ENVIRONMENTAL GEOLOGY - GEOL

406/506
Module 4 - Landslides, Slope Failure, and Other
Mass Wasting Processes
By Anni Watkins and Scott Hughes

Major Topics In Module 4:

 Slopes: Profiles, Stability, Driving Forces, and Resisting Forces
 Types of Mass Wasting
 The Human Impact of Landslides
 Subsidence

 Reading: Chapters 6, p. 131-160 in textbook, Keller, 2000

 Review of topics covered in this module. PDF notes page
format, or larger file size version in PDF format or power
point show (this one download to your computer to view) .

Introduction
- Heavy rains saturate the Portland, Oregon area. Slick, debris-filled mud
slides down steep slopes blocking the scenic Columbia River Gorge
Highway.
- Warm rains rapidly melts snowpack. Snowmelt-induced debris flow
threatens lives and damages property.
- A major earthquake hits the West Coast. It triggers numerous
landslides in a 200-mile radius.

Each of these events represents some type of slope failure. Slope failure, also
referred to as mass wasting, is the downslope movement of rock debris and soil in
response to gravitational stresses. Three major types of mass wasting are classified
by the type of downslope movement. The types of movement, falls, slides, and
flows, will be covered in this module. In addition, another type of ground failure,
subsidence, will be covered.

Take a Virtual Field Trip to the Slumgullion landslide.

Links to Good Landslide and Slope Failure sites:

USGS Landslide News and Information -
http://landslides.usgs.gov/html_files/landslides/hawaii99.html
http://walrus.wr.usgs.gov/elnino/landslides-sfbay/photos.html contains a
computer-simulated landslide
Landslides at Hagerman Fossil Beds, Idaho -
http://www.nps.gov/hafo/landslides.htm
 Yosemite landslide News -
http://landslides.usgs.gov/html_files/landslides/Yosemite99.html
SLOPES
Material is constantly moving downslope in response to gravity. Movement can be
very, very slow, barely perceptible over many years. . . . . Or, movement can be
devastatingly rapid, apparent within minutes. Whether or not slope movement occurs
depends on slope steepness and slope stability.

Slope Profile

Some slopes are gently rounded, while others are extremely steep. Profiles of
naturally-eroded slopes are primarily dependent on climate and rock type.

Resistant rock and rock from semi-arid regions have similar profiles because in both
cases chemical weathering is slow. Erosion may be slow or fast depending on the
amount of material weathered (loosened) or freely available (uncovered) for
transport. Typically, the crest of the slope is slightly convex to angular, the cliff
(freeface) is nearly vertical, and a debris slope is present. The debris slope has an
angle of repose of 30° -35° , which is the maximum angle at which loose material is
stable.

Resistant Rock -- Semi-arid Region

Non-resistant rock and rock in semi-humid regions also have similar profiles.
Climatic conditions and softer rock types result in material that weather rapidly and
erode easily. The crest of the slope is convex, while the base of the slope is
concave. This type of slope contains a thick soil cover.

Non-resistant Rock -- Semi-humid Region

Slope Stability (a lesson in physics)

When is a slope not stable? Slope stability is based on the interplay between two
types of forces, driving forces and resisting forces. Driving forces promote
downslope movement of material, whereas resisting forces deter movement. So,
when driving forces overcome resisting forces, the slope is unstable and results
in mass wasting.

Driving Forces

The basic concept of these two types of forces is quite simple. You experience the
interplay between driving forces and resisting forces each time you drive down a
steep slope. The driving forces are gravity and the acceleration of the vehicle (if you
step on the accelerator), the resisting force is the brake on the vehicle.

The main driving force in most land movements is gravity. The main resisting force is
the material's shear strength.

Does gravity act alone? NO!! Slope angle, climate, slope material, and water
contribute to the effect of gravity. Mass movement occurs much more frequently on
steep slopes than on shallow slopes.

Water plays a key role in producing slope failure. In the form of rivers and wave
action, water erodes the base of slopes, removing support, which increases
driving forces. Water can also increase the driving force by loading, i.e., adding to
the total mass that is subjected to the force of gravity.

Chemical weathering (interaction of water with surface rock and soil) slowly
weakens slope material (primarily rock), reducing its shear strength, therefore
reducing resisting forces.

An increase in water also contributes to driving forces that result in slope failure. The
weight (load) on the slope increases when water fills previously empty pore spaces
and fractures. The shear strength of the slope material is decreased by increasing
the pore water pressure (pressure that develops in pore spaces due to the increased
amount of water).

RESISTING FORCES

Resisting forces act oppositely of driving forces. The resistance to downslope

movement is dependent on the shear strength of the slope material. And shear
strength is a function of cohesion (ability of particles to attract and hold each other
together) and internal friction (friction between grains within a material).

Water contributes to resisting forces when sediment pores are partially filled with
water. The thin film of water acts as a binder, making the particles cohesive
(remember surface tension of water? Module 2-part 2).

The ratio of resisting forces to driving forces is the safety factor (SF):

SF = Resisting Forces
Driving Forces
If SF > 1 then SAFE
If SF < 1 then UNSAFE

NOTE: Usually a safety factor of ~10 is used in design to accommodate slight

variances in materials and construction practices.

Factors of Slope Stability: - Slope stability is therefore a function

of . . . . .
 material
 strength of rock or soil
 slope angle
 climate
 vegetation &
 time
Each of these factors may play a significant role in controlling driving or
resisting forces.

Study in your textbook how each factor controls the type of failure and the likelihood
that failure will occur.
How does slope angle affect both driving and resisting forces?

Study the following relations between slope angle, weight of material, the component
of weight in the direction of failure (driving force), and the normal component of
weight (resisting force). You can easily see how SF changes dramatically:

The total weight (W) of a

mass that rests on a potential
failure surface. A can be
divided into two components,
N and D. For a given W, N
and D change dramatically
with change in the slope
angle A.

N = the vectoral component of

weight that acts normal to the
W cos A = N failure surface. Increase in N
W sin A = D increases the frictional
component, thereby
increasing the resisting
forces.

D = the vectoral component of

weight that acts in the
direction of failure.
TYPES OF MASS WASTING
Study the following table before reading this section. Return to the table to review.

TYPE OF MATERIAL
MOVEMENT INVOLVED
Rock Soil
 rockfall  soilfall
1. FALLS
rotational  rock slump
 soil slump blocks debris
translational block
2. SLIDES slide
 rock slide

slow  rock creep  soil creep

|  saturated & unconsolidated
| material
|  earthflow
3. FLOWS
|  mudflow (up to 30% water)
|  debris flow
fast  debris avalanche

4. COMPLEX combination of
 two or more
types of
movement
FALLS
Rockfall

Have you ever noticed warning signs posted along roads stating "beware of falling
rocks"? These signs let you know that you are in a hazard zone, an area where
rockfall is common! Rockfall (free fall of rock) is an extremely rapid process and
occurs without warning. Rockfall is typically the result of frost wedging. Frost
wedging is a process where water enters cracks in rocks, freezes, expands, and
breaks the rock apart. Frost wedging results in a fan-shaped pile of rock fragments at
the base of the slope. The rock fragments are called talus and the slope is referred
to as a talus slope. The presence of a talus
slope is a "warning sign" itself!

Cutbank

Do you remember studying cutbanks in

module 3? Cutbanks are the result of
stream erosion. A stream undercuts the
outer bend, which results in the remaining
overlying stream bank falling, dropping into
the moving water. This is an example of
soilfall.

Soilfall

Another example of soilfall is produced by ocean waves undercutting cliff faces. The
end result is loss of support! This type of undercutting can also result in slumping.

SLIDES
Slides, either in rock or soil, will have rotational or translational movement. The
behavior of the slide depends mostly on the type of material and whether that
material is:
(1) homogeneous (isotropic) material (similar properties in all directions), or
(2) inhomogeneous (anisotropic) material with planes of weakness.

Caused by slope failure of homogeneous Caused by slope failure of

(isotropic) materials (similar properties in inhomogeneous (anisotropic) material
all directions). with planes of weakness.

Translational Movement

Imagine yourself sliding down a slide at

a playground. This is similar to what
occurs in translational rock- and land-
slides. Slides move in contact with the
underlying surface! The "sliding
surface" is commonly a bedding plane,
but may also be a fault or fracture
surface.

Rotational Movement

The sliding of material along a

curved surface called a rotational
slide or slump. A common cause
of slumping is erosion at the base
of a slope. For example, coastal
storm waves erode cliff bases,
removing supporting material
(remember?). Slope failure
occurs. The slump block rotates
downward, producing a scarp
(cliff) at the top of the slope.
FLOWS
Flows are the downslope movement of unconsolidated material in which the material
behaves like a viscous fluid. Flows can be very slow or can be exceedingly fast.

Creep - a type of flow

Have you ever noticed a group of trees on a slope where the base of each tree bows
outward in the downslope direction?

Have you ever driven through an older, well-established

neighborhood where houses are located "above" the
sidewalks and streets? Where retaining walls try to hold the
sloping lawns in place? Where some of the retaining walls
are failing, bulging out over the sidewalks?

If you can answer yes to these questions then you have

witnessed creep, the very slow flow process of soil
movement!

Other types of flows are all quite similar. Generally the size of individual particles and
the amount of water present is the distinguishing criteria. Frequently, the same event
is referred to by more than one name. Confusing, huh?!! So, don't be surprised if you
discover what one source called a mudslide another source referred to it as a debris
flow! Generally, the following rules apply:

Earthflows
Moderate-to-steep slopes

Movement may be slow-to-rapid

The earth material is saturated

May begin as shallow soil slip (shallow slides in soil over rock that parallels
the slope
Mudflows
Occur on moderate-to-steep slopes

Movement is generally rapid

A slurry containing up to 30% water

Primarily fine-grained material (smaller than sand-sized particles)

May begin as shallow soil slip (shallow slides in soil over rock that parallels
the slope)
Typically flows down slopes or follows drainage channels
Debris flows
Movement very slow to very rapid
Consists of coarse material (more than 50% is sand-sized particles or larger
[AS IN BOULDER-SIZED])
Often begins as slumps or slides that change as the mass breaks up and
mixes with water and air
Often follows drainage systems downslope
Debris avalanches
 Occur on very steep slopes

Movement a combination of fall, flow, and slide

Material consists of a mixture of rock, soil, and organic debris (trees, shrubs,
etc.)
May have the form of head, chute, and debris fan (at base)
As you can see, most mass wasting involves more than one type of
movement

Assignment 1:
Visit the U.S. Geological Survey Geological Hazards site and study the various types
of landslides and their effects on human lives. Select FOUR different events from the
Landslide Images directory and record and answer the falling questions:

List them by name and/or place and date of the event, if known.

Record the general features of each one.

Write a very short synopsis of the problem that was encountered during the failure
and answer the question: How or why did it fail?

The Human Impact of Landslides

Landslides are natural occurring phenomena. Landslides, or slope failure, occur
whether people are there or not! But, human land-use does have a major impact on
slope processes. The combination of uncontrollable natural conditions (earthquakes,
heavy rainstorms, etc.) and artificially altered landforms can result in disastrous
slope failures, and does.

Yellowstone Landslide - summer 2004

To see more pictures and read about the landslides at Yellowstone this past summer
click the picture.

Excavation into a slope (for a road or construction site) creates a flat area at the
base of a slope. However, it also oversteepens the slope. Removing the basal
support can result in slope failure.
Click on the figure to the right to see how a roadcut can affect driving and resisting
forces.

Harvesting timber can also have an impact. Removing slope-supporting material

(trees and brush), as well as creating roads, affects the landscape. If the surficial
(and sometimes subsurface) geology is unstable, mass wasting often occurs. BUT, if
clear-cutting (harvesting all trees in an area) and road building occur on geologically
stable land, timber harvesting has considerably less impact.

Urbanization also has an effect on slope stability. Grading hillsides (cutting

benches for building homes on) greatly increases landslide potential. Construction
of homes on unstable slopes has similar effects. Changing the slope face, the
additional weight (homes and fill material), plus the added water (homeowners'
sprinkler systems and septic tanks) make a formerly stable slope unstable. Add a
heavy rainy season and you have lots of landslides!

MITIGATION
Minimizing landslide hazards requires three steps: 1) identification of landslide
potential areas, 2) prevention of landslides, and 3) corrective measures when a
landslide occurs.

Identification

Identification is accomplished by 1) studying aerial photographs to determine sites of

previous landslides or slope failures, and 2) field investigations of potentially
unstable slopes. Potential mass-wasting areas can be identified by steep slopes,
bedding planes inclined toward valley floors, hummocky topography (irregular,
lumpy-looking surface) covered by younger trees, water seeps, and areas where
landslides have previously occurred. The information is then used to generate a
hazard map depicting the various landslide-prone areas.
Areas in the western U.S that are prone to slope failure:

Prevention

Controlling drainage and reducing the slope angle reduces landslide potential.
Concrete interceptor drains can be constructed to contain runoff and prevent
infiltration. Steep slopes can be graded into gentler slopes. A series of "stair-steps"
can be created on very steep slopes.

Engineering methods can be used to help prevent slope failure. Retaining walls, rock
bolts, and "shotcrete" (coating of concrete-rock mixture on slope surface and
crevices to prevent water entry) are used to inhibit slope failure. Wire cables and
wire fences minimize the danger of rockfall.

Correction

Correction of some landslides is possible. This is accomplished by installing a

drainage system, which reduces water pressure in the slope, thereby preventing
further movement.

Assignment 2:
Locate in your local area or on the web an example of how a slope is being stabilized
(or needs to be stabilized). Write only a sentence or two that describes what you
have found. (If you can include a picture of the slope for fun that would be great!)

SUBSIDENCE
Depression:

A depression is the result of subsidence. By definition, subsidence is the very slow to

rapid sinking or settling of the land surface.
Subsidence can be the result of natural causes. Some types of carbonate rock
underlies topography containing numerous natural depressions, known as sinkholes.
The topography is known as karst topography. Limestone and dolomite, both
carbonate rocks, are soluble and susceptible to chemical weathering. Chemical
weathering produces void spaces (very very small to hugh caverns). Sinkholes result
when enough "support" has been removed from the carbonate layer. The surface
then collapses into the void space, producing a sinkhole.

Assignment 3:
What is the major internal cause of slope failure? What three conditions are external
causes of slope failure?
Send your assignments to [email protected] as soon as you
have completed them!
Terms to Look Up and Know:
* Pore water pressure * Quick clay
* Saturation * Seeping
* Progressive wettinge * Avalanche
* Rapid Drawdown * Hummocky terrain
* Liquefaction * Oversteepening by erosion

End of Module # 4
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