Mathematical Fundamentals for

Engineers
IS1402

Dr. Mihirini Wagarachchi

Department Interdisciplinary Studies

Faculty of Engineering
University of Ruhuna
May 30, 2022
Complex Numbers
 0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5

0
1
2
3

-1.5
-0.5

-1
-2
-1.8
-1.6
-1.4
Roots of

-1.2
-1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
𝑥2 − 1 = 0

0.6
0.8
𝑦 = 𝑥2 − 1

1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
Series1
10

0
5

-15
-10
-5

-2
-1.8
-1.6
-1.4
-1.2
-1
-0.8
Roots of

-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
2.2
2.4
2.6
𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 2

2.8
Series1
 0
1
2
3
4
5
6
-2
-1.8
-1.6
-1.4
-1.2
-1
Roots of

-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
𝑦 = 𝑥2 + 1

1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
Series1
10
15
20
25
30

0
5

-15
-10
-5

-2
-1.8
-1.6
-1.4
Roots of

-1.2
-1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
𝑦 = 𝑥3 − 1

1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
Series1
 Definition
The numbers in the form 𝒛 = 𝒙 + 𝒊𝒚 where 𝒙 and 𝒚 are real
numbers and 𝒊𝟐 = −𝟏 are called complex numbers.

𝒙 - real part of 𝒛
𝒚 -imaginary part of 𝒛

𝒙 = 𝑹𝒆 𝒛
𝒚 = 𝑰𝒎(𝒛)

Cont…
 Definition
Example

𝒛 = 𝟑 − 𝟐𝒊
𝑹𝒆 𝒛 = 𝟑, 𝑰𝒎 𝒛 = −𝟐

𝟏 𝟑
𝒛= + 𝒊
𝟐 𝟐
𝟏 𝟑
𝑹𝒆 𝒛 = , 𝑰𝒎 𝒛 =
𝟐 𝟐
Cont…
 Definition

If 𝒚 = 𝟎, then 𝒛 is a real number and if 𝒙 = 𝟎 , 𝒛 is called a

pure imaginary number.

𝟐 = 𝟐 + 𝟎𝒊 , −𝟎. 𝟓 = −𝟎. 𝟓 + 𝟎𝒊 are real numbers

𝟐
-3𝒊 , 𝟎. 𝟐𝒊, 𝒊 are pure imaginary numbers
𝟑
 Equal Complex Numbers

Two complex number 𝒙 + 𝒊𝒚 and 𝒂 + 𝒊𝒃 are said to be equal

if and only if 𝒙 = 𝒂 and 𝒚 = 𝒃.

The inequality is meaningless in complex numbers.

 Complex Conjugate
If 𝒛 = 𝒙 + 𝒊𝒚 is a complex number, then the number 𝒙 − 𝒊𝒚
is called the complex conjugate of z and denoted by 𝒛.

i. e 𝒛 = 𝒙 − 𝒊𝒚.

Example:

𝟑 − 𝟒𝒊 and 𝟑 + 𝟒𝒊 are conjugates of each other.

 Algebraic Operations of Complex Numbers
Addition
𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 + 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = 𝑎 + 𝑥 + 𝑖 𝑏 + 𝑦
Subtraction
𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 − 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = 𝑎 − 𝑥 + 𝑖 𝑏 − 𝑦
Multiplication
𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 × 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 + 𝑖𝑏 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
= 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑖𝑎𝑦 + 𝑖𝑏𝑥 + 𝑖 2 𝑏𝑦
= 𝑎𝑥 − 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑖(𝑎𝑦 + 𝑏𝑥)
Division
𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦
= .
𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑖(𝑏𝑥 − 𝑎𝑦)
=
𝑥2 + 𝑦2
 Exercise: Find the square root of −5 + 12𝑖

𝑧 = −5 + 12𝑖 6
𝑏=
Let the square root of 𝑧 be (𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏), where 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑎
𝑅 and 𝑎, 𝑏 ≠ 0 36
𝑎2
− 2 = −5
Then 𝑎
2 𝑎 + 9 𝑎2 − 4 = 0
2
𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 = −5 + 12𝑖
𝑎2 ≠ −9 as 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅
𝑎2 − 𝑏2 + 2𝑎𝑏𝑖 = −5 + 12𝑖
𝑎 = ±2
By equating real and imaginary parts
Square roots of 𝑧 are 2 + 3𝑖 and −2 − 3𝑖
𝑎2 − 𝑏2 = −5 and 2𝑎𝑏 = 12𝑖
 Graphical Representation of Complex Numbers

Argand Diagram 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦)

𝑦
𝑟

𝑧 = 𝑟 (cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)

𝜃
𝑟2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦2 𝑂
𝑥
𝑦
𝜃= tan−1
𝑥 𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃
𝑧 = 𝑟 (cos(𝜃 + 2𝑘𝜋) + 𝑖 sin(𝜃 + 2𝑘𝜋)) 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃
When 𝜃 ∈ −𝜋, 𝜋 it is known as the
𝑟 is the modulus of 𝑧 denote by 𝑧
Principal argument and denoted by
𝜃 is the argument of 𝑧 denoted by arg𝜃
𝐴𝑟𝑔(𝑍)
Exponential form of Complex Numbers

𝑥 𝑥 2 𝑥 3
𝑒𝑥 = 1 + + + + ⋯
1! 2! 3!

𝑥2 𝑥4 𝑥6
cos 𝑥 = 1 − + − …
2! 4! 6!

𝑥 𝑥3 𝑥5
sin 𝑥 = − + …
1! 3! 5!
Exponential form of Complex Numbers

𝑖𝑥 (𝑖𝑥)2 (𝑖𝑥)3 (𝑖𝑥)4 (𝑖𝑥)5

𝑒 𝑖𝑥 =1+ + + + + …
1! 2! 3! 4! 5!
𝑥2 𝑥4 𝑥6 𝑥 𝑥3 𝑥5
= 1− + − ……+ 𝑖 − + …
2! 4! 6! 1! 3! 5!
= cos 𝑥 + 𝑖 sin 𝑥

𝑧 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃) = 𝑒 𝑖𝜃
Exponential form of Complex Numbers

𝑖𝑥 (𝑖𝑥)2 (𝑖𝑥)3 (𝑖𝑥)4 (𝑖𝑥)5

𝑒 𝑖𝑥 =1+ + + + + …
1! 2! 3! 4! 5!
𝑥2 𝑥4 𝑥6 𝑥 𝑥3 𝑥5
= 1− + − ……+ 𝑖 − + …
2! 4! 6! 1! 3! 5!
= cos 𝑥 + 𝑖 sin 𝑥

𝑧 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃) = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖(𝜃+2𝑛𝜋) , 𝑛 = 0,1,2, …

 De Moivre’s Theorem
If 𝑧 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃) then for any positive integer 𝑛,
𝑧 𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑛 (cos 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃)

Proof
Let 𝑧 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃) and n be a positive integer. Need to show
that
𝑧 𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑛 (cos 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃)

When 𝑛 = 1
L.H.S = 𝑧1 = 𝑧 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)
R. H.S = 𝑟1 (cos 1. 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 1. 𝜃) = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)
Therefore, result is true when 𝑛 = 1
Now assume that the result is true for 𝑛 = 𝑝.
That is
𝑧 𝑝 = 𝑟 𝑝 (cos 𝑝𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑝𝜃)

Want to prove that the result is true for 𝑛 = 𝑝 + 1

That is
𝑧 𝑝+1 = 𝑟 𝑝+1 (cos(𝑝 + 1)𝜃 + 𝑖 sin(𝑝 + 1)𝜃)

Now
𝑧 𝑝+1 = 𝑧 𝑝 . 𝑧
= 𝑟 𝑝 (cos 𝑝𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑝𝜃). 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)
= 𝑟 𝑝+1 (cos(𝑝𝜃 + 𝜃) + 𝑖 sin(𝑝𝜃 + 𝜃))
= 𝑟 𝑝+1 (cos(𝑝 + 1)𝜃 + 𝑖 sin(𝑝 + 1)𝜃)
Therefore, the result is true for 𝑛 = 𝑝 + 1
Therefore, for any positive integer n
𝑧 𝑝 = 𝑟 𝑝 (cos 𝑝𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑝𝜃)
 De Moivre’s Theorem
If n is any negative integer, 𝑧 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃) then for any
positive integer 𝑛,
𝑧 𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑛 (cos 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃)

1
When 𝑛 is a fraction , 𝑟 𝑛 cos 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃 represents one of the
𝑝
𝑝th roots of 𝑧 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)
 𝒏th roots of Unity

Let w be one of the 𝑛th root of unity.

Then
𝑤𝑛 = 1
1
⇒𝑤= 1𝑛
1
𝑤 = cos 2𝑘𝜋 + 𝑖 sin 2𝑘𝜋 𝑛 ; 𝑘 = 0,1,2, …
Then there are 𝑛 different values for 𝑤 such that
2𝑘𝜋 2𝑘𝜋
𝑤 = cos + 𝑖 sin , 𝑘 = 0, 1,2, (𝑛 − 1)
𝑛 𝑛

All the nth roots of unity can be located on the circle with radius 1.
 Ex: Find all 6 roots of unity
Let 𝑤 be one of the 6th roots of unity.
Then
𝑤6 = 1
1
⇒𝑤= 16
1
𝑤 = cos 2𝑘𝜋 + 𝑖 sin 2𝑘𝜋 6 ; 𝑘 = 0,1,2, …
Then there are 6 values for 𝑤 such that
2𝑘𝜋 2𝑘𝜋
𝑤 = cos + 𝑖 sin , 𝑘 = 0, 1,2,3,4,5
6 6

6𝜋 6𝜋
𝑘 = 3; 𝑤3 = cos + 𝑖 sin = −1
𝑘 = 0; 𝑤0 = cos 0 + 𝑖 sin 0 = 1 6 6

2𝜋 2𝜋 1 3 8𝜋 8𝜋 1 3
𝑘 = 1; 𝑤1 = cos + 𝑖 sin = + 𝑖 𝑘 = 4; 𝑤4 = cos + 𝑖 sin =− − 𝑖
6 6 2 2 6 6 2 2

4𝜋 4𝜋 1 3 10𝜋 10𝜋 1 3
𝑘 = 2; 𝑤2 = cos + 𝑖 sin =− + 𝑖 𝑘 = 5; 𝑤5 = cos + 𝑖 sin = − 𝑖
6 6 2 2 6 6 2 2
 Ex: Find all 6 roots of −𝟏
Let 𝑤 be one of the 6th roots of −1.
Then
𝑤 6 = −1
1
⇒𝑤= (−1)6
1
𝑤 = cos(𝜋 + 2𝑘𝜋) + 𝑖 sin(𝜋 + 2𝑘𝜋) 6 ; 𝑘 = 0,1,2, …
Then there are 6 values for 𝑤 such that
𝜋 + 2𝑘𝜋 𝜋 + 2𝑘𝜋
𝑤 = cos + 𝑖 sin , 𝑘 = 0, 1,2,3,4,5
6 6
7𝜋 6𝜋 3 1
𝑘 = 3; 𝑤3 = cos + 𝑖 sin =− − 𝑖
𝜋 𝜋 3 1 6 6 2 2
𝑘 = 0; 𝑤0 = cos + 𝑖 sin = + 𝑖
6 6 2 2 𝑘
3𝜋 3𝜋 9𝜋 9𝜋
𝑘 = 1; 𝑤1 = cos + 𝑖 sin =𝑖 𝑘 = 4; 𝑤4 = cos + 𝑖 sin = −𝑖
6 6 6 6
5𝜋 5𝜋 3 1 11𝜋 11𝜋 3 1
𝑘 = 2; 𝑤2 = cos + 𝑖 sin =− + 𝑖 𝑘 = 5; 𝑤5 = cos + 𝑖 sin = − 𝑖
6 6 2 2 6 6 2 2
𝑘 𝑘
 Ex: Show that when 𝒏 > 𝟏, summation of all the roots of unity is zero
Let 𝑤 be one of the 𝑛th roots of unity
Then
2𝑘𝜋 2𝑘𝜋
𝑤𝑘 = cos + 𝑖 sin , 𝑘 = 0, 1,2, … , 𝑛 − 1
𝑛 𝑛
Let
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑤1 = cos + 𝑖 sin
𝑛 𝑛
be the primitive root of unity

Then
𝑘
2𝑘𝜋 2𝑘𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑤𝑘 = cos + 𝑖 sin = cos + 𝑖 sin = 𝑤1 𝑘
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛

But
𝑤1𝑛 = 1
 Ex: Show that when 𝒏 > 𝟏, summation of all the roots of unity is zero

Then
𝑤1𝑛 − 1 = 0
⇒ 𝑤1 − 1 𝑤1𝑛−1 + 𝑤1𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝑤1 + 1 = 0

⇒ 𝑤1 − 1 = 0 or
Therefore, 𝑤1 − 1 ≠ 0 then
𝑤1𝑛−1 + 𝑤1𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝑤1 + 1 = 0
𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑤1 − 1 = 0 then
⇒ 𝑤1𝑛−1 + 𝑤1𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝑤1 + 1 = 0
𝑤1 = 1
2𝜋 2𝜋
⇒ cos + 𝑖 sin = cos 2𝑚𝜋 + 𝑖 sin 2𝑚𝜋 ⇒ 𝑤𝑛−1 + 𝑤𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝑤1 + 1 = 0
𝑛 𝑛
2𝜋
⇒ = 2𝑚𝜋
𝑛 i.e summation of all the roots of unity is zero
⇒ 𝑚𝑛 = 1
⇒ 𝑚 = 1 and 𝑛 = 1 𝑎𝑠 𝑚, 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁
This is contradiction as 𝑛 > 1
Binomial expansion

𝑛
𝑎+𝑏 = 𝑛𝐶0 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑛𝐶1 𝑎𝑛 𝑏 + 𝑛𝐶2 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑏2 + ⋯ + 𝑛𝐶𝑛 𝑎𝑏𝑛−1 + 𝑛𝐶𝑛 𝑏𝑛

𝑛𝐶
𝑛!
𝑟 =
𝑟! 𝑛 − 𝑟 !

𝑛𝐶 = 𝑛𝐶𝑛−𝑟
𝑟
 Express sin𝒏𝜽 and cos𝒏𝜽 in terms of
sin𝜽 and cos𝜽

By De Moivre’s theorem cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 𝑛

= cos 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃 (1)

By binomial expansion

𝑛
cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃

= cos𝑛 𝜃 + 𝑖. 𝑛𝐶1 cos𝑛−1 𝜃 sin 𝜃 − 𝑛𝐶2 cos𝑛−2 𝜃 sin2 𝜃 + ⋯ + 𝑖 𝑛−1 𝑛𝐶

𝑛−1 cos 𝜃 sin
𝑛−1 𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑛 sin6 𝜃 (2)

Equating real and imaginary parts of (1) and (2)

cos 𝑛𝜃 = cos 𝑛 𝜃 − 𝑛𝐶2 cos 𝑛−2 𝜃 sin2 𝜃 + ⋯

sin 𝑛𝜃 = 𝑛𝐶1 cos𝑛−1 𝜃 sin 𝜃 − 𝑛𝐶3 cos 𝑛−3 𝜃 sin3 𝜃 + ⋯

 Express 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝒏 𝜽 and 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝒏 𝜽 in terms of
multiples of sin𝜽 and cos𝜽

Let 𝑧 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 ⇒ 𝑧 𝑛 = cos 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃

Also
1
= cos 𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 𝜃 ⇒ 𝑧 𝑛 = cos 𝑛𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃 =
𝑧

1 1
⇒ 𝑧 + = 2 cos 𝜃 and 𝑧𝑛 + 𝑛 = 2 cos 𝑛𝜃
𝑧 𝑧

1 1
⇒ 𝑧 − = 2𝑖 sin 𝜃 and 𝑧𝑛 − 𝑛 = 2𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃
𝑧 𝑧
 Express 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝒏 𝜽 and 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝒏 𝜽 in terms of
multiples of sin𝜽 and cos𝜽
Now
𝑛
1
(2 cos 𝜃)𝑛 = 𝑧+
𝑧

𝑛 𝑛−1
1 𝑛 𝑛−2
1 𝑛
1 1
= 𝑧 + 𝑛𝑧 . + 𝐶2 𝑧 + ⋯ + 𝐶𝑛−1 𝑧. 𝑛−1 + 𝑛
𝑧 𝑧2 𝑧 𝑧

1 1 1
= 𝑧𝑛 + + 𝑛 𝑧 𝑛−2 + + 𝑛𝐶
2 𝑧 𝑛−4 +
𝑧𝑛 𝑧 𝑛−2 𝑧 −4

= 2 cos 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑛. 2 cos 𝑛 − 2 𝜃 + 𝑛𝐶2 2 cos 𝑛 − 4 𝜃 + ⋯

Therefore,
1
cos 𝑛 𝜃 = cos 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑛 cos 𝑛 − 2 𝜃 + 𝑛𝐶2 cos 𝑛 − 4 𝜃 + ⋯
2𝑛−1
 Circular 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐇𝐲𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐛𝐨𝐥𝐢𝐜 𝐅𝐮𝐧𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐬

Circular Functions

𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 (𝑒 𝑖𝜃 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 )

⇒ tan 𝜃 =
𝑖(𝑒 𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 )
𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 = cos 𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 𝜃

−𝑖(𝑒 𝑖2𝜃 − 1)
𝑒 𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 ⇒ tan 𝜃 =
⇒ cos 𝜃 = 𝑒 𝑖2𝜃 + 1
2

𝑒 𝑖𝜃 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃
⇒ sin 𝜃 =
2𝑖 𝑖(𝑒 𝑖2𝜃 + 1)
⇒ cot 𝜃 =
𝑒 𝑖2𝜃 − 1
 Circular 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐇𝐲𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐛𝐨𝐥𝐢𝐜 𝐅𝐮𝐧𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐬

Hyperbolic Functions
𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 1
cosh 𝑥 = csch 𝑥 =
2 sinh 𝑥

1
𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 sech 𝑥 =
sinh 𝑥 = cosh 𝑥
2

1
sinh 𝑥 coth 𝑥 =
tanh 𝑥 = tanh 𝑥
cosh 𝑥
 Logarithm of a Complex Number

If 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖(𝜃+2𝑘𝜋)

log 𝑒 𝑧 = log 𝑒 𝑟 + 𝑖(𝜃 + 2𝑘𝜋)

is known as the logarithm of 𝑧 and denoted by log 𝑒 𝑧 or ln 𝑧

ln 𝑧 = ln 𝑟 + 𝑖(𝜃 + 2𝑘𝜋)

When 𝑘 = 0, it is known as the principal logarithm and denoted by Log 𝑒 𝑧 or Ln 𝑧

ln 𝑧 = ln 𝑟 + 𝑖𝜃
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