Design Principles of Connected Devices

Module- 2
Design Principles of Connected Devices

Introduction, IoT/M2Msystems layers and design standardization, Communication

Technologies, Data enrichment, data consolidation and device management at gateway

2.1 INTRODUCTION
• When data is transferred from a sensor, the functional units create a stack for data communication to
an application or service.
• Data stack denotes the data received after the actions at various in-between layers (or levels or
domains). Layers in Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model are Application, Presentation, Session,
Transport, Network, Data-link and Physical.
• Layer refers to a stage during a set of actions at which the action is taken as per a specific protocol or
method, and then the result passes to the next layer until the set of actions complete. A layer may consist
of various sublayers.
• Level refers to a stage from the lowest to the highest. For example, acquiring device data and actions
that may be considered at the lowest level and actions in business processes at the highest level.
• Domain refers to a set of software, layers or levels having specific applications and capabilities.
• Gateway refers to software for connecting two application layers, one at the sender and the other at the
receiver.
• A gateway may be of different types.
➢ A communication gateway at device and gateway domain has capabilities as protocol-conversion
during communication between two ends when each end uses distinct protocols.
➢ An Internet gateway may have capabilities besides protocol conversion, transcoding data, device
management and data-enrichment before the data communicate over the Internet.
• Packet means packaged data-stack which routes over the network. Packet size limit is according to the
protocol.
➢ For example, IPv4 packet size limit is 216 B.
• Protocol Data Unit (PDU) is a unit of data which is specified in a protocol of a given layer which
transfers from one layer to another. For example,
➢ PDU is bit which transfers from physical layer;
➢ frame from data-link layer
➢ packet from network layer
➢ segment from transport layer
➢ text from application and other layers
• Maximum Transmission Unit (MTU) is the largest size frame or packet or segment specified in octets
that can be sent in a packet or frame-based network such as the Internet.
➢ For example, consider transfers of a segment from the transport layer using the Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP) to the network layer.
➢ The MTU determines the maximum size of each data stack in any transfer to the network layer.

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➢ The network layer determines the maximum size of each frame in any transfer to the data-link layer
and then uses MTU of the data-link layer.
• Star network denotes the number of nodes interacting with a coordinator or master node.
• Mesh network denotes the number of nodes that may interconnect with each other.

• End-point device or node denotes the one that provides connectivity to a coordinator or router
• Coordinator denotes the one that connects to a number of end-points as well as routers in a star topology
and forwards the data stack from one attached end point/router to another.
• Master refers to the one who initiates the pairing with the devices in a star topology network.
• Slave means one that pairs with a master, uses the clock signals from master for synchronisation and
uses address assigned by the master at the beginning.
• Router refers to a device or node capable of storing paths to each destination to which it has logical
links. The router sends the data stack according to the available path or paths at a receiving instance.
• ISM band means Industrial, Scientific and Medical (ISM) radio frequency (RF) bands.
➢ 915 MHz for North America.
➢ 868 MHz for Europe.
➢ 433 MHz band for Asia.
• Application means software for specific tasks, such as streetlight monitoring or control
• Service means service software, for example, report generation or chart visualisation service.
• Process means a software component, which processes the input and generates the output; for example,
after analysing the data or acquiring the data. An operating system controls a process, memory for the
process and other parameters of the process.

2.2 IoT/M2M SYSTEMS, LAYERS AND DESIGN STANDARDISATION

A number of international organisations have taken action for IoT design standardisation.
• Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF): suggests the specifications for the layers, and the
engineering aspects for the IoT communication, networks and applications.
• International Telecommunication Union for Telecommunication (ITU-T): a reference model for IoT
domain, network and transport capabilities for the IoT services and the applications at the application
and application-support layers.

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• European Telecommunication Standards Institute (ETSI): initiated the development of a set of

standards for the network, and devices and gateway domains for the communication between
machines (M2M). ETSI proposed high-level architecture for applications and service capabilities.
• Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC): an International Industry Consortium, suggested open standards
for sensors’ discovery, capabilities, quality and other aspects with support to geographical
information web support.

Modified OSI Model for the IoT/M2M Systems

IETF suggests modifications in the OSI model for the IoT/M2M. Figure 1 shows a classical seven-layer OSI
model (on the left) and the modifications in that model proposed by IETF (in the middle). Data communicates
from device end to application end. Each layer processes the received data and creates a new data stack which
transfers it to the next layer. The processing takes place at the in-between layers, i.e., between the bottom
functional-layer to the top layer. Device end also receives data from an application/service after processing at
the in-between layers.

Fig 1: Seven-layer generalised OSI model (on left) and IETF six layer modified OSI model for IoT/ M2M (in the
middle), and similarity with the conceptual framework Equation (on right) for IoT applications and services

Layer 6: New applications and services are present at the application layer.
Layer 5: Application-support layer 5 uses protocols, such as CoAP. IoT applications and services commonly
use them for network communication. The CoAP protocol at the layer is used for the request/response
interactions between the client and server at the network. Similarly, the application-support layer may include
processes for data managing, acquiring, organising and analysing which are mostly used by applications and
services.
Layer 2: The dataadaptation layer includes a gateway. The gateway enables communication between the
devices network and the web.
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Layer 1: A physical IoT/M2M device hardware may integrate a wireless transceiver using a communication
protocol as well as a data-link protocol for linking the data stacks of Layer1 and Layer2.

ITU-T Reference Model:

RM1 considers four layers which are:
• L1, is the device layer and has device and gateway capabilities.
• L2, has transport and network capabilities.
• L3, is the services and application-support layer. The support layer has two types of capabilities—
generic and specific service or application-support capabilities.
• L4, is for applications and services.

Fig 2: ITU-T reference model RM1, its correspondence with six layers of modified OSI and a comparison with seven
levels suggested in CISCO IoT reference model RM2

A comparison of ITU-T RM1 with the six-layer OSI model can be made as follows:
• RM1 device layer capabilities are similar to data-adaptation and physical cum datalink layers.
• RM1 network layer capabilities are similar to transport and network layers.
• RM1 upper two-layer capabilities are similar to top two layers.
A comparison with the CISCO IoT reference model (RM2) can be made as follows:
• RM1 L4 capabilities are similar to RM2 collaborations and processes, and application top two levels.
• RM1 L3 capabilities are similar to RM2 three middle-level functions of data abstraction, accumulation,
analysis and transformation.
• RM1 L2 layer capabilities are similar to RM2 functions at connectivity level.
• RM1 L1 device layer capabilities are similar to RM2 functions at physical devices level.

ETSI M2M Domains and High-level Capabilities

The ETSI network domain has six capabilities and functions:
1. M2M applications.
2. M2M service capabilities.

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3. M2M management functions.

4. Network management functions.
5. CoRE network.
6. Access network (for example, LPWAN (low power wide area network), WLAN (Wi-Fi) and WiMax
networks.
The ETSI device and gateway domain has the following functional units:
• Gateway between M2M area network, and CoRE and access network, possessing M2M service
capabilities and applications.
• M2M area network (for example, Bluetooth, ZigBee NFC, PAN, LAN).
• M2M devices

Figure 3: ETSI M2M domain architecture and its high-level capabilities, and its correspondences with six layers of
modified OSI and four layers of ITU-T reference model

2.3 COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES

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Figure 4: Connected devices 1st to ith connected to the local network and gateway using the WPAN or
LPWAN network protocols.
Physical cum data-link layer in the model consists of a local area network/personal area network. A local
network of IoT or M2M device deploys one of the two types of technologies— wireless or wired
communication technologies.
Figure 4 shows number of devices present in an IoT or M2M devices network and the local area network of
devices. The connectivity between the devices (left-hand side) is by using RF, Bluetooth Smart Energy,
ZigBee IP, ZigBee NAN (neighbourhood area network), NFC or 6LoWPAN or mobile. Tens of bytes
communicate at an instance between the device and local devices network.

Wireless Communication Technology

Examples of wireless communication technologies are
• NFC
• RFID
• ZigBee
• Bluetooth (BT)
• RF transceivers
• RF modules
Near-Field Communication
• Near-Field communication (NFC) is an enhancement of ISO/IEC2 14443 standard for contact-less
proximity-card.

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• NFC is a short distance (20 cm) wireless communication technology.

• It enables data exchange between cards in proximity and other devices.
• Examples are proximity-card reader/RFID/IoT/M2M/mobile device, mobile payment wallet,
electronic keys for car, house, office entry keys and biometric passport readers.
• NFC devices transmit and receive data at the same instance and the setup time is 0.1 s.
• The device or its reader can generate RF fields for the nearby passive devices such as passive RFID.
• An NFC device can check RF field and detect collision of transmitted signals.
• The device can check collision when the received signal bits do not match with the transmitted signal
bits.
Features of an NFC device are:
• Range of functioning is within 10 to 20 cm.
• The device can also communicate with Bluetooth and Wi-Fi devices in order to extend the distance
from 10 cm to 30 m or higher.
• The device is able to receive and pass the data to a Bluetooth connection or standardised LAN or Wi-
Fi using information handover functions.
• Device data transfer rates are 106 kbps, 212 kbps, 424 kbps and 848 kbps (bps stands for bit per second,
kbps for kilo bit per second).
Three modes of communication are:
• Point-to-point (P2P) mode: Both devices use the active devices in which RF fields alternately generate
when communicating.
• Card-emulation mode: Communication without interruption for the read and write as required in a
smart card and smart card reader. FeliCa™ and Mifare™ standards are protocols for reading and
writing data on the card device and reader, and then the reader can transfer information to Bluetooth
or LAN.
• Reader mode: Using NFC the device reads passive RFID device. The RF field is generated by an
active NFC device. This enables the passive device to communicate.

RFID
• Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) is an automatic identification method.
• RFIDs use the Internet.
• RFID usage is, therefore, in remote storage and retrieval of data is done at the RFID tags.
• An RFID device functions as a tag or label, which may be placed on an object.
i. The object can then be tracked for the movements.
ii. The object may be a parcel, person, bird or an animal.
• IoT applications of RFID are in business processes, such as parcels tracking and inventory control,
sales log-ins and supply-chain management.
Bluetooth BR/EDR and Bluetooth Low Energy
• Bluetooth devices follow IEEE 802.15.1 standard protocol for L1 (physical cum data-link layer).
• BT devices form a WPAN devices network.
• Two types of modes for the devices are
➢ Bluetooth BR/EDR (Basic Rate 1 Mbps/Enhanced Data Rate 2 Mbps and 3 Mbps)

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➢ Bluetooth low energy (BT LE 1Mbps).

• BT LE is also called Bluetooth Smart.
• BT LE range is 150 m at 10 mW power output, data transfer rate is 1 Mbps and setup time is less than
6 s.
• A latest version is Bluetooth v4.2. Bluetooth v4.2 provides the LE data packet length extension, link
layer privacy and secure connections, extended scanner and filter link layer policies and IPSP.
• Bluetooth v5, released in June 2016, has increased the broadcast capacity by 800%, quadrupled the
range and doubled the speed.
• A device may have provisions for single mode BT LE or dual mode BT BR/EDR.
Its features are:
• Auto-synchronisation between mobile and other devices when both use BT. BT network uses features
of self-discovery, self-configuration and self-healing.
• Radio range depending on class of radio; Class 1 or 2 or radios: 100 m, 10 m or 1 m used in device
BT implementation.
• Support to NFC pairing for low latency in pairing the BT devices.
• Two modes—dual or single mode devices are used for IoT/M2M devices local area network.
• IPv6 connection option for BT Smart with IPSP (Internet Protocol Support Profile).
• Smaller packets in LE mode.
• Operation in secured as well as unsecured modes (devices can opt for both link-level as well as
service-level security or just service level or unsecured level).
• AES-CCM 128 authenticated encryption algorithm for confidentiality and authentication.
• Connection of IoT/M2M/mobile devices using BT EDR device to the Internet with 24 Mbps Wi-Fi
802.11 adaptation layer (AMP: Alternative MAC/PHY layer) or BT-enabled wire-bound connection
ports or device.
ZigBee IP/ZigBee SE 2.0
• ZigBee devices follow the IEEE 802.15.4 standard protocol L1 (physical cum data-link layer).
• ZigBee devices form a WPAN devices network.
• ZigBee end-point devices form a WPAN of embedded sensors, actuators, appliances, controllers or
medical data systems which connect to the Internet for IoT applications, services and business
processes.
• ZigBee Neighbourhood Area Network (NAN) is a version for a smart grid.
• ZigBee smart energy version 2.0 has energy management and energy efficiency capabilities using an
IP network.
The features of ZigBee IP are:
• L1 layer PDU = 127 B
• Used for low-power, short-range WPAN
• The device can function in six modes—
➢ End point
➢ ZigBee-ZigBee devices router
➢ ZigBee network coordinator
➢ ZigBee-IP coordinator
➢ ZigBee-IP router and IP host.
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➢ ZigBee IP enhancement provisions the IPv6 connectivity.

• A ZigBee IP device is a Reduced Function Device (RFD).
• RFD means one that functions for the ‘sleepy’/ battery-operated device.
• Sleepy means one that wakes up infrequently, sends data and then goes back to sleep.
• ZigBee IP supports IPv6 network with 6LoWPAN header compression, connection for Internet
communication and control of low power devices, TCP/UDP transport layer and TLSv1.2 public key
(RSA and ECC) and PSK cipher suite for end-to-end security protocol, end-to-end means application
layer to physical layer.
• The ZigBee router uses reactive and proactive protocols for routing mode, which enable applications
in big-scale automation and remote controls.
• A self-configuring and self-healing dynamic pairing mesh network, supports both multicast and
unicast options.
• Multicast forwarding to support multicast Domain Name System (mDNS) based service discovery
(SD).
• Support to development of discovery mechanism with full application confirmation
• Support to pairing of coordinators with end-point devices and routers in star topology
• Provides bigger network using multiple star topology and inter-PAN communications.
• Support to sensor nodes and sensor (or appliances) network integration, sensor and appliances devices
configured as router or end-devices
• Low latency (< 10 ms) link layer connection
• Range is 10–200 m, data transfer rate is 250 kbps, low power operation
• ISM band frequencies direct sequence spread spectrum 16-channel radio, and provide link level
security using
• Includes RFD in ZigBee SE 2.0
Features of a ZigBee network are:
• A router in star network connects to 6LoWPAN, which connects an IEEE 802.15.4 devices network
to IPv6 network.
• 1000s of byte communicate between the network layer and IoT web objects.
• 127 B communication between the adaptation layer IEEE 802.15.4 devices at single data transfer.
• IETF ND (Neighbour Discovery), ROLL (Routing Over Low Power Loss Network), RPL routing,
IPv6/IPv4 network, TCP/UDP/ICMP transport, SSL/TLS security layer protocols for the
communication between web object/application and ZigBee devices.

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Figure 5: ZigBee end point, coordinator, router, ZigBee IP router nodes forming the star, mesh and IP networks of
ZigBee sensors, end devices, and ZigBee router devices which interconnect to Internet IPv4, IPv6 and cellular
network
Figure 2.5 shows:
• Three end devices, two routers, one sensor node connected to coordinator ZigBee devices forming a
star network.
• One end device, two routers and one coordinator forming a mesh network.
• Mesh network router connects to an AP/gateway, which in turn connects to a cellular network.
• Coordinator of mesh network connects to ZigBee IP border router, which enables local ZigBee
networks’ connectivity to the Internet.
Wi-Fi
• Wi-Fi is an interface technology that uses IEEE 802.11 protocol and enables the Wireless Local Area
Networks (WLANs) using the Internet.
• Wi-Fi devices connect enterprises, universities and offices through home AP/public hotspots.
• Automobiles, instruments, home networking, sensors, actuators, industrial device nodes, computers,
tablets, mobiles, printers and many devices have Wi-Fi interface. They network using a Wi-Fi network.
• The issues of Wi-Fi interfaces, APs and routers are higher power consumption, interference and
performance degradation.
Wi-Fi interfaces connect within themselves or to an AP or wireless router using Wi-Fi PCMCIA or PCI card
or built-in circuit cards and through the following:
• Wi-Fi interfaces connect within themselves or to an AP or wireless router using Wi-Fi PCMCIA or
PCI card or built-in circuit cards and through the following:
• Base station (BS) or AP
• A WLAN transceiver or BS can connect one or many wireless devices simultaneously to the Internet.

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• Peer-to-peer nodes without access point: Client devices within Independent Basic Service Set (IBSS)
network can communicate directly with each other. It enables fast and easy setting of an 802.11
network.
• Peer to multipoint nodes with Basic Service Sets (BSSs) using one in-between AP point or distributed
BSSs connect through multiple APs.
• Connectivity range of each BSS depends on the range of wireless bridges and antennae used and
environmental conditions.
• Each BSS is a Service Set Identifier (SSID).
Fig 6 shows
• Sensor nodes connected to BT with Wi-Fi adaptation, 802.11 interfaces in a WLAN network 1
(WLAN1).
• Tablets, Wi-Fi, computers also connect in WLAN 1 though an AP.
• AP1 connects to a broadband router 1 and to the IP4 network 2.
• WLAN1 and WLAN2 function as BSS.
• WLAN 2 also consists of AP2, Wi-Fi router and other Wi-Fi enabled interfaces.
• Wi-Fi router connects to multiple Wi-Fi nodes as well as to a broadband router 2.
• Broadband routers 1 and 2 connect using wires, to IP4 networks and web objects for IoT apps, services
and processes.

Figure 6: Three WLAN networks for sensor device nodes, mobiles, tablets, laptops, computer and Internet
connectivity of WLAN networks with the IP4 networks (Dashed lines show wireless connectivity and solid lines show
wired connectivity)
The Wi-Fi interfaces, access points, routers features are as follows:
• Generally used are the
➢ 2.4 GHz IEEE 802.11b adapters
➢ 5 GHz (802.11a or 802.11g)
➢ 802.11n or other 802.11 series protocols.

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• Interfaces use 2.4 GHz or 5 GHz antenna.

• Offers mobility and roaming.
• Have easy installation simplicity and flexibility.
• Coverage range is 30 m to 125 m.
• Used in a room having the limited-coverage 802.11a which coexists with b, coexists with b and g
• Uses the 802.11b in wider coverage range because that is unaffected by walls and is meant for hotspots
for public usage having range data rate 11 Mbps (802.11b) within 30 m.
• Uses 802.11g for high data rates up to 54 Mbps, and 802.11n for very high 600 Mbps, using multiple
antennas to increase data rates.
• Interoperable with wireless as well as wired infrastructure which ensures compatibility and enables
easier access and hides complexity when enabling the wireless access to data, media and streams, and
applications and services.
• Provides a dynamic environment of network expendability and scalability. Scalability means a system
can have a large number of smaller interfaces, routers and Aps.
• Provides security, integrity and reliability.
• Uses Wireless Protected Access (WPA) and Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) security sublayers.
RF Transceivers and RF Modules
• RF transmitters, receivers, and transceivers are the simplest RF circuits.
• A transceiver transmits the RF from one end and receives the RF from the other end, but internally has
an additional circuit, which separates the signals from both ends.
• An oscillator generates RF pulses of required active-duty cycle and connects to a transmitter.
• BT, ZigBee, and Wi- Fi radios deploy ISM band transceivers, which have comparatively complex
circuits.
• IoT/M2M applications deploy ISM band RF modules with transceivers or just transmitter or receiver.
• Systems use RF modules for applications needing wireless connectivity; for example, security,
telemetry, telematics, fleet management, home automation, healthcare, automobiles wireless tire
pressure monitors, back-up cameras and GPS navigation service, payment wallet, RFID and
maintenance.
• RF technology consists of the following elements:
➢ RF interface/physical layer, RF signals transmit between the nodes or endpoints, i.e., the sensors,
actuators, controllers and a gateway where signals are received.
➢ RF network architecture includes the overall system architecture, backhaul, server and
bidirectional end-devices with radio duty cycling in the applications.
GPRS/GSM Cellular Networks-Mobile Internet
• An IoT/M2M communication gateway can access a Wireless Wide Area Network (WWAN).
• The network access may use a GPRS cellular network or new generation cellular network for Internet
access.
• A mobile phone provisions for a USB wired port, BT and Wi-Fi connectivity.
• Wireless connectivity for Internet uses data connectivity using GSM, GPRS, UMTS/LTE and WiMax
services of a mobile service provider or Wi-Fi using a modem.

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• A phone, generally, provisions for number of sensors also; for example, acceleration, GPS and
proximity.
Wireless USB
• Wireless USB is a wireless extension of USB 2.0 and it operates at ultra-wide band (UWB) 5.1 GHz
to 10.6 GHz frequencies.
• It is for short-range personal area network (high speed 480 Mbps 3 m or 110 Mbps 10 m channel).
• FCC recommends a host wire adapter (HWA) and a device wire adapter (DWA), which provides
wireless USB solution.
• Wireless USB also supports dual-role devices (DRDs).
• A device can be a USB device as well as limited capability host.

Wired Communication Technology

• Wired communication can be serial asynchronous communication or synchronous serial
communication.
• Communication can be over a bus when a number of systems connect through a common set of
interconnections.
• Bus refers to a number of systems connected through a common set of control, address and data signals
such that the data signals are accepted by the device at destination address only from a source at an
instance.
• Bus signals may be sent in a serial or parallel manner. Communication is between a master at a given
instance (sender) and the destined address computer (listener) at an instance.
• Wired communication can be done using Ethernet IEEE 802.2 bus specifications. A MAC sublayer
data frame may be according to Ethernet Protocol. Wired communication can also use a USB port, a
micro-USB or a USB 3.0 adapter.
UART/USART Serial Communication
• A Universal Asynchronous Transmitter (UART) enables serial communication (transmission) of 8 bits
serially with a start bit at the start of transmission of a byte on serial Transmitter Data (TxD) output
line.
• Serial means present one after another at successive time intervals.
• Asynchronous refers to all bytes in a frame transmit, which can result in variation in time interval
spacing or phase differences between successive bytes and in-between wait interval.
• This is because clock information of transmitter does not transmit along with the data. The receiver
clock also does not synchronise with the data. Further, successive set of bytes may wait after
transmission till an acknowledgement is received from the receiving end.
• Reciprocal of T in UART is called Baud rate.
• A Universal Synchronous Asynchronous Transmitter (USART) enables serial communication
(transmission) in synchronous as well as asynchronous modes.
• Synchronous means all bytes in a frame transmit with equal time spacing or equal phase differences.
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Serial Peripheral Interface

• Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) is one of the widely used serial synchronous communication methods.
• Source of serial synchronous output or input is called master, Receiver of serial synchronous input or
output is called a slave.
• Four sets of signals, viz., SCLK, MISO, MOSI, and SS (slave select) are used on four wires. When SS
is active, then the device functions as a slave.
• Master Input Slave Output (MISO) and Master Output Slave Input (MOSI) are synchronous serial bits
I/Os at the master and slave and IOs are as per synchronising clock of the master SCLK.
• MOSI is output from master and input at slave and SCLK (clock information or signal) is from the
master to slave.
• MISO is synchronous serial input at the master for the serial output from slave. Slave synchronises
output as per SCLK of the master. Master synchronises the input as per SCLK of the master.
I2C Bus
• A number of device integrated circuits for sensors, actuators, flash memory and touch-screens need
data exchanges in a number of processes.
• ICs mutually network through a common synchronous serial bus, called inter-integrated circuit (I2C).
• Four potential modes of operation (viz. master transmit, master receive, slave transmit and slave
receive) for I2C bus device and generally most devices have a single role and use two modes only.
• The I2C was originally developed at Philips Semiconductors.
• There are three I2C bus standards:
➢ Industrial 100 kbps I2C
➢ 100 kbps SM I2C
➢ 400 kbps I2C.
• I2C bus has two lines that carry the signals—one line is for the clock and one is for bidirectional data.
Wired USB
• Universal Serial Bus (USB) is for fast serial transmission and reception between the hosts, the
embedded system and distributed serial devices.
• Examples are connecting a keyboard, printer or scanner.
• USB is a bus between the host system and a number of interconnected peripheral devices. Maximum
127 devices can connect with a host.
• USB standard provides a fast (up to 12 Mbps) as well as a low-speed (up to 1.5 Mbps) serial
transmission and reception between the host and serial devices.
• USB three standards are
➢ USB 1.1 (1.5 and 12 Mbps)
➢ 2.0 (mini size connector) 480 Mbps
➢ 3.0 (micro size connector) 5 Gbps and 3.1 (super speed 10 Gbps).
Features of a USB are:
• USB data format and transfer serial signals are Non-Return to Zero (NRZI).
• The data transfer is of four types—controlled data transfer, bulk data transfer, interrupt driven data
transfer and iso-synchronous transfer.
• USB is a polled bus.

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• A USB supports three types of pipes

➢ Stream with no USB-defined protocol is used when the connection is already established and the
data flow starts.
➢ Default control is for providing access.
➢ Message is for control functions of the device.
Ethernet
• Ethernet standard is IEEE 802.2 (ISO 8802.2) protocol for local area network of computers,
workstations and device LANs.
• Each frame at a LAN consists of header.
• Ethernet enables the services of local device nodes, computers, systems and local resources, such as
printers, hard disk space, software and data.
Features of Ethernet network are:
• Uses passive broadcast medium and is wired connections based.
• Formatting of frame is according to IEEE 802.2 standard.
• Uses a 48-bit MAC address assigned distinctly to each computer on the LAN.
• Uses a 48-bit MAC address assigned distinctly to each computer on the LAN.
• Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) resolves a 32-bit IP address at Internet device LANs.
• Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) resolves 48-bit destination host media address into 32-
bit IP addresses for Internet communication.
• Uses wired bus topology, and transmission speeds are 10 Mbps, 100 Mbps (unshielded and shielded
wires), 1 Gbps (high-quality coaxial cable), 4 Gbps (in twisted pair wiring mode) and 10 Gbps (fibre-
optic cables).
• Uses MAC-based on CSMA/CD.
• Uses transmission data stack into frames at MAC layer, and each frame includes a header.
• The header’s first eight bytes specify a preamble.
• The preamble is for indicating start of a frame and is used for synchronisation.
• Then the header has next six bytes’ destination address and then six bytes of the source address. Then
next six bytes are for the type field.
• These are meaningful only for the higher network layers and define the length of the data stack to the
next layer.
• Next, minimum 72 bytes and maximum 1500 bytes of data follow the length definition.
• The last 4 bytes are for CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check) for the frame sequence check.

2.4 DATA ENRICHMENT, DATA CONSOLIDATION AND DEVICE

MANAGEMENT AT GATEWAY
• A gateway at a data-adaptation layer has several functions.
• These are data privacy, data security, data enrichment, data consolidation, transformation and device
management.
• ITU-T reference model’s lowest layer is the device layer.
• This layer has device and gateway capabilities.
• A gateway consists of the data enrichment, consolidation and IoT communication frameworks.

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 Design Principles of Connected Devices

• The communication gateway enables the devices to communicate and network with the web.
• The communication gateway uses message transport protocols and web communication protocols for
the Internet.
• The gateway includes two functions viz. data management and consolidation, and connected device
management.

Figure 7: IoT or M2M gateway consisting of data enrichment and consolidation, device management and
communication frameworks at the adaptation layer
1. Data Management and Consolidation Gateway
• Gateway includes the provisions for one or more of the following functions: transcoding and data
management.
• Following are data management and consolidation functions:
➢ Transcoding
➢ Privacy, security
➢ Integration
➢ Compaction and fusion
Transcoding
• Transcoding means data adaptation, conversion and change of protocol, format or code using software.
• The gateway renders the web response and messages in formats and representations required and
acceptable at an IoT device.
• For example, use of transcoding enables the message request characters to be in ASCII format at the
device and in Unicode at the server. It also enables the use of XML format database at the device,
while the server has a DB2, Oracle or any other database.
• Transcoding involves formats, data and code conversion from one end to another when the multimedia
data is transferred from a server to the mobile TV, Internet TV, VoIP phone or smartphone as the client
devices.
• Transcoding applications also involve filtering, compression or decompression.

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 Design Principles of Connected Devices

Privacy
• Data such as patient medical data, data for supplying goods in a company from and to different
locations, and changes in inventories, may need privacy and protection from conscious or unconscious
transfer to untrustworthy destinations using the Internet.
• Privacy is an aspect of data management and must be remembered while designing an application.
• Following are the components of the privacy model:
➢ Devices and applications identity-management
➢ Authentication
➢ Authorisation
➢ Trust
➢ Reputation
Secure Data Access
• Access to data needs to be secure. The design ensures the authentication of a request for data and
authorisation for accessing a response or service.
• It may also include auditing of requests and accesses of the responses for accountability in future.
• End-to-end security is another aspect while implies using a security protocol at each layer, physical,
logical link and transport layers during communication at both ends in a network.
Data Gathering and Enrichment
• IoT/M2M applications involve actions such as data-gathering (acquisition), validation, storage,
processing, reminiscence (retention) and analysis.
• Data gathering refers to data acquisition from the devices/devices network.
Four modes of gathering data are:
• Polling refers to the data sought from a device by addressing the device; for example, waste container
filling information in a waste management system.
• Event-based gathering refers to the data sought from the device on an event.
➢ for example, when the device reaches near an access point or a card reaches near the card reader
or an initial data exchange for the setup of peer-to-peer or master-slave connection of BT device
using NFC
• Scheduled interval refers to the data sought from a device at select intervals.
➢ for example, data for ambient light condition in Internet of streetlights
• Continuous monitoring refers to the data sought from a device continuously
➢ for example, data for traffic presence in a particular street ambient light condition in Internet of
streetlights
• Data enrichment refers to adding value, security and usability of the data.
Data Dissemination
Following are the three steps for data enrichment before the data disseminates to the network.
• Aggregation refers to the process of joining together present and previously received data frames after
removing redundant or duplicate data.
• Compaction means making information short without changing the meaning or context; for example,
transmitting only the incremental data so that the information sent is short.

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 Design Principles of Connected Devices

• Fusion means formatting the information received in parts through various data frames and several
types of data (or data from several sources), removing redundancy in the received data and presenting
the formatted information created from the information parts.
➢ Data fusion is used in cases when the individual records are not required and/or are not retrievable
later.
Energy Dissipation in Data Dissemination
• Energy consumption for data dissemination is an important consideration in many devices in WPANs
and in wireless sensor nodes (WSNs).
• This is due to limited battery life.
• Energy is consumed when performing computations and transmissions.
• Higher the data rate, the greater will be the energy consumed.
• Higher is RF used, the greater will be the energy consumed.
• Higher the gathering interval, the lower will be the energy consumed.
• Energy efficient computations can be done by using concepts of data aggregation, compaction and
fusion. Lesser the data bytes communication, greater the acquisition intervals, and lower the data rate
for data transfer, lesser the energy dissipation.
Data Source and Data Destination
• ID: Each device and each device resource is assigned an ID for specifying the data of source and a
separate ID for data destination.
• Address: Header fields add the destination address (for example, 48-bit MAC address at Link layer,
32-bit IPv4 address at IP network and 128-bit IPv6 address at IPv6 network) and may also add the port
(for example, port 80 for HTTP application).
Data Characteristics, Formats and Structures
• Data characteristics can be in terms of
➢ temporal data (dependent on the time),
➢ spatial data (dependent on location),
➢ real-time data (generated continuously and acquired continuously at the same pace),
➢ real-world data (from physical world for example, traffic or streetlight, ambient condition),
➢ proprietary data (copy right data reserved for distribution to authorized enterprises) and big data
(unstructured voluminous data).
• Data received from the devices, formats before transmission onto Internet. The format can be in XML,
JSON and TLV (Section 3.1.3). A file can be MIME type for Internet
• Structure implies the ways for arranging the data bytes in sequences with size limit = PDU for a layer.

2. Device-management Gateway
• Device Management means provisioning for the device ID or address which is distinct from other
resources, device activating, configuring (managing device parameters and settings), registering,
deregistering, attaching and detaching.
• Open Mobile Alliance (OMA)-DM and several standards are used for device management.
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 Design Principles of Connected Devices

• OMA-DM model suggests the use of a DM server which interacts with devices through a gateway in
case of IoT/M2M applications.
• Gateway functions for device management are:
➢ Does forwarding function when the DM server and device can interact without reformatting or
structuring
➢ Does protocol conversion when the device and DM server use distinct protocols
➢ Does proxy function in case an intermediate pre-fetch is required in a lossy environment or
network environment needs.

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