2err= 0.4mV

V3err = (VOS(IN))
V3err = 1mV
Verr = Av(V1err+V2err+V3err)
Verr = 300(5mV+0.4mV+1mV)
Verr = 1.92V

If the base resistors are made equal;

V1err = 0

V2err = (RB)(IOS(IN))
V2err = (1K)(0.8uA)
V2err = 0.8mV

V3err = (VOS(IN))
V3err = 1mV

Verr = Av(V1err+V2err+V3err)
Verr = 300(0+0.8mV+1mV)
Verr = 0.54V

Notice that the error voltage is reduced.

SUM IT UP

Three parameters are present in differential amplifiers which are important when
dealing with applications requiring precision. These are the input offset current, input
bias current, and input offset voltage.
Voltage errors are present at the output of the differential amplifier and one of the ways
to reduce it is by having equal values of base resistance. Also, nulling methods found
in the manufacturer’s data-sheet can be used when needed.

THINK OF THIS!

1. Compute for the error voltage if the input bias current is 3uA, input offset current
is 0.4uA, input offset voltage is 0.5mV and the voltage gain is 150. The base
resistors are equal with resistance of 2000 ohms.
 2. Compute for the error voltage if the input bias current is 3uA, input offset current
is 0.4uA, input offset voltage is 0.5mV and the voltage gain is 150. The base
resistors are not equal, RB1= 1000 ohms, RB2= 2000ohms.

KEEP LEARNING!

Look for the datasheet of 741 op-amp. Find the value of the three parameters
discussed in the lesson. Also, check if there are nulling methods indicated in the
datasheet.
 LESSON 4: Common Mode Gain

DURATION: 60 minutes

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After the lesson, the student must be able to:
 Define common-mode gain;
 Define common-mode rejection ratio and compute for it;
 Interpret the computed values.

LET’S HAVE A SELF ASSESSMENT!

Answer the following questions based on your knowledge about the topic:

1 - I have never heard of it.

2 - I have heard of it, but don't know what it is.
3 - I have some idea of what it is, but it’s not very clear.
4 - I know what it is and could explain what it is.

Questions 1 2 3 4
1. How familiar are you with the terms
common-mode gain, common-mode
rejection ratio?
2. How familiar are you with solving problems
related to common mode?

3. How confident are you in interpreting data

from the solved problems?

WHAT IS IT?

Common Mode
When the terminal of the transistor is connected to a “common” ground, a
common-mode signal is produced. Common mode signals are identical signals that
are seen in the input of the differential amplifier.
There are several reasons that a signal is formed in the input one of which is
when input terminals acts as an antenna that detects small signal.
Common Mode Gain

Common-mode gain is the amplification given to the common-mode signal.

Ideal op amps have a common-mode gain of zero. It signifies that the output voltage
is not affected by the unwanted input signals that are connected with the common
ground.

The common-mode gain of an op-amp can be expressed through the equation:

AV(CM)=RC/2RE

The practical values of the common-mode voltage gain is between 0 to values less
than 1.

Example 4-1
What is the common-mode gain and voltage output of a differential amplifier whose
collector resistance is 4M ohms and the emitter resistance is 3M ohms? The common-
mode signal is 1mV.

AV(CM)=RC/2RE
AV(CM)=4Mohms/2(3Mohms)
AV(CM)=0.67

VOUT=Av(VIN)
VOUT=0.67(1mV)
VOUT=0.67mV

Note that the differential amplifier reduced the voltage level of the common-mode
signal.

Common Mode Rejection Ratio

40
The ratio between the differential gain and the common-mode gain of an amplifier is
called common-mode rejection ratio or CMRR.
CMRR = Av/ AV(CM)

The ideal value of the CMRR is infinite. The high value of the CMRR signifies that the
differential amplifier amplifies the desired signal and rejects the unwanted signal.
In the manufacturer’s datasheet, CMRR is often expressed in decibels.

CMRRdB=20 log CMRR

Example 4-2
What is the CMRR of a differential amplifier whose common-mode gain is 20 and
voltage gain is 2000. Express your answer in decibel.

CMRR = Av/ AV(CM)

CMRR = 2000/ 20
CMRR = 100

CMRRdB=20 log CMRR

CMRRdB=20 log 100
CMRRdB=40dB

Example 4-3
An op-amp has a voltage gain is 30,000 and a common-mode rejection ratio of
60dB, compute for the common-mode gain.

CMRRdB=20 log CMRR

CMRR= antilog (60/20)
CMRR = 1000

CMRR = Av/ AV(CM)

1000 = 30000/ AV(CM)
AV(CM) = 30

Example 4-4
Compute for the output voltage of the circuit in example 4-3 if the input voltage is 1mV
and the common-mode signal is 1uV.

Vout= Av(Vin)
Vout= 30000(1mV)
Vout = 3MV

Vout(CM)= AV(CM)(VIN(CM))
Vout(CM)= 30(1uV)
Vout(CM)= 30uV

Example 4-4
Compute for the output voltage of the circuit in example 4-3 if the input voltage and
common mode signal both have 10mV value.

Vout= Av(Vin)

41
Vout= 30000(10mV)
Vout = 30MV

Vout(CM)= AV(CM)(VIN(CM))
Vout(CM)= 30(10mV)
Vout(CM)= 300mV

Notice that the value of the output voltage of the desired signal is much higher
compared to the common mode (undesired) signal. It signifies that the differential
amplifier is successful in amplifying the wanted signal and rejecting the unwanted.

SUM IT UP

THINK OF

THIS!
1. What does it imply if the value of the CMRR is low?

__

2. How do you think does the common-mode signal affects the operation of a
differential amplifier?

__

KEEP LEARNING!

Look for datasheet of commonly used operational amplifiers such as 741 op-
amp. Check the values of CMRR and voltage gain. Compare it with other operational
amplifiers.

42
 LESSON 5: Current Mirrors

DURATION: 60 minutes

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After the lesson, the student must be able to:
 Describe how current mirror works;
 Describe the applications of current mirrors;
 Define current mirror.

LET’S HAVE A SELF ASSESSMENT!

Answer the following questions based on your knowledge about the topic:

1 - I have never heard of it.

2 - I have heard of it, but don't know what it is.
3 - I have some idea of what it is, but it’s not very clear.
4 - I know what it is and could explain what it is.

Questions 1 2 3 4
1. How familiar are you with the term current
mirror?
2. How familiar are you with how the current
mirror works?

3. How familiar are you with the applications of

current mirrors?

WHAT IS IT?

Generally, current mirrors are circuits that are used to replicate a reference
current level for a load. This circuit is used to supply bias voltage and at the same
time, act as an active load to a circuit. For circuits that need to have a constant
current, rather than a constant voltage supply, current mirrors are helpful. It can
provide a stable current source for DC biasing.

How it works
From the term itself, the circuit “mirrors” or replicates the input current and
supply it as a constant current. The input is called the reference current, and the
output is called the replicated or mirrored current.

43
Simple current mirror
Current mirrors has two stages, the first is the current to voltage converter and
the second is the voltage to current converter.

Simple Current Mirror Circuit

Image Retrieved from: https://wiki.analog.com/university/courses/electronics/text/chapter-11

When the reference current is supplied through the resistor R1, the base current
of the circuit, since the transistors are the same, will be equal, therefore, the collector
current of the second transistor and the reference current will be equal.
At the first stage, the input current passes through R1 and is divided into the
node at QC1 and QB1, and since QB1 and QB2 are directly connected, the current
the both base terminal will be equal. The base current will flow to the emitter, so the
emitter current at QE1 and QE2 will also be the same, resulting in a mirror current at
the output.

IR= (VCC-VBE)/R1

IR= IC

IR is the current at the resistor

IC is the current at the collector

Applications in differential amplifier

 Current mirrors can be used to improve the CMRR of a differential amplifier.
Since CMRR= RE/re’ as derived from the ratio of differential voltage gain
(RC/2re’) and common-mode voltage gain (RC/2RE) of a single-ended input diff-
44
 amp, RE is a means to improve the CMRR. Once RE is increased, the value of
CMRR increases. If RE is replaced by a mirror circuit, which acts as a current
source, it will have a very high output impedance, therefore the CMRR
improves.

 Current mirrors can be used as an active load to substitute the collector resistor
and become a high resistance equivalent to make the voltage gain of diff-amps
even higher.

Internal Circuit of 741 op-amp

Image retrieved from: https://www.electronicslovers.com/2018/06/ic-741-operational-amplifier-basics-
circuit-working-characteristics.html

A practical application of current mirrors can be seen in the operational

amplifiers integrated circuit. In a 741 op-amp, there are several current mirrors.

SUM IT UP

 Current mirrors act as a constant current source with high output impedance.
 Current mirrors replicate the input current and supply it to the load.
 Current mirrors can be used as a device to improve CMRR and voltage gain.
 Current mirrors are circuits that are used in the design of integrated circuits
because of its advantages in stability.

THINK OF THIS!

45
 True or False. If the statement is false, write down the fact to make it true.
Write your fact below the question.

1. The reference level in a current mirror is not equal to the output level.

2. Current mirrors improve CMRR by replacing the collector resistor.

3.Current mirrors are seen in integrated circuits.

4.One application of the current mirror is acting as an active load

Answer the following questions:

1. What are the advantages of using current mirrors?

__ _
_
_
_

2. What other applications do you think current mirrors can be used except for those
mentioned in the lesson?

_
_ _
_ _
_

KEEP LEARNING!
Draw the differential amplifier with current mirror as the emitter resistor.
Discuss how it works to improve the differential amplifier.

46
47