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I'

L
AIR NAVIGATION
L
Air Navigation

BY

P. V. H. WEEMS
Lieutenant Commander, United States Navy, Retired

Third Edition

McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, Inc.

NEW YORK AND LONDON

1943
 Preface to the Third Edition

This edition goes to press under war conditions with the pur-
critical
pose of assisting national defense. Material oncivil airways and other

phases of air navigation, which would have been treated more fully under
normal conditions, has been reduced or omitted in order to make the text
as suitable as possible for practical navigation under war conditions.
After fourteen years of evolution, the ''Air Almanac" should remain
free from radical changes for some years to come. Extracts giving the
essential descriptive material of the almanac are included in Appendix B
together with sufficient data to permit working the problems in the text.
The author is indebted to Mary Tornich for material from ''Radius of
Action of Aircraft/' to Charles A. Zweng for material from "Instrument
Flying," and to W. C. Konicek for help on radio. Link Aviation De\dces,
Inc., Sperry Gyroscope Company, Kollsman Instrument Company,
Pioneer Instrument Company, and D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc.,
gave generous cooperation in the preparation of this book.
With need for an estimated 50,000 navigators for the 185,000-plane
program for 1942-1943, navigation will provide a romantic career and a
livelihood for hundreds of thousands of American youths within the next
few years.
P. V. H. Weems.
Annapolis, Md.,
December, 1942.
 Preface to the First Edition

In the earlier stages of aviation the aviator's efforts were almost

completely absorbed in the problem of taking off and keeping his plane
in the air. The increased knowledge of aerodynamics, the improvements
in materials of construction, and the development of the air-cooled engine
have done much to simplify this problem.
In the future the mechanics of flying will require less and less of the
aviator's attention and he will be able to direct his efforts more and more
toward finding his way in the air and overcoming such obstacles as Ijlind
flying and wind.
The sea-going '^ water-cooled" methods of navigation, while correct
in principle, are too slow and cumbersome for use in the air. AVe must
use '^ air-cooled" methods for pathfinding in flight. Only by practical
work in the air can one realize how utterly impracticable it is to use any
but the shortest and simplest methods for air work. It is my purpose to
include in this book sufficient material for practical air navigation and to
omit material which is of doubtful value in the cockpit of an airplane.
In addition to the commonly used methods of piloting and dead
reckoning, this book is intended to stress the importance of position find-
ing by means of celestial observations and by means of radio bearings.
It is believed that the methods given in this book for finding positions
from celestial observations are the simplest and fastest A-et devised and
that they are therefore especially suitable for use in the air. It must,

however, be recognized that we have only scratched the surface of the

art of celestial navigation in the air. There is not available at the present
time an entirely satisfactory sextant or man}^ handy tables and other
simple devices needed in aerial navigation.
There are so many types of aircraft instruments that it is considered
impracticable to include descriptions of all of them. Moreover, these
instruments are continually being improved and new types developed
so that such descriptions become out of date in a few months. Further-
more, each manufacturer sends out descriptive literature with the instru-
ments which he sells. For these reasons detailed descriptions of aircraft
instruments have been omitted.
In the preparation of this book, I am indebted to lieutenant A. L.
Danis, U. S. Navy, for part of the chapter on Theoretical Aerology and
the entire chapter on Practical Aerology. I am especially indebted to
X l^i I'll ACE TO THh: F/h'ST EDITION

I jcutcnant M. V. Schocdlcl, U. S. Navy, for the chiiptcr on th(^ l^artli

Indiictoi- (\)nii)ass, for (•(Mtaiii other material, and also for counsel on
numerous occasions.
It was found desirable to revise most of the original chapters. The
important and laborious work of making this revision was done by
Lieutenant R. M. Watt, Jr., (CC), U. 8. Navy. The material was
rearranged in a more logical sequence, an index added, and much new
material included, of which Lieutenant Watt is co-author.
Generous and valuable assistance was given in proofreading and
indexing by Captain R. M. Watt, (CC), U. S. Navy; by my father-in-law,
Mr. George E. Thackray; and by my nephew, W. M. Slayden.
Since this book is based largely on original material, credit is also due
those who helped in this preliminary work: Lieutenant J. E. Gingrich,
U. Navy, with the ''Line of Position Book"; Lieutenant F. R. Dodge,
S.
U. S. Navy, Mr. Louis R. Johnson, and Harold C. Gatty, with the Star
Altitude Curves; and Mr. J. F. Burke of the Navy Yard, New York, with
Aviator's Dead-reckoning Tables. Also, the development of the Star
Altitude Curves proved to be an extensive undertaking and I am indebted,
for financial help and advice to my brother, Captain G. H. Weems, U. S.
Army; to my friend, Lincoln Ellsworth; to my cousin, Andrew Gennett;
to my uncle, F. A. and to my friend, E. J. Willis.
M. Burrell;
In collecting data and making tests of instruments and methods dis-
cussed in this book, it was desirable to make repeated flights under
various conditions. The following air lines gave generous assistance in
this work: The Maddux Air Lines, The Western Air Express, West Coast
Air Transport Company, and The Boeing Company.
In advocating new and untried methods of navigation, it has been a
,

great encouragement to have the support of persons of recognized

authority in this field. The author is especially indebted to Rear
Admiral Moffett, chief of the Bureau of Aeronautics, U. S. Navy Depart-
ment; Captain C. S. Freeman, superintendent, U. S. Naval Observatory;
the Hydrographer, U. S. Navy; Captain H. A. Baldiidge, formerly secre-
tary-treasurer, U. S. Naval Institute; Colonel Charles A. Lindbergh;
Rear Admiral R. E. Byrd; Rear Admiral Ridley McLean; Lieutenant-
Commander D. C. Ramsey, in charge of flight training at the V. S. \aval
Academy; and my friend, Lincoln Ellsworth.
P. ^^ H. Weems.
Annapolis, Md.,
July, 1931.
 Contents

Preface TO THE Third Edition vii

Preface to the First Edition IX

CHAPTER I

Introductory Remarks 1

CHAPTER II
Charts 15

CHAPTER III
Compasses 41

CHAPTER IV
Air Pilotage 71

CHAPTER V
Radio . 90

CHAPTER VI
Dead Reckoning —Theory 118

CHAPTER VII
Dead Reckoning— Equipment 130

CHAPTER VIII
Dead Reckoning— Practice 150

CHAPTER IX
Instrument Flying 171

CHAPTER X
Outline of Meteorology 194

CHAPTER XI
Celestial Navigation — Theory 269

CHAPTER XII
Celestial Navigation — P]quipment 2SS
xi
 -

X I'H I'll' ACE TO Till': I'lliST EDITION

Ijcutcnant M. V. Schocfflol, U. S. \:ivv, for the chapter on the Earth

Inductor and also for counsel on
C()in))ass, for certain otliei* material,
numerous occasions.
It was found desirable to revise most of the ori^;inal chapters. The
important and laborious work of making this revision was done by
Lieutenant R. M. Watt, Jr., (CC), U. S. Navy. The material was
rearranged in a more logical sequence, an index added, and much new
material included, of which Lieutenant Watt is co-author.
Generous and valuable assistance was given in proofreading and
indexing by Captain II. M. Watt, (CC), U. S. Navy; by my father-in-law,
]\Ir. George E. Thackray; and by my nephew^, W. M. Slayden.

Since this book is based largely on original material, credit is also due
those who helped in this preliminary w^ork: Lieutenant J. E. Gingrich,
U. Navy, with the ''Line of Position Book"; Lieutenant F. R. Dodge,
S.
U. S. Navy, Mr. Louis R. Johnson, and Harold C. Gatty, with the Star
Altitude Curves; and Mr. J. F. Burke of the Navy Yard, New York, with
Aviator's Dead-reckoning Tables. Also, the development of the Star
Altitude Curves proved to be an extensive undertaking and I am indebted,
for financial help and advice to my brother. Captain G. H. Weems, U. S.
Army; to my friend, Lincoln Ellsw^orth; to m}^ cousin, Andrew Gennett;
to my uncle, F. A. and to my friend, E. J. Willis.
M. Burrell;
In collecting data and making tests of instruments and methods dis-
cussed in this book, it was desirable to make repeated flights under
various conditions. The following air lines gave generous assistance in
this work: The Maddux Air Lines, The Western Air Express, West Coast
Air Transport Company, and The Boeing Company.
In advocating new and untried methods of navigation, it has been a
,

great encouragement to have the support of persons of recognized

authority in this field. The author is especially indebted to Rear
Admiral Moffett, chief of the Bureau of Aeronautics, U. S. Navy Depart-
ment; Captain C. S. Freeman, superintendent, U. S. Naval Observatory;
the Hydrographer, U. S. Navy; Captain H. A. Baldridge, formerly secre-
Naval Institute; Colonel Charles A. Lindb(M'gh;
tary-treasurer, U. S.
Rear Admiral R. E. Byrd; Rear Admiral Ridley McLean; Lieutenant
Commander D. C. Ramsey, in charge^ of flight training at the V S. Naval .

Academy; and my friend, Lincoln Ellsworth.

P. \'. H. Wkems.
Annapolis, Md.,
July, 1931.
 Contents
Page
Preface to the Third Edition vii

Preface to the First Edition IX

CHAPTER I
Introductory Remarks 1

CHAPTER II
Charts 15

CHAPTER III
Compasses . 41

CHAPTER IV
Air Pilotage 71

CHAPTER V
Radio 90

CHAPTER VI
Dead Reckoning —Theory 113

CHAPTER VII
Dead Reckoning —Equipment 130

CHAPTER VIII
Dead Reckoning —Practice 150

CHAPTER IX
Instrument Flying 171

CHAPTER X
Outline of Meteorology . 194

CHAPTER XI
Celestial Navigation — Theory 269

CHAPTER XII
Celestial Navigation — Equipment 2SS
xi
XU CONTENTS
CIIAI'IKK XIII Page
Cklkstial Navicatiox Pi{A(ti(k 332

ArriADix A
A\ia'1()h's Dkad-hkckoning Tahlks 3()I

APPENDIX B
Navigation Auxiliary Tahles 373

APPENDIX C
Sources of Information 387

Index 391
 AIR NAVIGATION
CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
Navigation is defined as the science or art of conducting vessels on the

water. It is derived from the Latin words, navis meaning ''ship" plus
the verb agere meaning to move " or direct."
''
Since avis means "bird,"
''

it word avigation signifies the science of directing the man-

follows that the
made bird in flight. The term avigation is shorter and more distinctive,
but it is new and not in general use. The purpose of navigation is to
enable an aviator to determine the position of his aircraft on the earth's
surface at any desired instant and the direction and distance from his
position to the desired destination.
In studying the subject of navigation it is convenient to di\dde it

into the four well-defined methods of piloting, dead reckoning, radio

position finding, and celestial navigation.
Each of these methods may in turn be subdivided into three
parts

1. and theoretical principles.

Definitions
2. Equipment and instruments used.
3. Actual practice of the method.

An aviator who wishes to be able to direct his plane on long and

hazardous flights over unfamiliar territory in all sorts and conditions of
wind and weather should have a good working knowledge of each of these
four methods and in addition should be familiar A\ith applied meteorology
and fog or blind flying.
This book will treat first of a few general considerations that appl>'

equally to methods, such as the shape of the earth, position, direction

all

and distance, charts, and the compass. Then each of the four methods
will be studied in turn, considering under each method the theory, neces-
sary equipment, and the actual practice of the method. Next there will
be a brief study of applied meteorology.
1
2 *
AIJi NA Via AT/ON

Finally, a study will he made of the actual navigation of aircraft

to show how an cxiKMt navigator would combine the use of all four
methods with a knowledge of meteorology and blind fl^dng in order to
dii'cct his ])lane with maxinunu effectiveness on long and difficult flights.

General Definitions. Piloting, or aii- ])ilotage, is the method of direct-

ing aircraft fiom i)lace to place by referring to visible landmarks on the
earth's surface, such as church spires, lighthouses, beacons, railroads,
rivers, mountains, and lakes.
Dead reckoning is the method of determining a position by keeping an
account, or reckoning, of the track and distance from a previous known
position called the point of departure. Some dead reckoning is ordinarily
required whether or not other methods are used.
Radio position finding is the method of fixing the position ]\y means of
lines of position determined by the directional characteristics of radio
waves.
Celestial navigation is the method of determining position by the
observation of heavenly bodies —sun, moon, planets, and stars.
Meteorology is defined as the branch of physics treating of the
atmosphere.
Applied meteorology is the application of this science to the problem
of making the best use wind and weather in aircraft operations.
of the
Blind flying is by means of instruments when all objects outside
flying
the plane are obscured by fog, dai'kness, rain, or snow. Fog gives so
much more trouble than everything else combined that blind flying, as the
practical pilot understands it, is almost equivalent to flying through fog or

through clouds, which are nothing more than high fogs.

—
Uses of Each Method. In a normal flight over land with a good
compass and a suitable chart, the pilot guides his plane much as a motorist
would direct his car from a road map; i.e., by simple piloting, which
means that objects observed from the plane are compared with objects
shown on the chart.
If the flight is over water or over uncharted or imknown land, the
navigator must have recourse to dead reckoning to kee]) track of his
position. A track due east at a speed of 100 miles for 1 hr. from an
air]K)rt shown on the chart may readily be ]:)lotted on the chart to show
whei'e the plane is end of the hour. If th(^ ])lane changes coui'se to
at the
the northeast this new run may be jilotted similarly- and, allowing for the
wind as accui'ately as it can be estimatcxl, a faiily exact account may be
k(^l)t of th(^ plane's pOvsition. With reasonable^ skill in following a compass
course, tlu^ total course ei'ror will not exceed 3°. Also, \c\ us assume that
for average wc^ather visil^ility is 10 miles. I"or a 3° course error, a 10-mile
l)osition error will be incurred on a flight of 200 miles. Since for flights
 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS 3

shorter than 200 miles the position errors for the assumed conditions
will be less than 10 miles, pilotage will meet ordinary requirements for
this range.
By similar reasoning, the maximum dead-reckoning error for a flight
of 400 miles is 20 miles. These arbitrary figures, 200 to 400 miles, are
chosen as the limits within which dead reckoning exclusively may be
employed. Where possible, piloting methods will be employed, of
course, whether or not other methods are used.
For distances greater than 400 miles, errors greater than 20 miles
will be encountered, and recourse is had periodically to radio position
finding and celestial navigation to fix the plane's position, these being
the only practical means, other than piloting, of determining definitely a
plane's position in flight. These methods are discussed in later chapters.
We may visualize more readily the accumulative errors of dead
reckoning by a study of Fig. 1.
Piloting and dead reckoning are usually combined, and both methods
and more are needed. If, after flying several hundred miles by dead

_., /. PfJo-fing Pi/oHng dead reckoning

.r'//ot/ng ..^c/Qcfc/reck- >{<- rcfo//o and ce/esHaJ ^

\oninaand \
navigoiHon ^^^^
racfjo 6 00 9^2
^
'
I

200rHles__J0Q- ^ ^^0 50
3 ''error Qo miles error
Fig. 1. — Distance limits for various methods of navigation.

reckoning, it is found that the wind has changed, and if for any reason
it is impossible to estimate accurately the effect of the wind, the dead-
reckoning position be in error by an unknown amount. Any
will
unknown compass will also affect the accuracy of the di>ad-
error in the
reckoning position. Furthermore, if, because of fog, darkness, or the lack
of a good chart, it is impossible to recognize known objects on the earth,
piloting, of course, cannot be used.
If the plane is equipped with a good radio set, the approximate posi-
tion may be determined from two or more bearings from directional radio
stations. This is of course dependent on the proper functioning of the
radio and upon the proximity of radio beacons or radio-compass stations.
To date, most long-distance flying over water which has succeeded has
made use of celestial navigation. This method and the radio are the only
methods that determine the actual position regardless of the A^dnd, com-
pass error, or other similar difficulties. Prior to 1927, with the methods
commonly used, about 10 to 15 min. were required to determine a posi-
tion. Great progress has been made in this field in the last 10 years and
with the latest equipment the time to determine a position has been
4 AIR NAVIGATION

reduced to ai)i)i-()xiinat('ly 5 luin. for diiywork and 2 iniii. for nightwork.

The 0{[uii)nK'iit rcciuii-cd consists of a chart, a sextant, an accurate time-
piece, and methods for converting the o]3ser\'ed data into the position of
the observer.
The grc^atest difficulty experi(^nced ])y na\'igators at the present time
is caused by fog. For position fincUng in a fog, ijuho alone can be used.
In flying above a fog, celestial navigation or radio must he de])ende<l
upon.
Preliminary Training Required. — It should be clearly understood at
the start that a person does not need to be highly educated to become an
expert navigator. It is desirable for the student to h-dvv a good founda-
tion in the branches of mathematics commonly taught in liigh school. It
is absolutely essential for him to have a reasonable amount of common

sense and a systematic and orderly way of doing things. A navigator

preparing for an important flight should think over and carefully i)lan
his work well in advance. He should la,y out the necessary equipment
where it will not be forgotten and should be sure that he has a sharp pencil
and the proper charts corrected to date. After starting an important
flight, years of higher education will not enable the navigator to achieve
practical results if he has foi-gotten a pencil or if he has l^rought along the
wrong chai't. Anyone who has a good groimdwork of elementary mathe-
matics, who has the mil power and energy to stud^y and practice faith-
fully, and who is willing to take great care and pains with his work, can
easily become an expert navigator.
In addition to mastering this book, it is important to grasp every
opportunity to take observations in flight with compass, drift indicator,
and sextant, and actually to work out the positions from these data.
The idea of this book is to teach a prospective na\'igator what ])rob-
lems he will have to solve, what instruments he will need and how to use
them, and, finall}^, how to apply the information he collects to reach the
correct solution to his problem in themost direct manner.
As Kipling says, ''There are nine and sixty ways of constructing
tril)al lays, and each and every one of them is right." There are just
as many systems for accomplishing the four uK^thods of na\'igati()n, l)ut
if, as comparative tests have demonstrated, some one system will do
everything that all the others will do and as quickly and accurately, why
bother about thc^ othei- sixty-eight ways? Life is too short for a practical
navigator to spend the Ix^st years of his lifc^ learning all the different ways
of ari'iving at tlu^ same answer.
Importance of Mastering All Methods.^ The aml)itious student —
should undei'stand chvii-ly at the \'ei'y stait that it is not enough for him
to l)e satisfied with a knowledge of piloting that will merely enable him
 INTRODUCTOHY UEMAltKS 5

to direct his plane from point to point on routine; flights. He should

launch out boldly and master methods covered in this book.
all

—
Shape of the Earth. The form of the earth's surface is approximately
that of an ellipsoid of revolution whose shortest axis is the axis of revolu-
tion. The chief difference between the shape of the earth and an exact
sphere is a bulge at the equator due to the action of centrifugal force.
Thus the diameter extending from the north to the south pole is about
7,899.7 statute miles in length and the diameter of the equator is about
7,926.5 statute miles in length.

"ureaJ-
c/rc/e
,75 ,n
.Rhumb' ^
line
Fig. 2. — Sphere showing axis, equator, latitude, longitude^ etc.

For the purposes of navigation these small departures from the exact
spherical form may be neglected and the earth may be assumed to be a
true sphere.
Definitions. —
The following terms are in common use and should bo
thoroughly understood before proceeding to a discussion of latitude and
longitude.
A sphere is a body bounded by a surface all points of wliich are equally
distant from a point within called the center (see Fig. 2).
A great circle is a circle on the surface of the sphere, the plane of which
passes through the center of the sphere and thus di\ndes it into two equal
hemispheres. important to remember that the shortest distance^
It is

between any two points on the siu'face of a sphere is the arc of a great
circle joining these points (see Fig. 2).
6 AIH NAVIGATION

A small circle is ;i circle on the surlace of a sphoro, the plane of which

(lo(»s not pass thiougli the center of the sphere (KLM in P'ig. 2).
The axifi of the earth is that diameter about which it rotates {NS in
iMg. 2). The nortli end of the axis is the north pole of the earth, and the
soutli end is the south pole {N and S in Fig. 2).
The equator is that great circle of the earth which lies midway between
the i)oles. The plane of the equator perpendicular to the axis of the
is

earth and all points on the equator are 90° from the poles (WE in Fig. 2).
Parallels or parallels of latitude are small circles of earth's surface
whose planes are parallel to the plane of the equator (KLM or HAJ in
Fig. 2).
Meridians of longitude are great semicircles of the earth joining the
poles. Thus the plane of the meridian contains the earth's axis which
di\ides the meridian into two equal parts (NGS, NBS, NAS in Fig. 2).
The prime meridian is the meridian used as an origin for the measure-
ment of longitude. The prime meridian used by most countries, includ-
ing the United States, is that of Greenwich, England (NGS in Fig. 2).
Latitude and Longitude. —
The position of any point' on the sur-
face of the earth may be dej&ned by the latitude and longitude of that
point.
The any point is its angular distance north or south of the
latitude of
equator. is measured from 0° to 90° north or south of the
Latitude
equator to the poles along a meridian and is expressed in degrees (°),
minutes ('), and seconds ("). These units are known as units of arc.
There are 360° in a complete circle, 60' in 1°, and 60" in 1'.
The longitude of any point is the arc of the equator intercepted between
the meridian passing through the point and the prime meridian, usually
that of Greenwich.
Longitude is measured from 0° to 180° east or west of the prime
meridian along the equator and is also expressed in degrees, minutes, and
seconds (units of arc). Longitude is sometimes expressed in units of
time instead of in units of arc. This will be explained in detail in the*
chapter on Time.
Charts in the English language always use the meridian ]3assing
through the observatory of Greenwich, England, just outside London,
as the prime meridian, but this is not iniiversal for foreign charts. In
Fig. 2 let G represent the position of Greenwich, let NGS be the prime
meridian, and WE the equator. The position of the point .4 is Lat.
15°N., Long. 45°W. The position of the point B is Lat. 30°X., Long.
30°E.
Difference of Latitude and Difference of Longitude. — One position
on (he (^arth's surface is related to another bv the difference of latitude
 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS 7

and the difference of longitude between them. If an aircraft is proceeding

from point A in Fig. 2 to point B, the difference of latitude is ]5°X.
because the parallel of the destination is 15°N. of the parallel of thci
departure point. The difference of longitude is 75°E. because the merid-
ian of the destination is 75°E. of the meridian of the departure point.
Departure is the east- west distance in nautical miles between two points
as shown in Fig. 3,and is measured at mid-latitude.
Direction. — The most important, most used, and most troublesome
definition in navigation is the general term direction and the related terms

^-^
D/ff. long, or D.Lo.
Parallel of
Departure or p -
latitude
(in nautical miles)

Fig. 3. — Position coordinates on the earth.

and azimuth. Webster defines direction
course, heading, track, hearing,
as "the line inwhich a body moves or to which its position is referred."
The direction in which an aircraft is heading at any instant is the angle
between the meridian and the longitudinal (or fore-and-aft) axis of tlu^
aircraft.
Since the meridians are only imaginary circles, which are marked on
charts but not on the surface of the earth itself, the direction of the obser\-
er's meridian must be established before the bearing of a given point can
be determined. The direction of the meridian is established by means of
a compass.
All aircraft compasses (Chap. Ill) indicate the direction in which the
plane is heading and many of them carry a device that c^nables the
navigator to take bearings of objects outside the aircraft.
 8 AIR NAVIGATION

Aiiciall compasses arc ol tlic ina^nclic 1yj)c ()i)cratin<; ujx)!! the j)iiiici-

ples that tlic inaiiiicr's c()inj)ass has used for cent mies. ( '()inj)asses will

l)e discussed in detail in later chapters.

Th(^ Sy''<> conipjiss, which is of such groat \alue to mariners, is imprac-
tieahle for use in aircraft at this time because of its weight, the space
reciuired, and the excessive vibration in a plane.
Tlu^ official definitions ai)i)i-oved by the Special (
'onfei-ence on Air
Navigation Terms in 1935 will now be gi\'en, followed b\' a discussion
of the ambiguous terms:

Azimuth .- -The hearing of a celestial body measured as an arc on the horizon

from the true meridian north or south to the east or west. Abbreviation: Z.
Abbreviation Z„ is used where the azinuith has been changed to read from the
north through .east to 360°.
Bearing. —
The direction of one object from another, expressed as an angle
measured clockwise from true north. Bearing is true unless otherwise designated.
Abbreviation: B.

— Bearing
Magyietic hearing. with variation applied.
(true) Variation and
deviation are discussed in Chap. III.
Compass hearing. — The magnetic bearing with deviation applied.
Relative —The direction an object expressed as an angle measured
hearing. of
clockwise from the heading of an aircraft.

Compass rose. —A small circle, graduated in degrees, to 360, placed on maps

or charts, as a reference to directions, true or magnetic.
Course. —The direction over the surface of the earth, expressed as an angle,
with respect to true north, that an aircraft is intended to be flown. It is the
course laid out on the chart or map and is always the true course unless other\\ise
designated. Abbreviation: C. ^

Magnetic course.—The course with variation applied.

(true) Al)bre\'i-
ation: MC.
Compass —The magnetic course with deviation applied. Abbrevi-
course.
ati(m:CC.
Course made good. — The resultant true direction the bears from aircraft
the ])oint of dei)arture. All courses arc measured foin nortli throuiih
east to 360°.
(Ireat-cirde course.- — The route between any two ])laces along the circum-
ference of the great circle which joins them. It is the shortest distance
between two j)oints over the surface of the eaith.

II((ulifig. Tlic anf2;ular direction of the longitudinal axis of the aircraft \\ith
respect to ti-u(> nortlv In otluM- woi'ds it is {\)v course witli the drift correction
aj')]')lied. It is true heading unless oth(>rwise designated.
 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS 9

Magnetic heading. — Heading with variation applied.

Compass heading. — Magnetic heading with deviation apphed.
—The bearing that must maintained order
Intercept hearing. })e in to intercei)t
another moving object.
Intercept heading. — The direction the longitudinal of an make axis of aircraft to
good a given intercept course.
Intercept —The track flown by an
track. over the earth's surface from a
aircraft
known position to a moving object.
Mercator course {rhumb line).—A line on the earth's surface which intersects
all meridians at the same angle.
Track. —Actual path of an aircraft over the surface of the earth. Track is

the path that has been flown. Course (true) is the path intended to be flown.

These complete definitions still leave points to be cleared up.

fairly
If a hearing is one object from another/' we must state
''the direction of
whether the bearing angle is measured from north to the great circle
through the two objects, or to the corresponding rhumb line. Since a
bearing of an object is along the line of sight, it must be along the great
circle between the observer and the object observed. Since an aircraft
can fly a rhumb or Mercator course only by compass, the course must be
along the rhumb line. This may be stated, "si bearing is the direction of a
great circle; a course is the direction of the rhumb line." Through cai-e-

lessness or ignorance these terms are often misused or interchanged. The

beginner should make every effort to avoid confusion by getting a com-
plete understanding of these related terms.
The course line is drawn on a chart by connecting the point of depar-
ture with the destination. The navigator then estimates the course to be
steered, or heading to make good the course line. This heading seldom
results in the plane's making good the course line, due to combined
unavoidable errors in evaluating the following factors:

1. Variation (Chap. III).

2. Deviation (Chap. III).
3. Winds.
4. Steering.
5. Plotting course line.

Distance. — It is well known that on a plane surface the shortest

distance between two points is the straight line joining them, (^n tlu^
surface of a sphere such as the earth, the shortest distance bi^tweeu
two points is the lesser arc of the gi'eat circle passing through the two
points.
10 AIR NAVIGATION

Tliiis the hctwccn two points, l)otli on tlic equator,

slioi'tcst (listanco
is the distance ))et\veen them measured alon^ the equator. Similarly,
the shortest distance between two points, l)oth on the same meridian, is
the (Hstance between them measured ah)nji; that meridian. In the case of
an airci-aft flying- between the two i)oints on the eciuatoi- (P and Q in Fig.
2), tli(^ shortest course, which is along the ecjuator, will make the same
angle (90°) with each meridian crossed. In flying between two i)oints on
the samc^ meridian {(' to B in Fig. 2) the course will be noith along the
meridian or 0°.

In Fig. 2, the solid line joining points C and H i-epresents the arc of a
great circle so that an aircraft seeking the shortest possible route from C
to H would follow this line. It should be noted that this great circle cuts
each meridian at a different angle. Thus
at the point of departure C, the
course is about 1 20° changes to about 30° at the point of
and this gradually
destination. This docs not show up so clearly on a flat sketch, but if the
student will look at an ordinaiy globe such as is used to teach geography
in grammar school, the principle will at once be apparent. The shortest
distance between two points may be determined by means of a piece of
thread. The thread, when stretched between the two ]:)oints, traces the
great circle that passes through both points, and it will be seen that,
except in the two cases noted above, it makes a different angle with c^ach
meridian. Thus, if an aircraft is to fly the shortest i-oute from one point
on the earth to another, its track must be a great circle, and the direction
of this track is constantly changing, except in the tw^o special cases noted.
In following such a track in practice, the course is changed at regular
intervals so that the aircraft follows a series of rhumb lines that approxi-
mate the great circle.
A rhumb line is a line on the earth's surface which cuts all meridians at
the same angle. Thus an aircraft flying a steady true course is following a
rhumb line. In Fig. 2 the dotted line from C to R cuts every meridian
it meets at the same angle (60°) and represents the rhumb line through

these two points. It should be noted that if this rhumb line is followed
indefinitely the navigator w\\\ travel in a long spiral and finally end up at
the ])ole. By referring to the globe again it is clear that the rhiunb line is

not the shortest distance between the points. However, the rhumb lino
joining any two points offers a great advantage in that it may be followed
by flying a constant course.
The comparisons shown in the accompanying table will help the
na^'igator to decidewhen to follow a great-circle course and when to
follow a rhumb-line couree. In the first case (New York to Boston),
it be noted that about O.G per cent of the rhumb-line distance is
will

sa\'edby following the great circle and in the last ca.se (New York to
Tokyo) about 15.5 per cent of the distance is saved.
 / A^ TROD UCTOli Y ItKM A Ji KS

Rhuuib-linc Great-circle
From To distance, nautical distance, nautical
miles miles

NeAv York, N. Y. Boston, Mass. 106.4 165.4

New York, N. Y. Chicago, 111. 021.9 618.8
New York, N. Y. Calshot, Eng. 3,088.0 2,976.0
New York, N. Y. Paris, France 3,290.4 3,149.4
Tokio, Japan Calshot, Eng. 6,182.0 5,219.0
New York, N. Y. Tokio, Japan 6,932.3 5,855.9

Although the great-circle track offers the shorter distance, it has the
disadvantage of making it necessary to alter course frequently in order to
fly along a great-circle track.
For flights of less tha-n 1,000 miles the saving in distance by great cii-cle

is small and the convenience of a single course makes the rhumb line
preferable. For flights in excess of 1,000 miles the saving in distance will
generally outweigh the inconvenience of altering course, and the gieat-
circletrack is to be preferred provided it does not lead into high latitudes
where dangerous cold will be encountered.
—
Units of Distance. The navigator should be familiar with the follo^^•-
ing units which are in common use:
a. The statute mile is 5,280 ft. This arbitrary unit of length has
been adopted as the standard in the English-speaking countries. A
statute mile is approximately 0.87 nautical mile.
h. The nautical mile is 6,080.27 ft. in the United States and 6,080 ft.

(called the ^^ admiralty mile") in Great Britain. This length was chosen
because it was thought to be the length of 1' of latitude or of 1' of arc on
the equator. The nautical mile is approximately one-seventh longer than
the statute mile. Nautical miles may be converted into statute miles by
multiplying the number of nautical miles by eight-sevenths, or by 1.15.
It is the standard unit of measure for marine navigation and for work
'^
with the Mercator chart. It is sometimes called the geographical mile,"
although the latter is slightly different, being 6087.1 ft.
c. A knot is a speed of 1 nautical mile per hour. It is the standard

unit of speed for marine navigation and is much used by seaplanes and
military planes.
d. A meter is 39.37in., or 3.281 ft. The meter is the unit of length in

the metric system. The meter occurs frequently on foreign charts.

e. A kilometer is 3,280.8 ft., or 1,000 meters, and is one ten- thousandth
part of the distance from equator to pole.
/. A fathom is 6 ft. Depths of water on charts are usually oxpressini in
fathoms, sometimes in feet.
 )

12 Alii NAVIGATION

(J.
1 kilonictcr = ().()2 statute mile = 0.51 nautical mile.
1 nautical mile = 1.15 statute mile = 1.8() kilometers.
1 statute mile = 0.87 nautical mile = l.Ol kilometers.

Notation. — Tlu^ iihhicNiiilions iuid symbols used in this hook will he.
accurately defined in the chapter where they are first introduced, but for
rcicrence, the most common abl^roviations and symbols and those which
have tlie same meaning throughout the })ook are here briefly defined:
Ariuii:vi.\ti()Ns

a Altitude difference be- H.P. Horizontal i)arallax.

tween the observed and hr. (or h) Hour.
the computed altitudes. Ht. Eye Height of eye hliove sea
A/C Altered course. level.
Alt. (or /() Altitude. IC Index correction.
A.M. Ante meridiem or fore- Int. Interval.
noon. L (or Lat.) Latitude.
AS Air speed. Lm Middle latitu(l(>.

Az (or Z) Azimuth. LCT Local civil tim(\

C (or Co.) Course. LHA Local hour angle.
Cn Course measured from Long, (or X) Longitude.
north around to the right. LPB "Line of Position Book."
CC Compass course; also Mag. Magnetic.
changed course. Merid. Meridian.
Corr. (or C) Correction. min. (or m) Minutes.
d (or dec.) Declination. m.p.h. Miles per hour.
DLo. Difference of longitude. X. North.
Dep (or p) Departure. Xaut. Nautical.
Dev. Deviation. P Departure.
Diff. Difference. P Pole; or polar distance.
Dist. (or D) Distance. Pn North pole.
DL (or /) Difference of latitud;\ P. South pole.
D.R. Dead reckoning. p.c. Per compass.
E. East, or error. I'.M. Post meridiem or after-
E.P. Estimated position. noon.
K.T.A. Estimated time of ani\ al. P.M. Prinu^ meridian.
ft. Feet. Hef. Refraction.
(1 (or ( Ir. Greenwich. S. South; also speed.
(KT Greenwich civil. tim(\ S.D. Semidiameter.
CHA Greenwich hour augl(\ SAC "Star Altitude Curv(>s."
(IS Gn^und sp(M'd. t Local liour angl(\
// (or Alt.) Altitude of a cel(\stial \ar. \'ariation.
body. W. West.
//, ( '()niput(Ml altitud(\ \\:v. Watch time.
//„ ()l)s(>rv(>(l altitu(l(\ or the z. Zenith distance.
sextant altitude with all Z Azimuth.
known corrections applied. Zn Azimuth nu-asured from
II Sextaiit altitude. north pole to the right
\\\ (or /) 1 lour antil(\ through 360^
JI.l). Houi"l\' differeiUM). ZT Zone time.
 INriiODUCTOUY HEM A liKH 13

Symbols
O Sun. .Jupit(!r.

Sun, altitude of upper Venus.

limb. Mars.
Sun, altitude of center. Degrees of arc.
o Sun, altitude of lower Minutes of arc.
limb. Seconds of arc.
c Moon. h Hours.
Moon, altitude of upper m Minutes of time.
limb. s Seconds of time.
Moon, altitude of center. * Star or planet.
Moon, altitude of lower T Vernal equinox. First
limb. Point of Aries.
Longitude.
14 AIH NAVIGATION

LAMBERT
50° -80°

Maximum con+roction at the pole

Moiximum expansion at Icxt. 75°

Scale true at Lot. 85"

STEREOGRAPHIC 75" " 90»

Fio. 4. — Illustration of projections used in the construction of WSN navigation chart:

 CHAPTER II

CHARTS
A chart or map is a representation of the earth's surface or a pait of it
on a fiat piece of paper. The term ''chart" is generally used where
aids to navigation are indicated. Except for short flights, an accurate
chart of the route to be traversed isprobably more important than any
other item of equipment. If the destination is not in sight at the start,
the navigator's first act is to look at the chart to find the direction in
which he must go to reach the desired destination. In the course of the
flight, asthe navigator fixes his position by any or all the various methods,
he plots his fix or determined position on the chart and checks the direc-
tion from this fix to the destination. If there is available a chart made up

especially for aerial use, the navigator may, by referring to it, lay out his
course so as to take advantage of airports and avoid dangerous terrain
such as mountain peaks. Thus, whatever method he ma}^ use, the
navigator's first requirement is a chart on which he plans his journey
before starting and records his progress in flight. As intermediate
positions are determined, he sets his course from these positions b}' the
most advantageous route to the desired destination.
—
Systems of Projection. Any boy who has knocked the cover off a
baseball and then tried to spread it out flat knows that it cannot be done
without a good bit of stretching and wrinkling. Similarly the spherical
surface of the earth cannot be represented on a flat piece of paper ^^'ithout
some distortion of certain features. In an ideal chart, distances, bearings,
shapes, and areas would be shown in their true relation and the shortest
distance between two points would be represented by a straight line. It

is possible to preserve one of these properties b}^ sacrificing some of the

others and charts are constructed by various methods of projection so as

to preserve that feature which will be most useful for the particular pur-
pose a chart is to serve. The three principal systems of projection in use
in the United States are:

1. The Mercator.
2. The conformal conic (Lambert).
3. Th(^ polar stereographic.

Mercator Projection.— The Mercator projection, so called after

Gerhard Mercator, the Flemish geographer who invented it, shows
15
16 AIR NAVIGATION

the i)ai-nll('Is of laliliidc as horizontal pai-allel lines and the nKM'idians of

longitude as xcitical paiallcl lines. On the earth's surface the length
of 1° of longitude is ()() nautical miles at the eciuator, 30 nautical miles
in Lat. (iO^N. or S., and zero at the poles where all the meridians con-

\v\'gv. On a Mercatoi- chart, however, where the meridians are parallel,

the length of a degree of longitude is the same in any latitude. To
balance this east and west distortion Mercator conceived the idea of
expanding the north and south dimensions, i.e., the latitude scale, in
just the same proportion that the longitude scale is expanded. This
method shows the compass courses as straight lines and the shapes of
areas are shown corrcH'tly, although areas in high latitudes appear larger

82' W 81' 80' 79° 78'

1

43 N

42"

D
c
'-T5
c
D

A 402 40'
Arbi+rary Long. Scale
Fig. 5. -Practiral construction of a Mercator chart

than they i-eally are. On a Alercator chart the correct distance^ Ix^twecMi
two points measured by the latitude scale at the mid-latitude.
is

Distance should never be measured by the longitude scale, which is to

be used only for picking off the longitude.
Figure 4 illustrates the Mercator projection. Although the cylindcM"
for it is tangent to the earth at the ecjuator, the illustration shows the
cylinder cutting the sphere at two latitudes in order to reduce distortion.
Practical Construction of a Mercator Chart.^ The principles of con- —
struction of a Alercator chart ha\(^ been fre(|uently and incorrectly
illustrated as the development of a sphere^ on a cylinder. However, for
])ra('tical i)ui-ix)ses, a Mercator chart may be constructed easily and ^^^th
sufficient accuracy foi- any desiixnl ar(vi and scal(\ .Vssuming that the
(>arth is a si)h(M-e. which is tiii(> for practical lunigation, a McM-cator chart
iiia\' be constructed as follows:
1. Draw parallel vcM'tical lines to represent the longituih^ to the desired
scale (see Fig. 5).
 CHARTS 17

2. 'For the lowest latitude, say 40°N. or S., draw a horizontal liru;

for the bottom of the chart.

3. From the intersection of the left vertical line and Lat. 40°, draw a
line AB making an angle of 403^^°with the 40° parallel of latitude.
4. The portion oi AB intercepted between two adjacent longitude
meridians the scale of the latitude between 40° and 41°.
is

5. Repeat the procedure for 41° and 42° of latitude by drawing CD at

1^° to the 41st parallel of latitude, and continue the constiuc-
angle of 41^2

\^^^\ l/'m/Yspf
\VA \projQ.cTi'on

Fig. 6. —
^Lambert conformal conic projection. Diagram illustrating the intersection
of a cone and sphere along two standard parallels. The elements of the projection are
calculated for the tangent cone and afterwards reduced in scale so as to produce the effect
of a secant cone. The parallels that are true to scale do not exactly coincide with those
of the earth, since they are spaced in such a way as to produce conformality.

tion as desired. Number the longitude and latitude parallels as requii-ed

for the area covered.
For areas covering only 1° to 3° of latitude, a fixed latitude scak^
may be used as described under Universal Plotting Chart.
In practice, the navigator buys his charts. If the student is inter-
ested in the method of construction used by the cartographer for making
Mercator charts, see Bowditch's '^ American Practical Xa\4gator."
—
Summary. The important features of a INIercator chart are:
1. Rhumb-line courses appear as straight lines.

2. The scale of distance is taken directly from the latitude scale at

the mid-latitude.
 . : .

18 AIR NAVIGATION

3. The chart is easy to const ruct

4. Limited areas sliown on tlic chart }ia\'c their ti'ue shape but are
distorted in size.
5. A straight Hne, caUed a rhuiul) hnc, connecting- two points is the
true course })et\ve(Mi tlieni.

The principal acU'antage of this system (jf projection is lia\in^ the

compass courses appear as straight lines.

The principal disadvantage is the distoi-tion of aicas as the chart

gets up into high latitudes.
—
Lambert Conformal Conic Projection. This tyjx' of chait came into
j)rominence during the First World War, when it was adopted l)v the allied

Fig. 7. —Appearance and scale distortion of the Lambert conformal conic i^rojection with
the standard parallels at 33° and 45°.

powers. Since then India, northern Canada, the north Atlantic, the
United States, and other areas have been charted on this })rojection. The
charted area is developed on a single cone cutting the surface of the earth
at two standard parallels of latitude (see Figs. 6 and 7). This projection
has the following features and advantages
L Areas appear in the proper perspective.
2. Scale distortion is small.
3. Straight lines represent very nearly the great circle between two
points; hence radio bearings ma,y be plotted directly on the chart.
4. A large area may be charted in sections so that adjacent sections fit

The principal disadvantage is that the rhumb line or comjiass coiusc^

does not appear as a straight line. In i)ractice, the course measui-ed at
the mid-longitude meridian gives a close approximation to the plotted
course.
Polar Stereographic Projection.— In the i)olai- stereogiaphic projection
the planc^ of ])rojection is tangent to the earth at one of the poles; the eye
of the obsei-ver is locatc^d at the other jiole of the earth, where it is in
the i)lane of every meridian, and therefore all meridians are projected
as straight lines. The straight line l)etw(M'n any two i")oints on this stereo-
 CHARTS 19

graphic projection closely represents the arc of a great circle and is

therefore the shortest distance between those points. On this chart
the parallels of latitude are projected as circles whose center is the pole
at point of tangency, and the meridians appear as straight lines radiating
from this pole. This projection would give a distorted chart for low
latitudes but is excellent for use in latitudes above 80° where the dis-
tortion of the Mercator construction becomes excessive.
The gnomonic projection used in the construction of great-circle
charts (published by the Hydrographic Office) is the development of the
surface of the earth on a plane tangent to the earth's surface as it would
be projected with the observer's eye at the center of the earth.
Polar stereographic charts are similar to, but have less distortion
than, polar gnomonic charts. The one advantage of the latter is the
fact that a great-circle course is shown as a straight line. This advan-
tage is offset by greater advantages in the three projections already
discussed.
Figure 4 illustrates the Mercator, Lambert, and stereographic projec-
tions,on which about 99 per cent of United States aeronautical charts
are constructed.
Both the Mercator and stereographic projections may be coasidered
as special cases of the Lambert projection. In the former the apex of
the cone tias receded to an infinite distance; in the latter the apex of the
cone has been brought down into the plane of the projection itself.
If the reader studies Fig. 4 carefully, he should understand the
projections used for aviation charts of the United States.
Foreign Charts. —Foreign
and international charts, using various
projections and undoubtedly come more and more into use
scales, will
in this country and will therefore be discussed briefly at this point.
International Chart of the World.— In 1909 an Official International
Conference met in London and organized The International Map Com-
mittee, which adopted rules for the construction of the 1:1,000,000 chart
of the world. In 1913 a second conference was held in Paris, and further
rules were adopted, so that the earth's surface is being charted by inter-
national agreement. These charts, sometimes called 1/]\I charts, are
to the scale of 1: 1,000,000, and use international standard map symbols.
Aeronautical features have been added to these charts to make the 1/]\I
aeronautical charts discussed below.
Up to latitude 60° the separate sheets are to include 6° of longitude
and 4° of latitude; from latitude 60° to the pole they are to include 12°
of longitude. The sheets are designated in longitude by consecuti\'e
numbers to the east from 1 to 60, beginning at 180°W.. and in latitude

alphabetically from A to 7, beginning at the equator and extending both

north and south. Thus the sheet for Ireland is N 29 North (see Fig. 10).
20 AIR NA Via AT I ON

The L;ill(*in;in(l i)r()j('('(i()ii is a(l()j)t('(l loj- llicsc cliaits in wliicli the

meridians are straiglit lines and meridional errors are lessened and dis-
tributed somewhat (except in an oi)posite direction) as in the Lambert
j)rojection described above. In other words, it provides for a distribution
of scale error by Inning two standard meridians 2° on each side of the

0°3 90°
-^^^^

C|| 7cv
Norfh ^°*"^
f^'
^111
^
"^^
Pole

\/c
^ ^^A/
iP jN .'S'

l_
Fig. 8.- -Index map of Basic Aeronautical Map of the World.

center. Meridians appear as straight lines, parallels as circles, and anj^

sheet fits its four neighboring sheets exactly along its margins.
International Aeronautical Charts. The Convention Relating to the—
Regulation of Aerial Navigation met at Paris on Oct. 13, 1919, and the
International Commission for Air Navigation (I. C.A.N.) came into foice
in 1922; it is pcrmanc^ntly organized with hea(l(]uai-ters at 15 his, rue
Georges-Bizet, Paris. The I.C.A.X. has decided to produce the following
international aeronautical charts:

I. Basic Acroiimitiad Charts:

Scale: 1:10,000,000 at equator.
Mercator projection to latitude 72°.
Stereofiraphic projection ahovc^ latitude 72°,
Index chnrt shown in I'^ifi. S.

11. Ilincrani or Haute Charts:

Scal(>: 1:10,000,000.
()l)li(iue true projection on cylinder tanjicMit ilonji; ^;reat -circle route.

(Kahn ("harts, etc.)

CHARTS 21

J
r
22 AIR NAVIGATION

!•

If
 C II ARTS 23

III. General Aeronautical Chart:

Scale: 1:3,000,000 at equator.
Mercator projection extending to eS^N. and S.
Index chart shown in Fig. 9.
IV. Local Aeronautical Chart:
Scale: 1:1,000,000.
Projection: modified polyconic (Lallemand).
Same as International Chart of the World with aeronautical features adrlcd.
Index chart for Europe shown in Fig. 10.

—
Skeleton Navigation Charts of the World. The speed and range of
modern planes have created a demand for special skeleton navigation
charts to a relatively small scale. Such charts are not issued by either
the Hydrographic Office or the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. To
meet need the author has published the WSX series of five charts,
this
scale 1 : 5,000,000 as shown in Fig.
4, which also shows the principles of the

projections used. The following table shows the projections selected as

best suited for the latitudes covered:

Scale Distortion and Other Data on WSN Chart Series

Latitude Projection Standard Scale

Chart Latitude
N. or S. used parallels distortion, %
1 0°-30° Mercator 15° 0° - 3.4
15 0.0
25 + 6.6
30 + 11.2
2 25°-55° Lambert 33° 25° + 2.3
45° 33 0.0
39 - 0.5
45 0.0
55 + 3.8

3 50°-80° Lambert 55° 50° + 1.7

75° 55 0.0
65 - 1.5
75 0.0
80 + 2.7

4 75°-90° Stereographic 85° 75° + 1.5

85 0.0
90 - 0.2

5 30°-53° ATercator 15° 30° + 11.2

50 +20.6

These charts cover sufficient areas to plan transoceanic flights, and

yet both courses and distances may be measured with sufficitnit accuracy
21 AIR NA Via A TION

6aa 'apn+ijOi-pjiAj
o o o o ooo
 CHARTS 25

TIME POSITION COMPASS TRUE DRIFT I.A.S.

UT. LONG. HEADING HEADING LEEWAY TRACK

% O.R. SP.

Fig. 115. — Form for entering navigational data and extension of universal plotting chart.
26 AIH NAVIGATION

for priicticiil purposes. The aircraft plotter, Fig. 23, may be used to
measure distances on charts 2, 3, and 4 by adding a zero to the distances
shown on the 1:500,000 scale. Chart 5 is an extension of chart 1 to
cover continental United States on the Mercator projection.
—
Universal Plotting Chart (Fig. 11). This is a partly constructed
blank Mercator chart for small areas, with a fixed latitude and distance
scale, a compass rose, and a longitude scale. The construction is based
on the fact that the longitude scale is the cosine of the latitude scale,
and assumes that the earth is a sphere, which, for practical pur})oses,
is true. It is constructed on a scale, approximately 16 nautical miles
to tlie inch, such that the scale of nautical miles is equal to the 1 1,000,000 :

miles scale of the Mark II plotter.

This chai't may be used for any latitude and longitude, covers an
area of 1 75 by 2()0 nautical miles, and is supplementary to the WSN chai't
series. To complete the skeleton chart, mark the angular distance of
the mid-latitude on the compass rose above and below the mid-latitude
parallel and draw a between the two points; this gives 1° of
vertical line
longitude at mid-latitude. Name the parallels and meridians to suit the
problem. For minutes of longitude, measure along the mid-latitude line
on the longitude scale in the lower right-hand corner of the sheet. Alter-
natively the plotter may be placed diagonally between two adjacent
meridians with the of the distance scale on one meridian and the 00 on
the next meridian; the minutes of longitude can then be read off the
plotter.
For 2° or 3° of latitude, there will be practically no difference between
distances on the Universal plotting chart and distances on a Mercator
chart. Where the latitude changes more than 2° or 3° it is only necessary
to construct a new longitude scale for the latitude used.
Figure 11a shows the Universal plotting chart, which is used as the left-

hand page in the ''Navigation Note Book." Figure \\b shows the
extension used as the right-hand pages, on which navigational data arc
recorded.
"Navigation Note Book" (Weems). — For keeping a record of dead
"'
r(H'koning, and for use for celestial na\igation, a ''Navigation Notc^ Book
has been published, having on the left pages the Universal ))l()tlin«2;

sheet and on the columns for arranging the woi-k.

right pages A'ertical
A pockc^t is pro\'ided on the front cover page to contain the Airci-aft
Plotter, Mark II.

Aircraft Plotting Sheets. — The Aircraft Plotting Sheets published

l)y tlic Ilydrographic Office are laid out on a McM'cator projection to the
scale of 1° of latitude ecjuals 3 in. at the middle latitude of the sheet,
resulting in a uniform scal(» of 1 in. eciuals 20 miles foi- the middh^ degree
of latitude of all sheets.
 CHARTS 27

Each degree is divided into divisions of 10' each to assist the navigatoi-
in quickly estimating his approximate latitude and longitude without the
use of dividers.
U. S. Aeronautical Charts. — Three principal series of aeronautical
charts are now
being published by the Coast and Geodetic Survey.
The limits of these charts and their relative size and extent are shown in
Fig. 12. The series are as follows:
Sectional charts, of the entire United States, in 87 sheets, at a scale of
1 : 500,000, or about 8 miles to the inch.
Regional charts, to cover the whole country, in 17 sheets, at a scale of
1 : 1,000,000, or about 16 miles to the inch.
Radio direction-finding charts, of the entire United States, in 6 sheets,
at a scale of 1 : 2,000,000, or about 32 miles to the inch.
In addition to these, the following special charts are also available:
Aeronautical ^planning chart of the United States (chart 30605), at a
scale of 1 5,000,000, or
: about 80 miles to the inch.
Great-circle chart of the United States (chart 3074) at approximately
the same scale as chart 30606.
Magnetic chart of the United States (chart 3077), showing lines of
equal magnetic variation, at a scale of approximately 1:7,500,000, or
about 115 miles to the inch.
Kenai, and St. Elias, Alaska, at a scale of 1:1,000,000, or about 16
miles to the inch. These are the first two of a series of charts intended
to cover the entire Territory of Alaska.
Because of the larger scale and the more complete information of the
sectional charts they are necessary supplements to the regional series.
They will always be required for detailed studies of an area and should
generally be used whenever piloting is employed.

The regional charts are designed particularly for air navigation, as con-
trasted with piloting. They are more convenient than the sectional
charts for comparatively long flights, with faster planes, since pilots do
not need to change charts as often while in the air.
Figure 13 shows a portion of Chart 9MN. The symbols, colors,
spacing, scales, etc., illustrate the text on the corresponding subjects.
The navigator should develop the habit of making a careful study of
charts to be used.
The radio direction-finding charts have been designed especially for
use in the plotting of radio bearings. Their smaller scale and wider
extent make it possible to plot bearings from radio stations that would
frequently be outside the limits of the local chart when using either of
the larger-scale series.
The aeronautical planning chart of the United States is very useful in
planning routes between distant points, and for selecting the proper
sectional or regional charts along the route.
28 AIR NAVIGATION
 CHARTS 29

The great-circle chart is of value for one special purpose only, namely,
the easy determination of the exact great-circle route between any two
points. It cannot be used directly for the scaling of courses or distances.
Its use is limited, then, to the most exacting record flights and to com-
parative studies.
The Coast and Geodetic Survey also publishes marine harbor charts,
coast pilots, and other items of possible interest to the air navigator.
See Appendix C.
—
Navy Strip Charts. Navy strip charts cover principally the coastal
areas of Alaska and Central America and are convenient for their special
areas. They are constructed on the Mercator projection and conform
more to the naval and marine type of chart.
Figure 14 shows the areas covered by the Navy strip charts.
In addition to strip charts, the Hydrographic Office publishes marine
charts, great-circle charts. Notices to Aviators, pilot charts of the
upper air, aircraft plotting sheets, and other special charts and publica-
tions of interest to the air navigator. See Appendix C.
Chart Reading and Handling Charts in the Air. The ability to —
translate into useful knowledge the symbols and other features of a
chart is of extreme importance to the navigator. There is not sufficient
time in the air to study the characteristics of a chart; all this should be

done before taking off".

In studying a chart, the first step is to read the legend, which is

usually found in the lower right-hand corner and should show the title,
area covered, the survey date, date of last correction, the scale used, and
the meanings of the symbols used.
The area along the course to be flown should be scrutinized and
particular stress should be placed on the location of possible emergency
landing fields and the aids and dangers to navigation. The magnetic
variation (discussed in a later chapter) and the changes in the variation
along the. course should be noted. The elevation of the terrain passed
over should be studied with a view to choosing the best course to fly,
and to make certain that the altitude along the course is not greater than
the ceiling of the plane.
—
Chart Coordinates. For ordinary navigation the coordinates of lati-
tude and longitude, called the graticule, are preferred; for military use,
however, a grid of rectangular coordinates is superposed.
—
The Chart Scale of Distance. Every chart should have plainly
marked on it a scale of distances. There are three distinct ways of
showing a scale of distance on a chart. The chart scale may be given as:
1. A statement in words, as 1 in. equals 8 miles, meaning that a
distance of 1 in. on the map represents an actual distance of 8 miles on

the earth.
 30 AIR NA VIC! AT I ON

^
 —

CHARTS 31

2. A
representation fraction, as 1/1,000,000, 1:1,000,000, or 1/M,
which means that one unit of distance on the chart represents an actual
distance of 1,000,000 of these units on the surface of the earth.

10 10 zo 50 Miles
1=3

Fig. 15. — Graduated line for scale of distance on map.

3. A graduated Hne as shown in Fig. 15. The graduated linemay and

usually does show the scale of distances for the entire chart. However,
on a Mercator chart, a graduated scale in
nautical or geographical miles is given at the 5r \
side, as shown in Fig. 16.
\
The margins of these charts are subdivided
into minutes of latitude and minutes of longi- \
tude. These scales provide convenient means
of plotting points when their geographic coor- : 0U~
dinates (latitude and longitude) are known, or
of determining the geographic coordinates of
r
points from their positions on the charts.
—
Chart Symbols. The international chart Ion g//u<.ifesc^a/e
iiimiii
5r \
symbols shown in Fig. 17 are those adopted
3y
by the Board of Survey and Maps, of the
1-
United States of America, corrected to Oct. 1,
1932. It will be found that the symbols for
most charts will conform closely to this system h^
of symbols.
Use of Colored Charts. — Most air-navi-
1 -

gation charts are shown in several colors

1-
green, brown, red, etc. The colors add to the *
50°

clearness of the aids and dangers to naviga- \

tion and make it easier to visualize the nature
of the terrain.
Fig. 16. —
Section of a Mer-
cator plotting sheet. Both
Water Features. —Water features are rep- the unit of latitude and the
scale of nautical or geograph-
resented on the aeronautical charts in blue, ical miles are shown on the
the smaller streams and canals by single blue meridian, or vertical scale.
The scale of longitude corre-
lines,the larger streams and other bodies of sponding to the latitude is
water by blue tint within the solid blue lines shown on the horizontal scale.
The distance between 31° and
outlining their extent (see Fig. 18). 32° is slightly greater than the
Cultural Features. — Cultural features are distance between 30° and 31°,
owing to expansion of the
generally indicated in black. Towns of less latitude.
than 1,000 in population are indicated by a
conventional black circle. Towns between 1,000 and 5,000 are shown by
a yellow square outlined by purple; the actual shapes of larger cities aic
shown in yellow within a purple outline (see Fig. 18).
32 Alii NAVIGATION

Army. Navy, or Marine Corps field.

Commercial or municipal field .o

Department of Commerce intermediate field.

Markpd auxiliary field .+

Airplane landing field, marked or emergency
lwher» nol shown in plan nor by iymbol Indictling
chMrActerliUcs)

Mooring mast r
Night lighting facilities ,

Seaplane base with ramp, beach, and .

handling facilities

Anchorage with refueling and usual,

harbor facilities

Protected anchorage with limited facilities. J:

Airway light beacon .

t*rrows indictto course lights)

Auxiliary airway light beacon, flashing _•

Airport light beacon with code light
twithin airport symbol)
_#
Airport light beacon without code light
Iwithin airport symbol)

Landmark light beacon with bearing projector

(arrow indicates fixed beam pointing to airport)

Landmark light beacon without bearing projector.

Radio station with call letters - O RS(WUF)

Radio direction finder station with call letters. --0 BC(NOW)
(Radio-compass station)

Radio beacon with call letters .ORSn(

Radio range beacon

Air routes, optional symbols P--^-

[Electric

Prohibited area
<^
Prominent transmission line . ^T—'T—'T—'T-
\ /Marked HI0X
High explosive area
6
Highway, prominent
Highway, less prominent
Road or trail, prominence uncertain^

Oil well derrick

Obstruction (numerals indicate height

above ground in leei)

Prominent elevation (numerals indicate .

height in feel)

Gradient of elevations
7000 5000 3000 3000 tOOO 'tit

I^»^l^l
LETTERING
Names of natural land features, vertical lettering
Names of water features, slanting lettering

The use of colors is optional Edition ol 1932

Fig. 17. — Standard symbols for maps.

 CHARTS 33

Reliefs and Contours. — The symbols and standards used in the con-
struction of charts establish easily remembered relations between the
graphic representations on the charts and the physical features on the

Larbje river (?inc<s+ream.

Dry Loike.

iJ^_
-jLl.

ln+ermit+en+ s+ream.— ,-- Marsh. .-1,

i:— .Jl-

Waier Feoitures

''
O—. Less than 1,000 Oil +oinks.

Ci+ies oind D... 1,000 to 5,000 Lool<ou+ tower. 024

fowns
P-u I ,-««« Moun+oiin poiss MeKenziePass/^
L_l..more fhan 5,000 vvi+h elevottion ^*.^2£^/7/
Forest roinger s+ocHon
Sand dunes-
Quoirry or mine ^

Co o( st Gu Of rd s+o(+ion....f CG326 Tonne/

Tunnel.

Hachured peak
with elevation.
Misclotndmoirk.
IVh/'fe dome
Race +ro(ck 3 foot depth curve.... ..•••***

Airport with ro+atinq ^"^fl'^yrib?

1344
Radio marker beacon..^ ^I^ /
\
l
^ \
beacon and code light. ^>*

(with frectuency and '^•^__^^

[cjen+ifying signc*!)
Lighthouse _ •
Weather Br-ociidcois+
Weather WWQ 224-— —Time Lines of equal
broadcast schedule Pittsburgh -l-o Camden"! c'
^

magnetic variation....
— I7''E
— — -*"''
Columbus to New York j
Cleveland to New York 55'
-210° 90°- -270° 90'
Radio Range
Courses CAre magnetic
Fig. 18. —^Miscellaneous cultural and water features. See also Fig. 17.

earth's surface which they represent. The features of the terrain are
shown by hachures, which are lines or shading, to indicate hills or eleva-
tions and contours, which are lines representing equal altitudes. For
instance, a cone-shaped hill would be indicated bv a series of lines resem-
34 AIH NAVIGATION

l)liiig concent I'ic ciiclcs with sliading between the lines. 'Die steej^ness
of the hill would \)v indicated by the closeness of the lines, and any iri-ej2;u-
larity in the shape of the hill would be indicated by a c()rresj)ondin^;
curvature in the contour lines. The different altitudes are indicated
))y on(^ or more of three wa,ys:
1. By the contour lines as explained above, the spacing showing the
gradimts.
2. l^y colors, oi- layer tinting, tlu^ dark brown representing high
altitudes.
3.By numbers that indicate the altitude^ in feet.
4.By hachures or hill shading.
Marshy ground, trees, and many other special features may be rep-
resented by the elaborate symbols utilized by cartographers (chart makers).
In the construction of air-navigation charts, the scale, aids and dangers
to navigation, and other features are designed for the special use of the
navigator. As many useful details as are possible without causing con-
fusion areworked into the chart.
Plotting Courses on Mercator Charts. —
The methodical, efficient
navigator will ordinarily la}^ down the courses to be steered and will
record such data as w^ill assist in the navigation of the plane. In order to
show the and distances, a sample elementary
details of plotting courses
problem will be worked out on a section of an aircraft plotting sheet,
using true courses only (Fig. 19).
—
Example. Plot the true courses aud distances on the closed course over Puget
Sound starting from Seattle and flying over Bremerton, Port Angeles, Victoria,
Bellingham, and thence hack to Seattle. Also tabulate the true course and distance
for each leg of the route.
Solution: The on the route are first connected by straight lines. Each line
cities
or leg of the flight then referred by means of the aircraft plotter or drafting machine
is

to the compass rose, or to any meridian, to find the true course. This may be done by
any of several methods. The use of the aircraft plotter (see Fig. 23) is a convenient
way of doing it. Measure the length of each leg on the vertical latitude scale at
approximately the middle latitude. Tabulate the results for eacli leg.

Only the true courses are given. The \'ariation being 24° east for
amount subtracted from the true courses will give the
the locality, this
magnetic courses. The subject of \'ariati()n and deviation will be treated
in the chapter on Comj^asses.
In describing in dcdail the opcMations for setting a course, we make it

seem harder than it really is. It is important to have handy equijinK^nt

and ]>y ])ractice to l)e al)le to do this (puckly and accurately.
Use of Sectional and Regional Charts. On
the sectional and regional
charts the meridians converge as shown in Fig. 20. Since the compass
course cuts successive^ mcM-idians at the same angle, it is obWous that a
course mt^asured at the starting point at the left of Fig. 20 would not be
 CHARTS 35

correct for the entire distance to the destination. However, the average
course for the entire distance may be measured at the mid-meridian.

Fig, 19. — Course and distance plotting.

(a) . (b)
Fig. 20. — (a) Course and bearings; (6) course and track.

In order to understand clearly problems involving directions, it is

important to distinguish carefully between a course and a bearing (or
azimuth). Figure 20 illustrates the difference between these terms, as
36 A Hi NAVIGATION

well as the methods of measuring couises and beaiings on the Lambert

projection, between any two points, A and B. Refeiiing to the figure,
Angle a is the course to be followed from A to B.
Angle b is the course to be followed from B to A.
Angle Z is the bearing, or azimuth, of B as measured at the point A.
Angle Z' is the bearing, or azimuth, of A as measured at the point B.

Measure Codrse
clockwise from
north on Mid-Course
Meridian

INATION'

'-•destination

Fig. 21. —Measuring the course angle. Left, for an easterly course, angle G gives the true
course. Right, for a westerly course, angle H
plus 1S0° gives the true course.

A course may
be followed without change for the entire distance
l)etween the two points (if, for the moment, we disregard magnetic varia-

tion, compass deviation, and mnd) a bearing (or azimuth) is constantly

;

changing as we progress along the route and is different at every point

thereon (except for the special cases in which the two points are both
on the same meridian, or are both on the equator).
If a course between two points is mistakenly measui-ed as a beaiing,
with the initial meridian instead of with the meridian nearest halfwa}^,
considerable error may result.
To clear up any confusion that may yet remain, it should be explained
that when the course is measured with the meridian nearest halfway
(as the angle a. Fig. 20a), a plane following that course will not exactly
follow the straight line .4^ on the chart, but will sliglUly deinirt therefrom
near the middle^ of the route, as indicated ])y tlie light broken line (greatly
exaggerated) in Fig. 206. However, ^^•ll(Ml courses are measured as
recommended in the following ]:)aragraphs, tlu^ departure is so sliglit that
it may be considered that the plane does exactly track the straight line
throughout its entire length.
A course measured icith tJir inic grographir meridian printed on the
chart is the true course.
When the two ])()ints are sepai'atcMl 1)\- not inoi-c^ tlian 3° or 4° of
longitude, the ivuv course may he mviisuvvd with \\w uKM-idian n(^arest
halfway, as described above and as illustrated in Fig. 21, and the entire
distance flown as one course.
 CHARTS 37

When the difference of longitude between the two points is more than
3° or 4°, the straight hne on the chart should be divided into sections cross-
ing approximately 2° of longitude each, and the true course to be flown for
each section should be measured with the middle meridian of that section.
For example, Fig. 22 illustrates the method of determining the series
of true courses to be flown between St. Louis and Minot. The distance
is 862.7 miles, and the difference of
longitude is nearly 12°, which is too
great to be flown satisfactorily in
one course. The route is therefore
divided into five sections crossing
approximately 2° of longitude each,
the two end sections being slightly
longer than the others. The true
course to be flown throughout the
total length of each section should be
measured with the middle meridian
and the course should
of that section,
be changed in flight as the end of
each succeeding section is reached.
S+.Louis
On the Lambert projection, for I 1 ;

Fig. 22. -Subdividing a long route.

all practical purposes, a straight line
is the great-circle route (shortest possible distance) between its extremi-
ties. The method just outlined makes it possible to fly the great-circle
route by a series of short courses (rhumb lines).
Aircraft Plotter, Mark II (Department of Commerce Type). This —
type of plotter is designed especially for use with the Department of Com-
merce aeronautical charts and replaces the protractor, dividers, and
parallel rulers (see Fig. 23).
To Measure a Course.~a. Place the distance
scale along the course
line with the center over the intersection of the course line and the
mid-course meridian. A pencil point held on the course line helps to do
this.

b. Read easterly courses on the outer semicircle, and westerl}^ courses

on the inner semicircle. In other words, read the course on the semi-
circular scale adjacent to the arrow that points in the direction of flight.
To Lay a Course. — a. Mark the north point with reference to the
starting point. This may be done as follows: (1) by orienting the plotter
at right angles to a latitude line, (2) by orienting the plotter parallel to
the nearest meridian, or (3) bv orienting the plotter with the 90° line
along a parallel and with the distance scale line thi'ough the starting point.
h. Place the center of the plotter over the starting point with th(^

semicii'cle to the left and with the distance scale to the noj-fli.
38 AfR NAVIGATION

c. Rotate^ tlic j)lotter to the I'iglit, with a pencil point as a pivot, until
(he desired easteiiy (westerly) course is indicated on the outer (inner)
scMuicirch'.

d. Draw the coui'se line alon^- the (hstance scale.

To Measure Distance. — a. Note the scale of the chait and choose
\\w proper scale on tlie plotter.

Fig. 23. — Aircraft Plotter, Mark II (Department of Coiiiiuerce type).

b. Place the straightedge along the course line with over the start-
ing point. Or, read the distances from the mid-meridian to the starting
point and to the destination and take th(^ sum.
c. Read the distance in miles directly from the proper scale.
To Parallel Any Line. — a. Align the parallel lines of the plotter with
the original line and at the desired distance from it.

6. Mark a line along the straightedge of the jjlotter.

c. Or, place flu* center and tlu^ 90° point of the plottci' along the
oi-iginal line and then make dots on the scales of l)()th (Mlg(\^ of th(> plotter
and at tlu^ desired distance from the original lin(> and draw the rctiuiicd
j)arallel line through the two dots.
 CHARTS 39

The plotter is used in the same way with Mercator charts, or with
Universal plotting charts, except that the courses may be measured from
any meridian, and the distance shown by the plotter is referred to the
latitude scale at the mid-latitude to get the correct distance in nautical
miles.
Bearings from or to any point, wind problems, and, in general, all
chart problems may be accomplished with this type of plotter, by follow-
ing the same procedure as outlined above for each step the one exception
;

is that a bearing should always be measured at the meridian passing

through the place at which it is determined, instead of the mid-course
meridian.

*'
i' JlMllAllllBMlMlilliMI
""1"
"i'
""""' ™__
ii^j^mmgmmiBgmmammmmamm

m /
^'

t
1 // W "/

/ \/ ^ \ \

Fig. 24. — Universal drafting machine. ^

Other types of plotters are the Warner plotter, which is similar to

the Mark II plotter except that it has a spinner for the protractor; and the
WSN course protractor with a large spinner pivoted to a long arm. The
latter is especially convenient for accurate work over long distances and
for use with marine charts. ^

—
Universal Drafting Machine. This machine offers a ready m^ans for
plotting courses and distances on a chart laid out on a board.
It consists of two parallelograms, a protractor, and a square having
graduated ruling edges as shown in Fig. 24. The two parallelograms
joined together constitute an arm which, anchored to the board, gives
the protractor and square an accurate parallel motion about the drawing.
This form of parallel motion permits either zero on the ruling edges to be
instantly placed at any point on the drawing by a single direct movement,
owing to the fact that the arm is similar to the human arm, and the action
is just as free and direct as when the hand is moved to any position.
The Universal drafting machine
probably the most efficient means of is

plotting courses and distances on a chart, especially on Mercator charts.

40 AIH NAVIGATION

Folding Charts. — Cluiits should he folded (irice, back to back, along

the line AB (Fig. 25), then in four or six ''accordion folds" in the other
dii-cction, nloiiji; the (M-tical broken lines indicated in the figure. In

^^_^J(^bo/ck_oiJong fhe [//lof A B

--rwi'"'^^

.^-i^r.'^'^''-'

Fk;. 25. — Folding the map for use in flijiht.

this way the entire chart may be consulted merely by turning over the
accordion folds. If it is desired to make a strip chart covering a certain
route (as the route CD), fold the chart so as to leave the route in the
center of a strip 10 or 12 in. ^^'ide; then fold the strip in the accordion

fold illustrated. It should be so arranged that necessary hiforination,

such as longitude, latitude, and distance^ scales, is rc^adil^' accessible.
 CHAPTER III

COMPASSES
Each methods of navigation requires its own particular set
of the
of instruments which are essential to secure proper results with that
method, but all methods require a proper chart and a reliable compass.
Aircraft compasses may be of the magnetic, the earth-inductor, the sun,
or the gyroscopic types. Most aircraft compasses are of the magnetic
type because it is the simplest, cheapest, and easiest to keep in working
order.
The magnetic compass is an instrument by means of which the
directive force of that great magnet, the earth, upon a freely suspended
needle is used to determine direction upon the surface of the earth.
The Chinese, the Arabs, and the Greeks are all supposed to have used the
magnetic compass as early as the thirteenth century. The modern
mariner's compass is very accurate and quite reliable. Because of
the limitations of weight and space, and the vibrations and accelerations
to which it is subjected in service, the aircraft magnetic compass is
less accurate than the standard magnetic compass found on a modern
ship. But throughout the ages and in spite of numerous improvements,
the fundamental principle has remained the same.
—
The Molecular Theory of Magnetism. A great many substances
have magnetic properties, for example, iron, nickel, cobalt, aluminum,
water, and bismuth. The first three are vastly more magnetic than any
other known substances. For an understanding of the magnetic com-
pass it is necessary to consider briefly the magnetic properties of iron
and steel only.
If a bar magnet is dipped into a pile of iron filings, it will be found
that they adhere more strongly at or near the ends of the magnet, which
are called poles. A magnet suspended horizontally and free to turn about
a vertical axis will always take up a position with one end pointing to
magnetic north. (Hereafter in this chapter, when we speak of north pole,
northern hemisphere, etc., we refer to the north magnetic pole, north mag-
netic hemisphere, etc.) This pole is called the north-seeking or red pole
and the other pole is called the south-seeking or blue pole. The law
always holds good that red poles repel each other and blue poles repel each
other, and that a red and a blue pole attract each other. This is usually
expressed by stating that (1) like poles repel each other, and (2) unlike
poles attract each other.
41
42 Alii NAVIGATION

'V\\v molecular tlicory of nuigiictisni Ls that eveiy substance capable

of bein^ magnetized consists of smaller parts, which are themselves

magnets. These small magnets are termed molecular magnets; they

7
f
^
^ ^A'^
\
Fic. 2(). — An iron bar before Ix' luKnetizcd.

sliould not be confused with the term molecule as used in chemistry.

Before the substance magnetized these minute magnets are arranged
is

indiscriminately in all directions as shown in Fig. 2(). The arrows

represent molecular magnets and the ari'owheads are red poles.

Red Blue

Fig. 27, — An iron bar after being magnetized.

The effect of magnetizing a bar is to arrange all these small magnets

in the same direction. Figure 27 shows the bar after being magnetized.
At one end there are free red poles, which account for the red pole of
the magnet, and at the other end there are free blue poles, which account
for the blue pole of the magnet.

y - —
II,'
I I
' / /
^ '' y^"
--'
-."^

W \ ^\\l,7/.^/- ^^^•"

JT

-•-^zs-jzrs-''^'- y// ,' I ' I •

;

W kV^S^S^--''^
Fig. 28. — Forces in a magnetic field Fig. 29. — Magnetic lines of force.

Magnetic Lines of Force. — The space surrounding a magnet thiough-

out which its influence extends is called its magnetic field. Imagine that
a free red pole is situated at the point A in the field of the bar magnet NS
as shown in Fig. 28. Then the red pole would be subjected to a force of
repulsion AB from the red pole A^ and a force of attraction AC toward
the blue pole S. The resultant AD of these two foices would indicate the
direction of the magnetic field at the ])oint .1 which is the direction in
which the fre(^ pole would begin to move. Thx^ force .4 5 is greater than
AC because the isolated pole is nearer to pole N than to pole S. As soon,
however, as the free })ole has started to mo\e, the distances NA and *S^
 COMPASSES 43

change and the forces due to N and *S would Ukewise change. By

plotting a number of positions of the free pole A, it will be found that they

lieon a curve running from A^ to S. This curve indicates the direction

of the magnetic line of force,which is defined as a line, the direction of
which at each point is the direction of the magnetic field at that point.

Fig. 30. — Action of bar magnet on small magnet.

Magnetic never meet and never cross each other. Their

lines of force
directions may
be indicated by placing a piece of drawing paper over a
bar magnet and sprinkling iron filings over the paper. If the paper is
tapped, the filings will arrange themselves in fairly definite lines as
shown in Fig. 29.
Suppose a small freely suspended magnet ns were placed in the field
of the bar magnet NS. The small magnet would take up the various
positions as indicated in Fig. 30.
Induction in —
Hard and Soft Iron. When a piece of unmagnetized
iron or steel is brought within the influence of a magnet, certain magnetic

Magnef
Soff /ron bar
hf^ ..-B R B
^-'Induced red Do/e i

^-
In duced blue pole
Fig. 31. — Polarity of induced magnetism.

properties are at once imparted to the iron or steel, which itself becomes
magnetic and continues to remain so as long as it is within the field of
the permanent magnet. The magnetism acquired in this way is said
to be induced, and the properties of induction are such that the end or
region which is nearest the pole of the influencing magnet \x\SS. take up a
polarity opposite to that of the influencing pole as shown in Fig. 31.
If the magnet is withdrawn, the induced magnetism is soon dissipated.
If the magnet is again brought near the iron or steel, but with the opposite
44 AIR NAVIGATION

])olo nearer, magnetism will again ])e induced but tliis time the polarity
will he reversed. If a piece of magnetically hard iron or steel, w^hile
tempoi-arily magnetized through induction, is subjected to repeated
blows, twisting, or mechanical work of any sort, the induced magnetism
is thus made permanent. Soft iron is easily magnetized and readily
demagnetized when the magnetizing influence is withdi-awn. Hard
iron is more difficult to magnetize but when the magnetizing influence
is withdrawn it retains magnetism of a more stable nature.
The Inverse Square Law. —The force exerted between two magnetic
poles of unit strength varies inversely as the scjuare of their distance
apart. It will generally be found that both poles of a magnet are acting
and when this is true the total force of the magnet vai-ies nearh' inversely
as the cube of the distance ai)ait. The I'ule applies to the correction of a
magnetic compass by means of permanent magnets. Thus if a correcting
magnet 4 in. from a compass needle deflects the needle through 5°, at a
distance of 2 in., the deflection caused would be nearly 40°.
—
The Magnetic Field of the Earth. The earth acts as a great spherical
magnet having the characteristic properties of a magnet as desci'ibed in
preceding paragi-aphs. Many theories have been advanced to account
for this magnetism of the earth but each in turn has been discarded as
^\dder knowledge indicated it to be untrue. However, the earth's
magnetism has been under observation for more than 300 yeai*s and,
although there is no acceptable theor^^ to account for it, there is available
a great fund of information about it.
The earth's magnetism at any place is measured by determining
the direction and intensity of the field at that place. Many years of
observation have shown that both the direction and intensity change
from time to time. These changes in the intensity of the earth's field
are so small that they need not be considered in navigation. The changes
in direction, however, must be carefully considered as will be explained
later in the discussion of Variation.
The Earth's Magnetic Poles. — The earth's magnetic poles do not
coincide with the geographical poles. One is situated in Baffinland,
i.e., about Lat. 73°N. and Long. 9()°W., and the other in \'ictoria Land,
in
in Lat. 72°S. and Long. 155°J<]. It should be clearly undei-stood that
the north-seeking end of a magnetic compass needle ])oints to this north
magnetic pole and not to the true geographical noith. These magnetic
poles have not the same proi^erties as the poles of a bar magnet for if they
did there would be an enormous increase in the intensity of the earth's
magnetic fi(4d in a])proaching them. It is definitely known that this is
not so.
Direction of the Earth's Magnetic Field.- A small bar magnet
suspended so that it may turn freely about its center of gravity will
COMPASSES 45
 AIR NAVIGATION

take a position with its magnetic axis |)arall('l to the lines of foree of the
earth's nia<;netic field. By refeiring to 1^'ig. 30 and imagining the large
bar magnet to he the earth, it will be s(»en that the lines of force cur\'e
in to the north magnetic pole and the small bar magnet which is paiallel
to these lin(>s of force dips its nojth-seeking end toward the north mag-
netic pole in the northern h(^misj)here and dips its south-seeking end
toward the south magnetic pole in the southei'u hemisj)liere. It will be
e\id(>iit why the small bar magnet, or diy needle^ lies truh^ horizontal at

the magnetic equator as shown by position

pHorizonfa/ force
^
f/i)
/ E. The inclination, or angle of dip, increases

^y
V
G= angle
of dip
with the magnetic latitude until finally at
the magnetic poles the dip needle Is vertical.
/
y
/ Variation. — The magnetic meridian at
any point on the earth's surface is the direc-
tion assumed by a compass magnet when
acted on solely b}' the earth's magnetic field.

M The variation is the angle between the

true meridian and the magnetic meridian.
V. Figui'e 32 shows the variation in diffei-ent
Fk;. ?>',\. — Horizontal aiul parts of the world in 1942.
vcMtical fomponents of tlie
oni-th's mafiiiotio field. The lines on the chart shown in Fig. 32
connect points of equal variation. A line
connecting points of zero variation is an agonic line; a line connecting
points of equal variation is called an isogonic line.
Horizontal Magnetic Force Acting on the Compass. — It has been
previously explained that a bar magnet, if free to turn, would align itself

parallel to the lines of force of the earth's magnetic field, ^^'hen it

is in this position, the total force of the earth's magnetism acts to direct
the bar magnet. This force, like any other directed force, can by th(>
principles of elementary mechanics be i-esolved into its horizontal and
vertical components as shown in Fig. 33. Now since the magnets of a
magnetic compass are free to turn only about a vertical axis, i.e., since
they must remain in a horizontal plane, they are acted upon only by the
liorizontal component, H, of the earth's total magnetic force. This
horizontal force, H, is therefore called the directive force.
—
Magnetism in Aircraft. Practically all the iron in an aircraft will
be niagnc^tized by induction to a greater or less extent. The bulk of the
steel in the ordinary type of plane is forward of the pilot and it is there*
that most of the magnetism will be found. If an airplane were built
on a heading of {magnetic) north, a fore-and-aft bar of hard iron would be
magnetized so that its forward end would be a red pole. If built on a
heading of south. th(» bar would be magn(*tized so that it would have a
blue pol(^ forward. If the \)\i\nv wvvv built on an east-and-west heading,
 COMPASSES 47

the bar would have practically no magnetism, and what little magnetism

was induced would be red on the north and blue on the south side
side
of the bar. Thus, if the position of the plane in building is known,
it is possible to know in a general way where its red and blue poles will be.

The conditions in an airplane cockpit are unfavorable for a magnetic

compass. The compass should therefore be mounted with great care
and checked at frequent intervals.
—
Description of the Magnetic Compass. The purpose of the compass
is to show the heading and to measure bearings. The pilot's compass
usually indicates only the heading; the navigator's compass not only
shows the heading but is also adapted to measure bearings.
The essentials of a modern aircraft compass are :

1. Magnetic needles that align themselves with the earth's magnetic

field.

2. These needles are attached or referred to a card on which are

marked the directions N., E., S., W., from 0° to 360°.
3. The card (in card-type compasses) and needles are supported
•

on a pivot by a sharp point at the center of the card. The card thus
turns on this pivot under the action of the needles.
4. The card,and pivot are contained in a liquid that
needles,
partly floats them, thus reducing the weight and friction on the pivot.
5. The whole of the above assembly is contained in a bowl that

has a glass window permitting the card to be seen. The bowl is con-
nected directly to the airplane and the pivot is connected directh^ to the
bowl.
6. In the window, and secured to the bowl, is a luhher's line or square

mark, which is set accurately in the fore-and-aft line of the plane. The
heading of the aircraft by compass is read by noting the marking on the
card, which is under or behind this lubber's line.
7. A compensating or correcting device.

In addition to the above essentials practically all compasses of

standard make have the following:
8. A float chamber, on types other than the aperiodic. This is an
empty capsule attached to the card, giving the card assembly (card,
needles, and pivot) almost but not quite enough buoyancy to float it.
9. An expansion chamber, the function of which is to prevent

the expansion and contraction of the liquid from either cracking the
bowl or permitting bubbles to form as the temperature changes.
10. A light for reading the course at night.
11. An antivibration mounting to reduce the eft'ect of the airplant^'s
A ibration.
The liquid in the compass has another extremely important function,
which is to ''damp" the oscillations of the magnetic element. If thei-e
48 AIH NAVICATION

wcic iH) li(iiii(l and 11h> niu^nclic clcnicnt for any reason rotated to one
si(l(\ it would oscillate hack and forth a <;r('at many times hefore coming
to rest. The (lami)in^' action of the liciuid l)rin<is the needles to rest
(juickly.
Magnetic Needles. Tlu^ magnetic elements of the compass which
supi)l>' th{^ direct i\'e forc(> are small ncMniles or i-ods, ahout six in numhcM-.
'ilH\\' ar(^ ma(l(^ of alloy st(»el, specially hainU^ned.
—
Marking of the Card. Airplane magnetic compasses of the card
type are usually mounted forward of ihv i)ilot and near th(> le\-el of the

LUBBER LINC

Fu;. 34. — Typifiil ronipass inountofl in i)laiu> Iu'ihUmI iiortli.

eye; for this reason the scale graduations are made on tlie \eitical cir-
cumference of the card as well as on to]:) of it. For this r(»ason, also,
there is usually a back lubber's line 180° from the front one, and the
scale graduations are marked with the 0° aft and the 180° forward so
that the heading of the aircraft can be i-(^ad directly from the back lubl^er's
line.
Directionmeasured from 0° at the north to the right or clockwi.se
is

through 300°. Steering compass cards are usually mark(Hl with the
numbers every 30°. To save space, the final 7a'vo is omittcnl from each
heading so that 30° is marked ''3/' 120° is marked " 12." 270° is marked
''27," and so Intermediate marks are placed every 5° so that an
on.
expcM'ienced pilot should be able to steer a course within 2°. It is desii--
able foi- these scah^ markings to b(^ coatcnl with luminous jiaint so that
Ihey can be cleai'ly seen at night in cas(> of failuic of th(> illuminating
de\ice. Figure 34 shows a typical marked compass mount (h1 in a plane
 COMPASSES 49

headed north. Figure 35 shows the markings of a standard compass

card as seen from behind by the pilot. The best modern compass cards
are marked for each degree and numbered every 10°.
As previously explained magnetic dip depresses the north-seeking
pole of a magnet in the northern hemisphere. For this reason a small
weight is usually attached to the southern side of the card (in north
latitude) to hold it horizontal.
Pivot and Cup. — At the center of the rotating system is a pivot of a

hard material such as agate or iridium. This pivot rests in a socket or

Fig. 35. — Magnetic compass Mark IX. {U. S. Navy, official photograph.)

cup of an even harder material such as sapphire, so that the pivot will not
wear it into irregularity. The pivot and cup are a most important part
of the compass. They must stand routine wear and also withstand
violent shocks.
Liquid. —
The liquid reduces the weight of the rotating system on the
pivot by partly floating it, lessens the friction, diminishes the harmful
effect of shocks and vibration, and, most important of all, damps the
oscillations of the rotating members. Extremes of temperature make it

difficult to select a suitable liquid. Specifications for a modern aircraft

compass provide for a range of temperature from — 50°C. to H-50°C.
Pure alcohol is the -most suitable liquid and will not freeze at the low
temperatures. Unfortunately, it has been very difficult to find a paint or
other coating that is not gradually dissolved by the alcohol. When
this dissolution of the paint takes place, the liquid becomes discolored.
50 AIR NAVIGATION

Vor this reason llic jxirc alcoliol is usually diluted with distilled water.
Puic wliite kerosene that is free from acid is now being frequently used
in i)laee of the alcohol and water mixture.
The Bowl. — The compass bowl is usually cylindrical or spherical in
shape. Some clearance is allow(Ml between tlie inside of the ])owl and
the vd^v of the card so as to reduce to a minimum the errors due to swirling
of the li(iuid. The bowl is directly connected to the airplane. Its
primary j)urpose is to hold the damping
fluid and sui)port the bearing in which the
pivot rests.
The Lubber's Line. —A vertical line
called the lubber's line marked on the
is

inner surface of the bowl and the compass

'% is so mounted that a line joining its pivot
with the lubber's line is parallel to the
fore-and-aft line of the plane. Thus the
lubber's line represents the head of the
airplane and the scale marking on the
compass card directly behind the lubber's
Jine is the compass direction in which
Fig. SGa.— Late Type Camp-
})ell-Bennett aperiodic compass, the aircraft is heading. The compass
Mark IIIA. {Courtesy Henry
generally mounted in front of the pilot
is
Hughes and Sons, Ltd.)
and about on a level with his eye. When
such is the case, a second lubber's line is marked on the after side of the
compass bowl and the card Ls so marked that the course or heading of the
aircraft is read fi'om this second or after lubber's line.
Compensating or Correcting Device.— It has been previously explained
that a considerable magnetic field exists in the cockpit of an airplane
because* of the magnetic metals used in construction. This is further
modified because of the magnetic fields set up b}^ the oi:)eration of the
generatoi- and magneto. These undesirable magnetic fields are com-
pensated by small bar magnets, one set of which is placed in a fore-and-aft
position and the other athwartships in a suitable carrier attached to the
bottom of the compass. There aie s(*veral })atented ty])es of compensat-
ing devices, such as the microadjustvr, for convcMiiently corrcH'ting the
compass.
Types of Compasses. — Typical aircraft compasses are shown in
Figs. 35 to 37. l^'igurc* 3()?> shows a. ty])e of com])ass for observing bc^ar-

ings, which is compact and serviceable and has proved very popular.
Pilot compasses ai'e us(>(l i)i-imarily foi- st(HM-ing; observers' compasses
ai'c e(iuipp(Ml for taking b(\u-ings.
Aperiodic Compass. A typ(^ of magiu^tic compass worthy of special

not(^ is the ajxM'iodic c()mi)ass shown in Fig. 'MSa.

 .

COMPASSES 51

The aperiodic magnetic compass is a compass without a ''period";

that is to say, it returns, after being displaced from its equilibrium
position, by one direct movement to the north-pointing position, instead
of executing a series of oscillations.
The aperiodic compass has no card. The azimuth degree marks
areshown on a rotatable grid ring that carries a set of parallel grid lines
running in the north and south direction. The pilot steers his course
by keeping the grid lines parallel to the long north
and south pointers of the needle system. The grid
ring is previously set for the desired course, turning
it till the degree mark of the course comes against
the forward lubber line and then locking it.

Owing method of reading, the compass

to this
may be placed in any convenient position in front or
on one side of the pilot, and he has only to set his
course by the grid ring and then turn his airplane till
the red NS wire appears parallel to any one of the four
parallel wires. The pilot is thus relieved of any need
to remember the figures of the course he is steering,
and his head is free to occupy any position without
causing any parallax error in the reading.
This compass was specially designed for aircraft
work and to fulfill the following conditions: Fig. 366.— 0.6
aperiodic observer's
1. Minimum weight of moving part (under 3
compass.
grams)
2. The magnetic element shall quickly take up its correct position,

but shall not be liable to oscillation; it shall be aperiodic.

3. The magnetic element shall not set up any current in the liquid

which would cause it to give a false reading.

This has been done by using very small but strong magnets, combined
with eight fine radial damping wires. If the card is deflected, these
wires, as they move through the liquid, do not drag the liquid with them
or set up eddies. In the case of the ordinary compass card, the liquid is
dragged round by skin resistance and a current produced in the liquid,
which is almost entirely absent in this compass.
The eddy resistance is very great and the card does not appreciably
overswing even when using such large deflections as 90°.
Vertical Dial Steering Compasses. —
It is inconvenient to steer a plane
by a horizontal reading compass. To overcome this, readings may be
made from vertical cards as shown in Figs. 34 and 35. A new develop-
ment is the vertical dial magnetic compass with stationary dial, indicating
pointer, and reference index, shown in Fig. 37. The reference index may
be set to any desired heading by turning the knob at the bottom of the
 AIR NAVIGATION

dial. Compassol)servation ovci- a lon^ jx'iiod of time is luiulv simple by

sottinp; theindex to the desired heading and steering the airplane so that
the })ointer remains paralh^l to the reference lines. Eyestrain is greatly
_. „ _. nnlueed, since indixidual course
numbers are neglected after the
I'eference lines ai'e set.
Notes on Care and Mainte-
nance. —
Magnetic compasses are
very delicate instruments and
should always be handled with
special care.
The appearance of bubbles
means a leaking compass. Bub-
bles the size of a quarter dollar
generally have little effect ; if they
become much larger, the effect

e0\m will be bad and the compass

should be refilled through the fill-
ing plug that Ls always provided.
Fig. 37. Vertical-dial compass.
g^j^^ compasses are filled \\ith
alcohol-water mixtures and some with petroleum derivatives. If the
compass to be refilled requires alcohol water and only bubbles have
appeared, add distilled water. If the compass has leaked to such an
extent that a free liquid surface has formed, a mixture of 50 per cent of
alcohol and 50 per cent of water should be added. If the compass is
filledwith a petroleum liquid, any leakage should be made up by adding
water- white kerosene. Do not put kerosene in an alcohol-water compass,
or vice versa, for the result is certain to be bad.
—
Mounting the Compass. Whenever possible, the compass should
be installed on the fore-and-aft center line of the airplane. The lubber's
lines must be accurately lined up with the fore-and-aft center line.
No definite rules can be laid down for the distance of a compass
from magnetic parts to ensure given deviation, as the deviation depends
upon the degree of magnetization which the parts have accidentally
acquired. However, if the airplane designer keeps the following recom-
mendations in mind, he may confidently ex]x^ct that the magnetic condi-
tions surrounding the compass will b(^ good.
The following distance should be allowc^d Ix^Iwchmi tlu^ comjKiss and
parts, if they ai'e magnetic:
a. Structural rods and wires, 15 in.

h. Fire walls, 24 in.

c. Tanks or floor plates above oi- Ix'low \\\v compass, 15 in.

d. Tanks on the centei- iinc^ ahead of or ix^hiud the compass, 24 in.

 COMPASSES 53

e. Tanks not on the center line, 30 in.

/. Cowling or instrument board, 24 in.

g. Movable parts such as the control column, 18 in.

h. Untwisted direct-current wiring, 36 in.

^. Essential removable parts, such as cranks and tool kits, 36 in.

j. Engines, as far as is consistent with good visibility of the compass.

If direct-current wires are twisted one over the other, they have no

effect. Alternating-current wires have no effect.

Doubling the distance from a magnetic part decreases the effect
of that part to approximately one-eighth of its previous value, since the
force between two magnets varies inversely as the cube of their distance
apart, although single magnetic poles obey the inverse-square law.
The compass should be secured to a surface that is sufficiently rigid
not to magnify the airplane's vibration.
—
Compass Errors. The most common reasons why the airplane com-
pass does not indicate true north are

1. Magnetic variation.
2. Magnetic deviation.
3. Acceleration errors.

Magnetic Variation. — It has been previously explained that a mag-

netic compass, if operating perfectly and undisturbed by outside forces,
will point to the magnetic north pole. Since the
magnetic pole does not coincide with the true north
pole, the magnetic meridian thus established does
not coincide with the true meridian. Magnetic vari-
ation is the angle between the true meridian and the
magnetic meridian.
Variation differs from place to place on the sur-
face of the earth for the reason shown in Fig. 38. Let
N represent the geographical north pole which is
called true north let P represent the north magnetic
; Fig. 38.— Differ-
ence in variation from
pole toward which magnetic compasses point, called place to place.
magnetic north; let A, B, C represent three different
points on the earth's surface. Point A is on the same true meridian as
the magnetic pole P. Therefore, the compass in pointing to the mag-
netic pole P also points to true north N
and the variation is zero. Point
-B is on a different meridian and has a variation equal in value to the

angle PEN. Point C has a greater variation equal to the angle PCX.
Variation also changes from time to time because of the slow move-
ment of the earth's magnetic poles relative to the geographical or true
poles, and it is imperative for the navigator to know the variation for the
54 AIR NAVIGATION

Www and i)la('o in cjucstion. In ^cncial, in tlic United States, variation

\\ill not change more than about 1° in a lOO-miie east-west flight and
much less in a north-soutli fhght. The variation is given on charts for
the year in which tlicy were pubhslied and a statement of the annual
change given so that the variation to date may be figured.
is

important to rememl^er that compass markings are on tlie card

It is
and that these maikings indicate direction I\y a hib])er's Hne representing
the head of the aircraft moving past them. Keeping this in mind, it is
o])vious that if a compass card swings to the left or west, the reading at
th(^ lubber's line is increased. If the compass card swings to the right or

east, the reading at the lubber's line is decreased.

Suppose it is desired to steer a course of 20° true. If the compass
is i)ointed to true north, the problem would be solved by simply swinging
the plane's head until the 20° mark coincided with the lubber's line.
Actually, however, the magnetic compass seldom points to true north because
of variation. the compass card is pulled 10° to the left or west by
If
variation, the plane heading 20° true would show a reading of 30° by
the magnetic compass. (For the purposes of this discussion neglect
deviation so that the compass indicates magnetic north.) Thus by
subtracting the variation of 10° west from the magnetic course of 30°,
the true course is found to be 20°.

It is seen likewise that easterly variation should be added to the

magnetic course to obtain the true course; and westerly variation should
be subtracted. There is a great possibility of a serious error l:)y applying
the variation in the wrong direction, and it is therefore imperative that
the pilot should understand this rule.
After this effect of variation u])on the compass card is clcarl>' under-
stood, it will be found helpful to remember the following jingle as a
check upon the direction in which the ^'al•iation is applied:

Variation east, magnetic least. (Meaning smaller nuincMicall^-.)

Variation west, magnetic best. (Meaning greater niunciically.)

For example, if the variation is 5° east and the tiue coui-se is 350°,
the magnetic course will be least, or 345°. If the magnetic course is 40°
and the variation is 10° west, the magnetic course would be best and
the true course would be 40° less 10°, or 30°. Thus, starting \\-ith the
magnetic course, the variation is a])iilied in accordance with the signs,
eAsttTh) and west ( — ). That is, the easterly variations are added to
the macnet ic leadings to obtain true readings, and the westerly variations
ar(^ sumract(Ml fi-om the magnetic I'cnulings to olHain the true readings.

The effect of variation on the compass card is sho\Mi graphically in

l"ig. 39.
 '

COMPASSES 55

—
Magnetic Deviation. It has been explained in discussing variation
that the magnetic compass seldom points to true north but that when it is
undisturbed by outside influences it points to magnetic north. In prac-
tice the compass is seldom undisturbed but is usually affected by local
magnetism within the plane. The angle by which the compass needle
is deflected from the magnetic meridian by this local magnetism is known

as the deviation. The deviation varies with each direction in which the
airplane is headed, but it can be corrected so the compass will read within
2° or 3° of the proper magnetic headings. This local magnetism is due
to magnetic induction in hard and soft iron in the plane, and to the
magnetic fields set up by the currents in electric wiring.

Magnef-/c North Magnetic /^orHi

True North
True f^orfh
0°per compass Compass reads 10

Compac3 reac/s -
350'

VarlO^E

VarlO'W

Variaf/on East and to be yan at/on West and to be

added to magnetic subtracted from magnetic
course to get true, course to get true
t/lagnetic course = 550" t^agnetic course = 10?
l/ar £. + 10." Var W - JO."
True courje North True course Nortti

Fig. 39. — Effect of variation on compass card.

Magnetic induction in hard iron is usually acquired in the building

of the plane. It is nearly permanent in character but changes slightly
from time to time owing to shocks, vibration, changes of temperature,
and various other causes. The effect of magnetic induction in hard iron
may be understood from the following simple explanation: Suppose one
of the longerons (fore-and-aft members of the fuselage) forward of the
compass has become magnetized with a north pole near the nose and a
south pole near the compass. This might be the case in a plane built with
its head north.

By referring to Fig. 40 it will be seen that when the airplane is headed

north, this south pole in the longeron will attract the north pole of the
compass needle and hold the compass on north more strongly than usual.
When the airplane is headed east, the compass magnets should lie 'directly-
athwartships, but the south pole in the longeron will pull the iKw-th end
of the magnets to the east and cause an easterly de\dation, so called
because the compass needles have been pulled to the east. When the
airplane is headed south, the south pole in the longeron ^^ill tend to repel
56 \l l{ A'.l VldATlOM

the south j)ol(' of the (•oini)ass needles, wliicli pole is now loward the nose
of the airplane and will weaken the effect of the earth's magnetism and
cause sluggishness of the compass, but will not directly cause an}^ devia-
tion. When the airplane is lu^aded west, the compass needles should
again lie atlnvartships but the south pole in the longeron will pull llic

MAGNETIZED ROD

Fig. 40. — Effort of magnotic induction in hard iron.

north pole of the compass needles to the west tliis tiuK^ and cause a
westerly deviation, so called b(^cause tlu^ n(MHll(\^ \\[\\v \)vv\\ pullcMl to th(>

west of north.
If the longeron had become magn(^tiz(Ml with tlu^ south \m\v foi-waid.
the effect would be just the opposit(\
Although (M-rors due to tlu^ temi)()rary indu('(Ml magnetism in soft
iron 'dYv at times tr()\d)lesome, there is usually' so little soft iron in the
modern i)lane that they are small in amount and difficult to correct
because of their variableness. TluMc^fore, it is customarv to make no
 COMPASSES 57

compensation for the error caused by this type of magnetism in aircraft

magnetic compasses.
The controUing factor in deviation is the magnetic induction in hard
iron or^'subpermanent magnetism/' which is nearly permanent in
character. By referring again to Fig. 40 it will be seen that as the plane
is swung to the right, the deviation caused by this magnetized longeron

starts at zero on a heading of north, increases to a maximum on east,

and falls to zero on south. The deviation rises to a maximum in the

Magnef/'c
heading

Wesf
c/e viafion de v/'a//on

360
Fig. 41. — Curve of deviation due to magnetic induction in hard iron.

opposite direction on west and again falls to zero on north. Therefore,

this is called semicircular deviation. A curve for this type of deviation
alone, before the compass has been corrected, is shown in Fig. 41. This
curve is head pointing to magnetic north, and
for a plane built with its
only fore-and-aft magnets would be required. Usually, deviation is
found on north-south headings.
To compensate for this type of deviation (the only kind considered
in compensating an airplane compass), small bar magnets are placed in
receptacles under the compass bowl, both in the fore-and-aft line and
athwartships. The correction is effected by placing these magnets so
that they give an effect equal and opposite to that of the iron and steel
in the plane. These small magnets close to the needles compensate
large disturbances' farther away.
In applying the error due to deviation it is important to remember,
as with variation, that the compass markings are on the card, and that
these markings indicate direction by a lubber's line representing the head
58 AIR NAVIGATION

of \}\v airciaft moving past thoin. If the comp'ass card is pulled 10° to the
left oi- west by deviation, a plane heading 20° magnetic would show a
compass reading of 30°.
Hence, it is s(H*n that easterly de\'iati()n slioiild he ad(h'(l to the com-

pass course to obtain the magnetic; course, and westerly dexiation should
be sul)tracted.
After this effect of deviation upon the compass caixl is clearly under-
stood it will ])e hel])ful to remember the jingle that was us(k1 with vaiia-
tion, as a check upon the direction in which the deviation is applied.

Deviation east, compass least. (Meaning smaller numerically.)

Deviation west, compass best. (Meaning greater numerically.)

For example if the deviation is 5°E. and the magnetic course is 350°,
the compass course will be least or 345°. If the compass course is 40° and
the deviation is 10°W., the compass course would be best and the mag-
netic course would be 40° less 10° or 30°.

ACCELERATION AND TURNING ERRORS

—
Restatement of General Principles. As pre^'iously described, a
freel}" susi)ended magnetic needle aligns itself with the earth's lines of

force, which dip below the hoiizontal from 0° at the magnetic equator
to 90° at the magnetic pole. Only the horizontal component of the earth's
total magnetic force at any place is utilized to indicate direction, the ver-

tical component being overcome by the pendulous effect of gravity on the

compass magnetic element, so that the latter normally remains approxi-
mately hoi'izontal. For simplicity, we shall consider a compass with a
single needle mounted with the center of gravity below the pivot, as showTi
in Fig. 42.
Action of Compass When Not Horizontal. — If the compass needle
is placed in a vertical plane, the horizontal directional force would be
overcome and only the vertical component of the total force would affect
the compass, which in this vertical i)osition would become a dip needle
instead of a compass. If the compass needle should be placed in a plane,

say, at 45° to the horizontal, both the horizontal and the vertical compo-
nent of the earth's magnetic force would affect the compass, so that it
would give neither the correct direction nor the correct dij). but a com-
bination of the two. For any angle of tilt of the plane of tlu^ compass
needle, the general position of the needle may l)e ]iredicted, neglecting
friction, inertia, and other An
understanding of this principle
factors.
will niak(^ cleai- the action of the compass under acceleration and in turns.

—
Turning Errors. Tliis (M-ror was fii'st noted for turns made on north-
south coursers, and is called the norther]}/ fuming error. Actually it is
 COMPASSES 59

only one case of the general problem just mentioned. We shall first
discuss turns in north latitude. If on a northerly course a plane turns

short right and banks normally, the acceleration is to the east and the
compass will also be banked with the plane, so that the plane of the
needle is tilted, say 60°, with the horizontal. In this position of tilt
the compass needle will be acted on by the vertical as well as the hori-
zontal component of the earth's total magnetic force, while at the same
time the needle is mechanically restricted to effective motion in the tilted

Fig. 42. — Compass needle and pivot showing location of center of gravity.

plane of the needle. The needle therefore takes a resultant position

with the north end of the needle to the right or east of the correct compass
course, and at an angle below the horizontal
less than the total angle of
dip. The indicated course be to the left of the magnetic
will therefore
course, and the indicated turn too slow. In extreme cases the indicated
turn might be to the left. The correct direction will obviously not be
indicated under these conditions, and the plane must be leveled off and
the compass permitted to settle down before it will do so.
Acceleration Errors. —In turning right from north it is the accelera-
tion to the east that tilts the plane of the needle and causes the easterly
deviation. Acceleration on an easterly course sufficient to give this
same angle of tile "would cause the same deviation. In other words,
turning, slowing, or speeding up causes accelerations, which in turn
tilt the compass. It should be remembered that sloAmig is '^decelera-
tion," or acceleration in the opposite direction.
60 A Hi NAVIGATION

III turning left fioin north, or accelerating to the west, by the same
reasoning-, we find that the needle is deflected to the west, giving a
w^esterly deviation. In the case of northerly accelerations, the plane
of the needle is tilted up aft and the needle is more nearly aUgned with
the earth's lines of force so that the directive force of the needle is made
stronger,without causing deviation. For southerly accelerations the
needle becomes mor(^ nearly perpendicular to the earth's lines of force

Turn s/oi^/y oirho course Norfh /aHfuo/e only

On any turns in
ihis quoiolran-f- +he
need/e turns same way
>^-\ as aeroplane
'^^ Turn slowly
Stop short
of desired/
^ ^ ^^ourse.

On any
turn in this^
'Quadrant l-he needle^
^

'moves the opposite

way to aeroplane and
y^^so excrggerates the turn ^Xs.£
Over shoot desired
course
S
Fig. 43. — Compass turning: error diagram.

and loses all or part of the directive force. If the tilt due to southerly
acceleration reaches about 25° in the United States, the compass loses
all directive force and, w^hile in that condition, is inoperative. The same
reasoning will make clear fhe action of the compass on other headings and
latitudes.
We may therefore make a general rule covering the action of the
compass under acceleration, whether this is due to a change of course or
speed.

North latitude: Easterly acceleiation causes easterly deviation.

Westerly accH^lc^ration causes westerly deviation.
South latitude: Easterly accc^leration causes westerly de\iation.
Westerly acceleration causes easterly deviation.

Figure 43 is a diagram designed to show what effect might be expected

when turning from any course.
Other Disturbances in Turning. — Whereas the preceding discussion
i-(^f(M'st() an ideal (•()ni|)ass witliout incM'tia or friction, tlu^ niagnc^tic (dement
has a moment of inertia as w(41 as friction. The tlieoretical deviations
 COMPASSES 61

will therefore not be attained since the deviation in the first part of the
turn would be less (due to inertia) and at the end more than the theoretical
deviation.
In addition to the pendulous effect of the magnetic element, its
south end is weighted (in north latitude), and this unbalanced condition

is also effected by acceleration. Therefore, the complete picture of

the action of a compass in flight cannot be painted, nor exact values
assigned, since these values depend on the angle of tilt, the period of the
compass, the angle of dip, the course, the rate of turn, etc.
In practice, however, turning and acceleration errors cause little
trouble since the compass is used principally to indicate direction on
straight, level flight.
The importance of knowing the exact nature of the compass errors
is so that the navigator will know its limitations, and so that he will
not lose confidence in the compass because of apparently erratic actions
under special conditions.

ANALYSIS OF DEVIATIONS
For the purpose of correcting marine compasses, the deviations
have been analyzed into five coefficients, and a brief description of these
is now given, omitting those parts which are of no interest to the air

navigator.
The deviations, as has already been explained, are due to the presence
of hard and soft iron in the structure of the plane; in general, the hard-
iron effect, or permanent magnetism, predominates, the effect due to
soft iron usually being quite small.
In a plane we generally ignore soft iron, as the effect is small, but it
must always be remembered, and if the effects are serious it will be neces-
sary to call in an expert to correct them as far as can be done.
Coefficient A is the constant deviation due to the lubber line not
being truly .fore and aft, together with another small constant de^'iation
due to horizontal induction in unsymmetrical soft iron. Coefficient A
is + when giving easterly deviation; it is corrected by rotating the com-

pass by a suitable amount. It is independent of latitude.

Coefficient B is the fore-and-aft component of the semicircular devia-
tion caused by the permanent magnetism of the airplane structure
together with an effect due to vertical induction in soft iron; it is corrected
by fore-and-aft permanent magnets, and the correction changes with
the latitude to some extent. Coefficient B is + when the de\aation is
easterly in the eastern semicircle and westerly in the western semicircle.
Coefficient C is the athwartship component of the semicircular de^^a-
tion caused by the permanent magnetism of the ah-plane's structure;
C is corrected by athwartship permanent magnets; it is called -|- when
62 AIR NAVIGATION

tlic (Icxiation is easterly in tlic iioitlicrn sciniciiclc and westerly in the

southern semicircle. C does not \ary with latitude when |)roperly
coii-ected, hut an uncoi'i'ected C does so.

CocJUcicnt D
due to induction in hoiizontal soft ii'on and is not
is

usually taken into account in the adjustment of airplane compasses.

The concH'tion would be made In' fitting; soft-iron correctors to right and
left of the compass in the plane of the magncjts of the magnetic element.

D is called +
when giving easterly deviation in the northeast and south-
west quadrants, and westerly deviation in southeast and northwest
([uadrants. not affected by latitude.
It is
Coefficient E
due to induction in unsymmetrically disturbed soft
is

iron and is corrected in conjunction with coefficient D by. placing the soft-
iron correctors at an angle to the athwartships line instead of athwart-
ships. E is called +
w^hen giving easterly deviation in north and south
quadrants, and westerly in the east and west quadrants, and like /), is not
affected by latitude.
The five coefficients are derived from the de\iations on the north,
northeast, east . . . west, northw^est points as follows, where north,
northeast . . . represent the deviations on those points regarding easterly
deviation as positive and westerly as negative.
Coefficient A = the sum of all 8 divided by 8. Averaging errors on
N. E. S. and W. is enough for practical purposes.

E. - W.
Coefficient B =
2
N. - S.
Coefficient C =

These are all that are in general use on airplanes.

It is frequently of interest to take out the values of D and E just to
see that they are small and that no trouble is present.

N.E. - S.E. + S.W. - N.W.

r. a, .
Coefficient D
T^
=
4
N. - K. + S. - W.
Coefficient E

PRACTICAL ADJUSTMENT OF AIRCRAFT COMPASSES

Testing Ground. A sit(^ should be chosen well away from all magnetic
disturbance such as elective generators, motoi*s, cables, iron, and steel-
work. On the site a lai-ge circle of diameter not less than the length of
the airplane whose compasses will re(|uire adjusting is drawn, and the

eight points —north, northeast, southeast, south, east, southwest, west,

northwest — marked out accurately from the center l)vmeans of a good
l)rismatic compass. In doing this, and at all times when adjusting, the
 COMPASSES 63

operator must take special care that he has previously removed all iron
and steel articles from his person, as these will cause errors in the work.
Penknives, keys, eyeglasses with steel rims or springs, and notebooks
with steel clips are especially to be guarded against; as many such
articles are of steel and nickel plates, it is clear that the greatest suspicion
is necessary with regard to all metal articles.
In marking out the eight points, their directions are to be '^ mag-
netic," not ''true." Opposite points are to be connected by painted
lines or lengths of string for a temporary job, and the four lines will
intersect at the center.
The testing ground is now ready for the aircraft.
First Adjustment. — The
is prepared for the operation by
airplane
having plumb lines hung from its nose and tail and having all tools and
equipment placed in their permanent positions on board; this is important,
as tools are steel.
The machine is now placed on the north-south line, nose to north, and
trued to the line by means of the plumb lines that indicate its fore-and-
aft axis. The machine should be chocked up into flying trim with
controls in flying position, and if possible the engine should be running.
The compass should now read 0° or 360°, but it probably will not
do so it should be made to do so by rotating the athwartships corrector-
;

operating head (using microadjuster) till the compass does read 0° or 360°.

It will be found that a clockwise movement of the corrector head

results in a clockwisemovement of the compass element, and vice versa.
Having made the reading on north correct, or very nearly so, the
machine is turned and trued up to face east. The fore-and-aft operating
head must now be turned to bring the compass reading to 90°.
The compass should now be completely adjusted if the compass
position is a good one in a type of machine that is not difficult to adjust.
The corrector box is now closed, and the compass readings taken on
each of the eight directions in turn, to check the adjustment and, if

this is sufficiently good, to prepare a deviation table.

In the majority of light aircraft the adjustment will be sufficiently
good so that the deviation table will be considered next. Those cases
that require further adjustment will be considered later.
—
Preparing the Deviation Table. From the compass readings on the
eight specified fixed magnetic courses obtained on the testing ground a
deviation table for any number of magnetic courses is readily prepared
by interpolation. If the deviations are tabulated for intervals of 45°,
this is quite close enough in practice. The interpolation is, by simple
proportion, applied to corresponding intervals.
Thus, if 45° magnetic corresponds to 49° compass reading and 90°
magnetic corresponds to 91° compass reading, then the interval of 45°
64 AIR NAVIGATION

from magnetic concspouds lo the. iutcrxal from 49° compass

15° to 90°

i-ca(lin{»; to 91°
compass reading, i.e., an interval of 42°.
Hence our compass reading corresjmnding to, say, 60° magnetic
will be 49°, corresponding to 45° magnetic, plus

1^5 of 42^ I.e. 49° + 14° = 63'

Tluis, 60° magn(^tic C()rresj)()nds to 63° com])ass reading.

Readjusting or Improving the First Adjustment.^ — This is not often
necessary on light aircraft, but is essential in difficidt cases. The air-
up as before, and the readings taken on the eight readings of
j)lane is set
the machine and noted. There are then three corrections to be dealt
with. First make a table of the compass readings for each heading,
and in a third column put the de\'iation. For example, let the readings
be as follows:

Magnetic Compass Deviation

o o o

N. 348 + 12 (E.)
N.E. 45 41 + 4 (E.)
E. 90 93 - 3 (W.)
S.E. 135 142 - 7(W.)
S. 180 186 - 6(W.)
s.w. 225 226 - 1 (W.)
w. 270 262 + 8 (E.)
N.W 315 302 + 13 (E.)

The three coefficients A, B, and C are now computed as follows, pay

ing attention to signs:

A = }i (sum of deviations) = H + 20°) = 214° (

B = mE. - W.) = ^il-r - + 8°)] = M(-ll°) = -51^

(

C = M(N. - S.) = }.f[+12° - (-6°)] = 3i( + 18°) = +9°

The three alterations required are:

1. Rotate the lubber's line through an angle .4 {2'^'2°), in a counter-
clockwise direction.
2. Place the plane on heading east, note compass heading, and
(operate fore-and-aft corrector magnets until the reading has been altered
hvB (-51^°).
3. Place the plane on heading noi'tli, note compass heading, and
operate^ athwai'tship correct oi- magiu^ts until tlu^ Heading has ])een

altered by C (+9°).
 COMPASSES 65

When doing this remember that a clockwise movement of the key

results in a clockwise movement of the compass element.
These operations may be carried out in any order desired, and the
machine swung again to get the new improved deviation table, which will
then be analyzed as above to see whether any further improvement is
likely, remembering that we can alter the differences between the north
and south and the east and west pairs of readings only by altering the
setting of the microadjuster, and that the compass adjuster has to choose
the nearest he can to his ideal. The example given above is, of course,
deliberately chosen with large errors.
Recording and Using Compass Deviations.— A convenient table is
to give the compass readings for the corresponding magnetic headings,
and after the deviation is determined on the eight equidistant headings,
a curve of deviation should be plotted on cross-section paper and a more
complete table made out by picking off from the curve the deviation for,
say, every 10°.
—
Converting Compass Readings. The conversion of compass readings
to magnetic or true readings, and vice versa, is a most important and
frequent duty of the navigator. In addition to the mental operation of
visualizing the card as being drawn to the right by easterly devia-
tion, with compass markings at the lubber's line becoming
the
smaller, the pilot may have recourse to convenient memory ticklers
in the form of the jingle previously mentioned, deviation eastj compass
least, etc.

There are numerous rules for this purpose. One of the favorite
ones with the midshipmen at Annapolis is

^'C-an D-ead ilf-en F-ote T-wice?"

Using the first letters we have C, D, M, V, T, which are the initial letters
for

Compass Course, Deviation, Magnetic Course, Variation, True Course

Now apply the rule that in going from a compass reading to a magnetic
reading, or to a true reading, variation and deviation are applied additive
if east, and subtractive if west. The mental operation
is to remember

the sentence, then to write down the form with an arrow pointing to the
right and marked ''east (-h)." The best part of this arrangement is
the facility with which any conversion problem may be Avorked. A table
is given below with a couple of conversions completed and with, several

to be worked out, if desired, by the reader. The form is shown as written

down by the student.
(')() aiu navigation

b:ast (+) — >

^ D M V T

40** 5° W. 35° lO^'E. 45°

30"^ 10° E. 40° 10° E. 50°
40° 5° W. 5°E.
60° 70° 80°
225° 20° E. 10° W.
320° 5° W. 300°
350° 10° E. 10° E.

Summary of Compass Compensation. — The deviation due to suh-

l)ernianent magnetism is the only i)art of the deviation compensated.
This is corrected l)y the use of small })ermanent magnets. Stow the tool
kit, crank, etc., where they are usually carried and proceed to correct this
deviation as follows:
a. Head the plane on magnetic north.
h. Place athwartship magnets so as to make the compass read 0°.

AMu^never the compass reading is being taken, the fuselage and controls
should be approximately in the position of level flight and the compass
should be tapped with the finger.
c. Head magnetic east.
(J. Place fore-and-aft magnets so as to make the compass read 90°.
e. Head 180° magnetic. If the compass is out more than 2° or 3°,
remove half the remaining deviation by athwartship magnets.
/. Head 270° magnetic. If the compass is out more than 2° or 3°,
r(^move half the remaining deviation with fore-and-aft magnets.
g. Now head 0° magnetic and note the deviation- of the compass.

Head 45°, 90°, and 315° magnetic and note the

135°, 180°, 225°, 270°,
deviation in thesame way and make out a table of the ckniatiou for all
headings on which it was noted.
h. With the table of deviation as made out, plot a curve of magnetic-

course deviations, then pick off from this curve the deviation on each 10°
magnetic heading and comj^lete a compass card or course converter for
handy n^fcM'ence in the })lane.
To check the compass, occasionally compare the compass reading,
wlu^n tlu^ airplane is on a known magnetic heading, with the vahu^ gi\en
on the table.
The small amount of work re(iuired in compensating a compass will
be well repaid by the resulting ability to fly across country without

following railroads.
Finally, after the compass is properly compensated and the deviation
table is mad(^ out, \\v [\vv r(vidy to take compass bearings or to set com]:)ass
 COMPASSES 67

courses, and by applying the deviation and variation we can convert

these compass courses and bearings to true courses and bearings.
Checking Compass Deviation in the Air. Swinging the aircraft —
on the ground is the best method of compensating the compass, but it
will be found in practically all cases that the deviation for various head-
ings determined on the ground differ from those obtained for the same
headings in the air. Swinging for deviation in the air is therefore a
necessity for aircraft, particularly those engaged in long-range flying.
There are two methods available for swinging in the air:
1. By using magnetic azimuths of the sun.

2. By using ranges. NORTH

In the first case a curve of magnetic 1 1 1
1

azimuths of the sun is determined for '

1 1

the time of swinging, and by using a

1 1
1

pelorus or a drift meter the deviation is

1 1
l§

found on different headings.

second case a suitable range (such as a
straight stretch of highway, railroad
track, etc.) is selected and then mag-
In the

its
WEST
ic
1

1
IV 1 1
>c EAST

netic direction is determined, and the

1 1 1

deviation for various headings is ob- 1 1 1

tained by using a drift meter. . In both SOUTH

Fig. 44. -Principle of the earth-induc-
cases the compass azimuth or bearing, tor compass.
obtained by applying the angle found
by drift meter to the compass, is compared to the curve of magnetic
bearing of the range and the deviation obtained.
—
The Earth -inductor Compass. The principle of this compass is
briefly as shown in Fig. 44. By the basic theory of the electric dynamo,
an electromotive force (e.m.f. or voltage) is generated when a conductor
cuts a magnetic line of force. In the diagram, the conductor BB is
cutting the lines of force in the position shown, and an electromotive
force is being generated. CC is, however, at the instant shown, moving
parallel to the lines of force, and is not generating electromotive force.
Since BB is cutting the lines at right angles, the position shown is the one
of maximum electromotive force.
Suppose a commutator, brushes, and a voltmeter are added, and,
further, that the magnetic field is the earth's field; then
a. If the brushes are placed to commutate the various conductors
as they swing over the east- west line, the voltmeter will read zero.
h. If the brushes are placed to commutate the conductors as they swing
over the north-south line, the voltmeter will read a maximum value.
The possibility of using such a circuit as a compass is at once apparent
(see Fig. 45). Actually, commutation on the east-west line is used, as
 AIR NAVIGATION

zvvi) is a definite* \;l1u(' itnd, further, for the extreniel\' iini)()rtaiit reason
that the (hrection of tlie eleetroniotix'e force ehanjijes as the line of

NORTH ^*^,
NORTH
EAST

(a) (b)
Fig 45 (a) — Setting course northeast by the earth-inductor compass— step, first (6) Set-
ting course northeast by the earth-inductor compass — second step.

commutation crosses the east-west line. In the actual compass the

brushes can be rotated easily by the navigator through a controller,
which shows him at what angle they
are set with reference to the fore-and-
aft line of the plane.

/ '^ Fluorescp.ni The Cathode-ray Compass. —

screen Another type of magnetic compass
that has recently been suggested and
is now undergoing development is the

~~EleciTon beam cathode-ray compass. This compass

has not yet been developed far enough
for tests in the air, but when brought
sufficiently near perfection will offer
definite advantages in its freedom
from acceleration effects, although it
will have other sources of error.
An ordinary cathode- ray tube,
"Eleciron gun an electron "gun" at
consisting of
one end of an evacuated tube and
?i fluorescent screen at the other,
may be
used as a magnetic com-
Fk;. 46. ay compass.
pass (see Fig. 46). If the electron

beam is projected vertically upward, the horizontal comi)onent of the

earth's field deflects it toward the east, in accordance with the usual
laws governing the interaction between an electric current and a magnetic
field. This means that the (^lecti'on beam shows on the fluorescent screen
as a bright spot to the east of the center of the screen. If the tube is

rotated about a voitical axis, the spot of light traces a circle on the
 COMPASSES 69

screen, and each position of the spot on the screen corresponds to a

definite angular position of the tube. Hence the provision of a compass

rose on the end of the tube is all that is required to turn a cathode-ray
tube into a compass, remembering, of course, that the spot points east,
not north.
—
Non-magnetic Compasses. All the compasses hitherto mentioned
have made use of the earth's magnetic field in some way or other. There

Fig. 47. — Bumstead sun compass.

another means of obtaining direction relative to the direction of
is still

the earth's axis which defines geographical north and south, and that is
by utilizing the rotation of the earth about that axis. Consequently,
compasses constructed to utilize the rotation of the earth to show direc-
tion will show true or geographical and not magnetic north. Up to
the present there are two types utilizing this principle —the astronomical
type, making use of the position of some celestial object, and the gyro-
scopic type.
—
The Sun Compass. The astronomical type generally uses the sun,
which by virtue of its brilliancy can throw a shadow and so dispense
with sighting and viewing telescopes. There are two known examples,
the Goerz and the Bumstead, the latter being shown in Fig. 47. In order
to understand the theory of this instrument, the reader is advised to
read Chap. XIII and then return to the following description.
The compass consists of a mean-time clock with a 24-hr. dial, the
hour hand being replaced by a diametral bar carrying a pin and trans-
lucent screen at the ends. The pin and screen are set parallel to the
earth's axis by tilting the clock, which is mounted on horizontal trim-
nions, and clamping it by means of the latitude arc. The brackets
carrying the trunnions, etc., are moimted on a horizontal azimuth dial
that can be set to the course desired. In operation the clock is wound,
the pin and screen set to the local apparent time, the latitude arc set
70 AIR NAVIGATION

to \\w latitude and the azimuth dial set to the re(iuii'ed true course; the
airplane is then steered so that the shadow of the i)iH falls on the eenter
of the screen.
The sun compass can ^i\'e concct indications onl>' when:
1. The sun shines.

2. The local apparent time is known. This entails a knowledge of the

longitude.
8. The latitude is known.
Its use is and in i)i-actice it has beeii used
therefore very restricted,
only in and then only to a limited extent.
])olar flights
—
Gyroscopic Compasses. Up to the present there is no gyroscopic
compass that will give satisfactory performance in airplanes, although
gyroscopic compasses give good service at sea. The reason for this
failure is that the disturbance due to acceleration is so much larger in
the air than at sea. The weight of the marine-type g^TOscopic compass
is also prohibitive in the air.
Many people have the mistaken idea that the directional gjTOscope
discussed in Chap. IX is a compass and call it a gyro compass. This is
not the case, as the directional gyro has no azimuth-seeking property
Avhatever and so cannot be a compass, for which this ])ro])erty is essential.

Problems
1. A wishing to fly from Los Angeles, Calif., to San Francisco finds from his
pilot
chart that his magnetic course is 338°. He knows his deviation on this heading
initial

to be 12°W. (a) What compass course should he steer to make good the given
magnetic course? (6) The variation shown on the chart for this locality is 16°E.
What is the corresponding true course? Ans. (a) 350°; (b) 354°.
2. The compass course is 274°, the deviation is 4°W., the variation is 3°W. (a)
What is the true course? (6) What is the magnetic course? Ans. (a) 267°; (6) 270°.
3. The compass course is 74°, deviation 6°E., variation 6°W. (a) What is the
magnetic course? (6) What is the true course? Ans. (a) 80°; (6) 74°.
4. A pilot finds from his chart that the true course to his objective is 356°. The
variation is 7°E., the deviation 4°W. (a) What is his compass course? (6) What is
his magnetic course? .4ns. (a) 353°; (6) 349°.
5. The is 235°, variation 7°E. and deviation 12°W.
true course («) What is the
compass course? (6) What is the magnetic course? Ans. (a) 240°; (6) 228°.
6. The compass course is 40°, deviation 5°W., variation 17°W. (a) What is the
true course? (b) What
the magnetic course? Ans. (a) 18°; (6) 35°.
is

7. The compass course is 90°, true course 85°, magnetic course 100°. (a) What is

the deviation? (h) What is the variation? Ans. (a) 10°E.; (b) 15°W.
8. The compass course is 349°, true course 357°, magnetic course 338°. {n) What
is the deviation? (b) What is the variation? Ans. (a) 11°W.; (b) 19°E.
9. Th(^ compass course is 317°, deviation 11°W., variation 17°E. (a) What is

tli(> magn(>tic course? (/>) What is the true course? Aiis. (a) 306^ (b) 323°.
10. Tlie true course is 291°. deviation 9°E., variation 14°W. -(a) What is the
(6) What is the magnetic course? Ans. 305^
(a) 296°; (b)
 CHAPTER IV

AIR PILOTAGE

Air pilotage, or piloting, is the method of directing aircraft from place

to place by referring to visible landmarks on the earth's surface such
as church spires, lighthouses, beacons, railroads, rivers, mountains,
and lakes. In normal flight over land, the pilot guides his plane much
as a tourist directs his automobile, i.e., by comparing objects observed
from the plane with objects shown on the chart.
Since radio bearings are taken on terrestrial objects, they may be
considered a part of piloting; however, the important subject of radio is
discussed separately in the next chapter.
An aviator flying from St. Paul, Minn., to New Orleans, La., would,
by following the course of the Mississippi River have almost continuous
landmarks to guide him. It would not be necessary to follow the mean-
derings of the river. The pilot woul(l take short cuts so as to make his
path as nearly as possible a straight line and when these short cuts took
him to the west of the river he could pick up the river again by altering
his course to the left; or, if to the east, he could check his position by
altering his course to the right.
Preparation for Air Pilotage. —Air pilotage is extremely restricted
as a method of navigation when compared with the other three methods.
In practice, however, both dead reckoning and air pilotage are used on
all flights, and the use of radio and celestial navigation is becoming
more common.
Before the take off, even for a comparatively short and simple flight,
the proper charts should be studied, the course or courses laid down, the
route subdivided either by distances or by time of flight, and the necessary
data plainly marked on the chart. The route should be divided into
20-min. runs, 50-mile intervals, or other convenient divisions. Use a
soft penciland make heavy black lines that will be legible. The charts
should be carefully folded and laid out in the order of use.
Once in the air, alertness is the most important part of air pilotage.
By continually referring landmarks sighted to the chart, and charted
landmarks to the ground in view, there should be little difficulty in
recording the track of the plane on the chart as the flight progresses.
General Rules for Overland Flying. — Some good general rules for
cross-country flying are:
71
72 AIR NAVIGATION

1. Make caicful i)i('j)aiati()iis in a(l\anc(\

2. Keep a continuous check on th(^ plane's position.
3. Cany a j;()()(l compass, and when in (loul)t steer a stead}' compass
coui'se. Avoid lVe(iuent changes in course when the position is uncertain,
as these changes only add to the uncertainty.
4. Practice chart reading until objects seen on tlie earth may be
readily identified on a good chart.
5. When lost, use every means to get a fix as (juickly as possible.
The more time that is lost in getting a fix, the more difficult it becomes
to do so.
Procedure in Flight. —An experienced navigator instructs his pupils
as follows: La}' off fi'om the point of departure courses 10° to the right
and left of After taking off and reaching
the track as an aid to pilotage.
altitude, set the compass course that has been computed to allow foi-
deviation, variation, and wind drift; hold this course till a definite land-
mark is identified.
Suppose a landmark is identified beneath the plane after flying
10 miles on the computed compass course. The position of the landmark,
as shown on the flight chart, is 1 mile to the right of the course. One
mile in 10 is 6 miles in 60, which gives a drift angle of 6°. This drift
may be corrected by any of several methods, as follows:
1 The plane may be turned 90° to the left till it has covered 1 mile,
after which the course is set 6° to the left of the course originally steered.
2. The drift angle may be doubled and the plane steered 12° to the

left of the original course for the distance traveled, namely, 10 miles.

A course 6° to the left of the original coui'se is then steered till another
landmai'k is identified.
3. A new course may be set to the destination, closely paralleling

the original course, by steering 6° to the left of the original course.

The choice of the procedure to be followed depends on local conditions
and on the pilot's preference. In any case, each leg of the flight should
be on a steady compass course till a definite landmark indicates that a
change in course is rec|uired. The lines drawn 10° to the left and right
of the original course will help the pilot to estimate the amount he is
off c()urs{\

On Getting Lost. — Once the positionbecomes uncertain

of tlu^ plane
IxH'ause of inattention or from other causes, the work of the navigator
increases rai)idly. As all experienced na\'igators know, it is extremely
easy to get lost. Often it is diflicult to fix a position even over well-

charted areas once the air-pilotage and dead-reckoning sequence of

navigat ion is l)r()ken.

Th(» na\igator should, by forcc^ of habit, fre(iu(Mitly note the ])lane's

position and rcM'ord it on tlu^ chart or els(nvh(M(\ gi\"ing in abbi'eviated
 AIR PILOTAGE 73

form the time and place and other items of possible use later. The
importance of such procedure is at once apparent to anyone who has
been enveloped suddenly in a fog or runs into a rain squall without
knowing his exact position.
Finally, it may be remarked that there is no disgrace in being lost
in the air. This happens to the best navigators. The important thing
is to reduce the periods of being lost or uncertain of position to the lowest
limit humanly possible. There is an increased hazard to flying the
moment the position of the plane becomes unknown or uncertain.
—
The Use of Ranges.^ The frequent use of fixed ranges affords a
check on the drift and assures the pilot what true course is being followed.

Taking o^f Sef+o righf Over-running Sfecidy Sfeady

no wind steer leFf steer to right io correcf
oillowedfor toget on range get on rcinge drift used

Fig. 48. — Use of ranges.

If on taking off, the pilot sets a compass course and notes any two objects
ahead in line, it is a simple matter to keep on the course by keeping the
objects in line. The objects need not be especially prominent. Any
two objects which may be seen clearly, and which lie directly on the
course to be made good, will suffice. The objects may be a smokestack,
a green field, a hill, a tree, or a highway. Before the front or nearest
range is passed over, another back or more distant range should be picked
out, thus keeping, as far as possible, a continuous series of ranges.
Theoretically, if the true course set on taking off and ranges are
is

carefully followed, the true course would be followed indefinitely. In

practice, however, it is not always possible to select two definite, clear-cut
objects exactly on the course. Therefore, although ranges are valuable
aids and should be used whenever possible, sole dependence should not
be placed on them. Figure 48 illustrates the use of ranges.
If, while in the air, two objects are seen and known to be on the
true course, or a road or railroad is seen running directly toward the
destination, this range may be used to check the compass error and
the proper course to steer.
The Use of Bearings. —When two or more known objects are in sight,
the navigator n\d,y locate his position definitely by obser^dng and plotting
on the chart the bearing of each. Each bearing gives a position line,
i.e., a line along which the plane's position is known to be. And the
intersection of these lines gives a definite position or fix.
74 AIR NAVI(;ATI()N

Suppose tliat in j)il()tin^- uloii^" the scacoast, the compass hcariiijjjs arc
taken of two li^;hthoust\s A and B that are recognized by their char-
acteristics as jj;iv(^n on the chart. Since it is more, handy to work with
true bearings on the chart, the two comjmss bearings are converted to
magnetic bearings by api)lying tlie c()nii)ass devi-
ation on tlie given heading, and from magnetic to
true by ap])lying the variation. Next, tlirough the
])ositi()n of each hghthouse on the chart draw the

true Hne of bearing as shown in V\g. 49. The true

bearing of lighthouse A is 210° and that of light-
house B is 310° and the lines of position intersect
at point C which is the true position of the plane
at the time the l)earings were observed.
One bearing alone, with the distance to the
observed object, will also give the plane's position.
Although much used in marine navigation, this
Fig. 49. —
Fixing posi case is less used in the air ])ecause an instrument
tion by cross bearings.
for measuring distance is seldom availal:)le in an
airplane. If, whcni a bow
observed the course is held
angle is

until the bow angle run between bearings is

is doubled. The
the distance to the observed object at the time of the second bearing.

^
'^^ ir^
o.^ ,„, F
3bO

^
tAO

%^ f^ ^ ^
'"

60
'4^ ^ZO

-10
/
//
^Vx
)0
\
\
\

A
c ! E

Ki(i. ipl(^ IiivoIvcmI in " di in- thr 1) :iii<il{^

Bow and beam bearings, (>tc., -ayv sjXH'ial cases of doubling Ihc angle
on (he Figure 50 sliows th(^ r(\sults of observing angles 22}-^°
bow.
and 45°; and of 45° and 90° on the objcH't at B. The beam and (luartcM-
bearings ai-e shown at J) and E, the run DE being ecjual to DB.
Frecjuent 1\-. howc^'er, tlu^ distance^ fiom an object may be judged
])\- the vyv with sufhcient accuracy' for i)racti('al j-)uri)()ses. In this
case th(^ na\igator may simplj' make a small circle with a cross in it,
 AIR PILOTAGE 75

©, on the line of bearing, the approximate distance away from the

object, and note alongside this the time of observation.
Another method of fixing position is to take several bearings of the
same object and to note the run between. For example, a plane sights
the lighthouse L on the starboard bow
(Fig. 51). The bearing is taken and
found to be 60° and the exact time is
noted. Fifteen minutes later the bear-
ing is found to be 120°. These bearings
are plotted on the chart as shown. The
ground speed of the plane is 100 miles an
hour due north.
In 15 min. the plane will make good
i%0 X 100 = 25 miles due north or 0°.
From the scale of distance given on the
chart a length of 25 miles is marked on Fig. 51. — Fixing position by two

a strip of paper. This paper is moved bearings of same object and the run
between bearings.
in and out parallel to the course made
good of 0° until the marks on the paper just touch the lines of bearing.
The position AB is too far out, the position CD is too far in, but EF,
which just fits, is the actual track of the plane and F is the position of the
plane at the time the second bearing is taken.
Selection of Landmarks. — It is important that the pilot should not
confine himself to a few types of especially prominent landmarks such as
railroads, highways, rivers, etc., for he may frequently be called to fly
new routes where the most direct line does not go near a railroad or a
prominent highway. Furthermore, changing weather conditions may
obscure some of these landmarks or cause their appearance to vary
enough so that they cannot be positively identified.
When a navigator encounters thick weather, it is a very common
habit to fly low enough to see the railroad or highway or river as the case
may be. This may be very dangerous because of the chance of obstruc-
tions high enough to foul the plane. This practice is especially inadvis-
able in hilly country. In following the coast line this low flying is less
objectionable because sudden obstructions can generally be cleared by a
sharp turn to seaward.
To follow a direct track to the desired destination often requires
the use of minor landmarks. The skillful pilot must be able to locate
on the chart these minor features visible on the ground. He must also
develop his ability to see at night and to estimate distance accurately
under varying atmospheric conditions. The eye can be trained to a
remarkable degree of skill for this purpose, but like most other worth-
76 A I It NAVIGATION

\\\\\\v a('C()ini)lisliiiu'uts it rcuiuircs concentration and much careful and

j)ainslakin<2; i)ra{'ti('c.

Aids to Navigation.— Aids to navigation are needed over the entire

country lor general air traffic. In the same way that the Federal govern-
ment has constructed lighthouses, operated radio stations, and supplied
free information to the mariner,it has undertaken to develop and main-

tain lighted and marked airways, to operate a weather service, to broad-

cast general information, and to furnish free or at cost the charts and
other us(^ful infoi-mation needed by the airman.
—
Navigation Lights. For night flying, navigation lights are the prin-
cipal aid. To make it possible to distinguish any particular light,
definite characteristics are used for each one. It is therefore possible
for a pilot to identify each definiteUght and determine his approximate
position, simply by comparing the characteristics of the observed light
with the light data shown on the chart. The aviator must know, and
keep in mind or tabulated in a convenient place, the lights likely to be
sighted, and the order in which they will be sighted. Unless the navi-
gation lights are studied carefully, they appear to the pilot a confusing,
meaningless jumble.
Marine lights include lighthouses, lightships, and light buoys and are
shown on the air charts. It should always be remembered that marine
lights may be screened on the landward side and, if visible, may be seen
at a much greater distance than stated on the chart, where the \asibility
is given for a height of eye of 15 ft.

To identify a timed light, it is necessary to use a watch, preferably a

stop watch. In addition to the time features of a light, it is necessary
to know also the arc it covers, its color, or colors, and the character of the
light. A description is given below of light characteristics.
A fixed light (F.) is a continuous, steady light.
A flashing light (Fl.) is a light showing a simple flash at regular inter-

vals, the duration of light being always less than that of darkness.
An alternating light (Alt.) is a light that changes its color, as for
example, a white flash followed by a red flash.
A group finishing light (Gp. Fl.) is a light showing at regular intervals
a group of two or more flashes.
An occulting light is a steady light, with, at regular intervals, a sudden
and total eclipse ; the duration of the light being always greater than, or
(Hjual to, the darkness.
A combination lightmight include two or more of the characteristics
described above. For instance, a light marked *'F. Fl.'' means that a
fixed light is variiul at n^gular intervals, by a single flash of relatively
greater brilliancy.
AIR PILOTAGE 77
78 AIR NAVIGATION

'V\\v period of ;i fhishiug or occulting light is the time occupied by an

enlin^. cycle of lights and eclipses; thus for a flashing light it is the time
From beginning of one flash to the beginning of the next.
ilie

The brilliancy of a light is usually designated by stating its candle-

p()\v(M-. Some of the high-powered lights have several million
candlepower.
A danger sector one that has a certain compass sector covering
light is

some danger which sector the light is alwaj^s a different

to navigation, in
color than in the rest of the arc of visibility. Such danger sectors are
usually distinguished by a red light and are shown on charts. Figure 52
illustrates the navigation lights that do not change color.
—
Airways. Federal aids to navigation on established airwa^-s in the
United States are as follows:
1. Rotating beacon lights at approximately 15-mile intervals.

2. Intermediate landing fields so located, relative to airports, that

landing areas are available at intervals of approximately 50 miles.

3. Radio-communications stations for w^eather broadcasts and emei-

gency messages to aircraft.

4. Radio-range beacons for directional guidance.

5. Radio-marker beacons for assistance in locating strategic points,

such as inteiTnediate landing fields.

6. Weather-reporting service, involving the use of teletypewriter

circuits and point-to-point radio. The teletype\vriter circuits are used

not only for transmission of weather reports and forecasts but also for
transmission of reports on progress of aircraft en route along the
airwa3^s.
Course lights showing a directional beam along the airwaj^ are at or
near the revolving beacon, and not only indicate when the pilot is on
course but also flash a distinctive signal identifying the field or beacon.
Fixed or blinker beacon lights are used under certain conditions to
supplement the revolving beacons, and where commercial current is not
available. These lights are usually spaced only a few miles apart.
Private beacon lights off the airwa.ys that have been certified by the
Department of Commerce are also shown.
Characteristics of Lights. —
There are only two colors of sufficient
contrast to be us(hI with white for distinguishing lights red and green, —
although amber lights are used as airport course lights as previously noted.
Of these colors, red is the most distinct. If two lights, one red and the
other white, appear to be of about equal intensity, the brilhancy of the red
light will be greater than that of the white when they are both observed
at gn^at distances. This ])henomenon is especially marked under certain
conditions of the atmosphere and is readily understood, since fog gen-
erally has a tendency to make a white light appear r(Ml.
 AIR PILOTAGE 79

The colorations produced by the atmosphere are well known. It

has been observed that during foggy weather white lights usually become
red, green becomes white, and blue lights disappear or change to so pale
a violet tint as to be mistaken for white.
—
Ranges of Lights. The distance at which a light may be seen depends
upon its intensity and its height. We thus have the luminous range
and the geographical range.
a. Luminous Range. —
If the lights transmitted their rays through a
vacuum, the ranges would be proportional to the square roots of their
intensities; but the atmosphere is more or less opaque and weakens the
luminous rays. The ranges therefore depend upon the state of the atmos-
phere and are actually much less than those which would be deduced
from the law just referred to.

h. Geographic Range. —The distance at which a light may be seen is

limited more definitely by the spheroidal form of the earth than by its
intensity. The geographical range depends upon the height of the light
above the level of the sea, and the height of the observer.
—
Operation of the Airways. At all hours of the day and night aircraft
speed from city to city with loads of passengers, mail, and express.
Darkness no longer holds any terror for the airman. Bad weather is a
less potent enemy than in former years, because pilots are better equipped
to cope with adverse conditions.
The Federal airways system, embracing thousands of miles of lighted
and radio-equipped air routes, furnishes guidance and assistance to
airmen at all times. During daylight hours and in good weather,
the aids to air navigation make it easier for the pilot to perform his
task efficiently at night they offer guidance which
; is even more welcome
and under conditions of poor visibility caused by fog, clouds, rain, or
snow, the airway aids are indispensable. Time after time they have
enabled aircraft to reach airports or intermediate landing fields safely
in circumstances that might have had tragic results if this assistance
had been lacking.
Airports. — As airports throughout the country are established, the}^
are listed and rated after inspection by the Civil Aeronautics Authority.
In addition to landing facilities, the larger airports provide for the
pilot : aids for fog and night flying, housing, service, and repair facilities,
and, most important of weather information.
all,

Air-navigation facilities on civil airways require landing fields approxi-

mately 50 miles apart to provide a suitable landing field under conditions
of stress of weather or in the event of mechanical difficulties.
—
Intermediate Landing Fields. A¥here landing fields and airports
are non-existent and where safety demands the establishment of hmding
facilities, the Federal government establishes and maintains an inter-
80 AfR NAVIGATION

mediate field. The landing field is l)()iindary- and obstruction-lighted

iuidday-marked, and is provided with an airway beacon and wind
indicator.

lenifh /ighf- panels in fop of beacon-

24 inch, revolving
beacon, 6rp. m.
tSwifch cadinet z.ooo.doo.c.p
Two 18 in. course /ighfsmdicafing-
and
direcfions fo adjacent beacons
^ Tower painled in
flashing a characlerishc signal alfemale bands of
denofing beacon number chrome -yello w and
Red course lighfs indicale no y black
landing Field and green coarJe
Jjghfs indicate a landing field

Inferior illuminaled '

wind cone, chrome-

yellow color Required
af CdDfype beacons'
'A 'Type beacon is.operafed by commerdal
^
power (no field)
'B' Type beacon is operated by direcf current
generated at tbe site (no field)
'C Type beacon is similar fa "B"type installed
afan intermediate landing field outlined
by boundary tights andday mariners
'D' Type beacon is similar to "A "type Concrete arrow pomfing
instcflledatan intermediate landing field tonext beacon, painted
outlined by boundary tigtifs and day chrome-yellow
markers

F^oute designations based on

term/natcit/es Black ' y
.

letters on chromeyet
tow background

515 Gat fuel tank af'B'

^^and'C'type beacons
painted chrorne yellow

10x14ft engine generator

shed roofandsides painted
chrome yello \w required af
2ff wide black- B, C &.P type beacons
bandpainted Af'A'type beacons a concrete
af mid-beigbf stab forming the feather end
ofshed of the arrow reptaces the shed
Fu;. 53. — Stanchird installation airways beacon.
Ail-ways are laid out over the safest low-level routes \A-ith bad-
weather landing fields 50 miles ai)art. j^roforably following luibitation,
roads, communications, and power lines, and nda{)tcd for the installation
of li^litiii«;- and radio aids. A liioh ])ei-centaf;c of (omj)lctc(l trij)s on
s('h('(hil(> lime is css(Miti;il for tlu^ success of air trans|)()rtation, and the

coiuhincd use of lights and i-adio direction is essential to meet this

j'('(luir(Mnent. For safety, the radio-marked airway nuist coincide with
 AIR PILOTAGE 81

the lighted airways, the pilots making use of all facilities and traveling
the same routes in bad weather as on clear nights. When lights are not
visible one to another, radio direction takes the pilot over the airway,
enabling him to catch a ghmpse of lights and fields at close range. This
combination of blind-contact flying will greatly increase the flying effi-

ciency and safety.

Airway Lighting. —All airway beacons should have the same light
character with distinctive auxiliary lights for identification purposes.
Green auxiliary lights are placed at landing fields and red auxiliary
airway beacons, where a landing cannot be effected. A typical
lights at
airway beacon is shown in Fig. 53.
An airway obstruction light is a red light indicating an obstruction that
is dangerous to air navigation.
Airport Lighting. — The minimum lighting equipment required on an
airport is:

1. Airport beacon with green auxiliary light.

2. Landing area flood-light system.
3. Boundary lights.
4. Red obstruction lights.
5. Illuminated wind indicator.
6. Green approach on landing runways.
lights
7. Hangar flood lights and roof markings.

L An airport location beacon is a revolving beacon light marking an

airport location, and should have an auxiliary light of distinctive char-
acter green in color.
2. A landing area flood light is a system of flood-light units for illu-

minating the surface of an airport to sufficient intensity to effect safe

landings of aircraft at night.
3. Boundary lights are white or amber lights which, from the air,

outline the entire usable portion of the landing area.

4. An airport obstruction light is a fixed red light indicating the top of

an obstruction which is dangerous to aircraft entering or leaving an

airport.
5. An illuminated wind indicator indicates the true direction of the
surface wind.
^
6. Landing-field approach lights are green lights in the boundary
lighting circuit at the end of runways and principal landing strips to
indicate the favorable points of approach in landing.
Aircraft Navigation Lights. —Aircraft navigation lights are lights
carried aboard aircraft flying at night for the purpose of marking aircraft
to prevent collision. Between 3^^ hr. after sunset and ^4 hr. before
sunrise, airplanes in flight must show the following lights: On the right
82 AIR NAVIGATION

\i,vvv\\ light; and on the h'l't si(h', a red Hght

side, a oacli showiiij^; unbroken
;

Hght between two vertical planes whose dihedral angle is 110° when
measured to the left and right, respectively, from dead ahead. These
li gilts shall be visible at least 2 miles. At the rear and as far aft as
possible, a white light shining rearward, visible in a dihedral angle of
140° bisected by a vertical plane through the line of fliglit and visible
at least 3 miles.
The lequirements for airships are the same as for airplanes, except that
the side lights shall be doubled horizontally in a fore-and-aft position
and the rear light shall be doubled vertically. Lights in a pair shall be
at least 7 ft. apart.
A free balloon, between 3-^ hr. after sunset and 3^^ hr. before sunrise,
shall display one white light not less than 20 ft. below the car, visible
for at least 2 miles. A fixed balloon, or airship, shall carry thiee lights
red, white, and red in a vertical line, one over the other, visible at least
2 miles. The top red light shall not be less than 20 ft. below the car,
and the lights shall not be less than 7 nor more than 10 ft. apart.
Airplane headlights are high-intensity projectors mounted on the
wing tips for use in landing and taxiing at airports.
A
parachute flare is a pyrotechnic light attached to a parachute for
illuminating a large area at night from an altitude for the purpose of
selecting a suitable landing field under conditions of emergency and
making a landing.
Marking Structures and Obstructions for Air Navigation. — The
Air Commerce Act provides that:

The persons owning or operating any bridge, causeway, transportation or

transmission line, or any structure over navigable waters of tlie United States

shall maintain at their own expense such lights and other signals thereon for the
protection of air navigation as tlie Secretary of Commerce sliall ])res('rihe.

ISec. 5 (g).]

Accordingly, the Corps of Engineers, U.S. Army, issues permits for all

structures crossing navigable waters subject to the following conditions:

That if liglits and signals on any work lierohy autliorized by the

the display of
Corps United States Army, is not otherwise provided for i)y law,
of Engineers,
such lights and signals as may be prescribed by the Civil Aeronautics Authority,
shall be installed and maintained at the expense of the owner.

The Civil Aeronautics Authority gives detailed instructions for maik-

ing obstructions in Form 474.
Radio Aids to Airway Navigation. — Radio is of great and increasing
value as an aid to navigation along airways. It is used both for direction
finding and for comnuuiication. These two uses are treated in detail

in the next chaptei'.

 AIR PILOTAGE 83

Weather Service Provided by Bureau of Air Commerce and Weather

—
Bureau. Aeronautical weather information and service for the nation's
airways are supplied by the U.S. Weather Bureau and the Civil Aero-
nautics Authority and disseminated along the Federal airways over
teletypewriter circuits.
Airway weather-reporting stations along the airways report the fol-
lowing information hourly in accordance with scheduled sequences:
Name of station, ceiling, sky conditions, visibility and general condi-
tions, wind direction and velocity, temperature, dew point, and baro-
metric pressure. Other information such as unusual field conditions
and abnormal weather phenomena, if considered sufficiently serious to
affect safety of flight, is included in the report.
At 6-hr. intervals the weather service includes also weather maps
and forecasts. The more comprehensive reports required for these
purposes are transmitted at 2 a.m., 8 a.m., 2 p.m., and 8 p.m. At these
times the information regularly available in sequence reports is given a
wider distribution and additional information from many reporting
stations away from the airway routes is disseminated.
The weather maps, prepared at important Weather Bureau airport
stations on the basis of these comprehensive 6-hr. weather collections,
cover the entire United States.
The forecasts for airways are drawn up by 10 Weather Bureau
forecast centers at Newark, Cleveland, Atlanta, Chicago, Kansas
City, Dallas, Salt Lake City, Portland, Oakland, and Burbank, and
transmitted over the communications network. Meteorologists at
these centers keep a close check on weather conditions within their
districts and issue special forecasts between the 6-hr. periods when
weather conditions develop so rapidly as to make this necessary.
Navigation along Established Airways. —The airways navigation
have simplified navigation along established airways.
facilities
The mission of the air-line operating personnel is to complete with
maximum efficiency the greatest possible percentage of scheduled flights
with due regard to safety, especially where passengers are involved.
The principal airway navigation problems to be solved are those con-
nected with poor visibility, ice, and wind drift. Blind-flying and blind-
landing methods have been developed to meet poor visibility conditions
due principally to fog. Special de-icers have been fitted on the leading
edges of the wings and on propellers to permit flying under ice-forming
conditions. The effects of variable winds and load conditions in flight
are controlled by set-ting schedules that permit ample factors of safety in
speed and range.
Flight schedules are controlled by dispatchers who analyze the
weather reports, load conditions, and other factors before clearing a
84 AIR NAVIGATION

plane for flight. Where weather conditions are had hut fliglit is possil)h'.

the pay load is rechiced in order to permit an increased amount of gas

so that if it is not possihle to land at destination, an alternate clear landing
field may be reached.
The following procedure is followed by the most successful air lines:
Ik^fore taking off, the navigator makes a careful jiiglit analysis, which
is in the nature of a prophecy as to the compass course and air speed

Fig. 54. — Transcontinental and Western Air pilot's navigation kit. {('ourti.su Tmn.'
continental and Western Air.)

necessary to follow schedule. An important item in making tlio flight

analysis the determination of the estimated time of arriral (E.T.A.).

is

In flight the navigator uses all means at his disposal for the safe naviga-
tion of his plane. The best avp^ilable charts of his route are properly
prepared and arranged for convenient use. The charts in common use
aie the U. S. Department of Commerce sectional and regional charts, and
on some special routes, airway strip charts, though the lattei- aie being
iei)laced by the sectional charts. The latest practice is to use two-way
radio with a direction finder (D.F.) with rotatable loop in the plane.
The D.F. may be used for taking a bearing of any transmitting station
 )

AIR PILOTAGE 85

Sched-
Sched- Cruis- Dis-
uled Dis- Approx.
uled ing tance Time
Flight 1 time tance, mid-point
speed, speed, to go, to go
inter- miles position
m.p.h. m.p.h. miles
val

h m h m
Newark-Camden
8:00 a.m. E-8 :40 a.m. E *
40 72 108 127 Princeton 36 17
5 min. stop

Camden-Pittsburgh South leg

8:45a.m.E-10:33a.m.E 148 259 143 152 Harrisburg 159 1 03
10 min. stop beam

Pittsburgh-Columbus
10:43 a.m. fi-
H W. Ivim-
bolton
ll: 56 A.M. E 1 13 159 130 142 69 29
Cambridge
10 min. stop

Columbus-Indianapolis
11:06 A.M. C-
12:26 p.m. C 1 20 182 136 148 Lewisburg 93 38
10 min. stop

Indianapolis-St. Louis
North leg
12:36 p.m. C- Effingham
2:13 P.M. C 137 230 142 152
beam
102 40
10 min. stop

St. Louis-Kansas City

Columbia
2:23 P.M. C -4:00 P.M. C 137 229 141 151 121 48
/3 Field
20 min. stop

Kansas City-
Albuquerque Wichita ) 581 3 37
4:20 p.m. C -9: 10 p.m. C 4 50 759 156 160 Amarillo 285 1 46
15 min. stop

Albuquerque-
Winslow / 446 2 51
Los Angeles
Kingman 258 1 39
7:25 p.m. P-1 1:50 P.M. P 4 25 673 152 155

* E = Eastern Standard time.

C = Central Standard time.
P = Pacific Standard time.
Fig. 55. — Transcontinental and Western Air navigation schedule sheet.
8() AIR NAVIGATION

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X ^^ OOlOl SL c
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PQ h— O —I
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00 C3 <}<!. o o o
oo'occ
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CQ X ^i:
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Q r\' r-1 C^l "M C^ ' f
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-H ,CO 'O 00 |C5

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o to
r- 00
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O o o 01
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o o 8 '8 g'gls'gl 'gls
W) 00 ooIqo CO (N <N 'iC |0CD t^ CO o ,ec

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I

'oQ ^
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i c -

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03

Oh "o
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;>< n OQ 3J Jj X U,
 AIR PILOTAGE 87

Form 0-331 Flight Plan

1. Flight #6 Date 5-15-35 Time 2:15 AMC Station KC
2. Cleared to: Columbus Airway KC-SN-ID-CO
3. Total Distance 641 Schedule Elapsed Time 3 hr. 30 min.

4. Assumed True Airspeed: 190

I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI

Neces-
M.p.h. Cruis-
sary
Alti- Temp. Drift gain ing
Leg From To M.C. Wind true
tude °F. corr. or ground
air-
loss speed
speed

5. 1 KC SN 90° 10,000 40° N.W.30 -6° +23 196 173

6. 2 SN ID 71° 10,000 35° WNW23 -5° + 17 196 179

7. 3 ID CO 85° 10,000 35° ENE16 -1° -15 19G 211

8. 4
!

9. Average 37° +8 188

10. Estimated Per Cent Power 69
11. Per Cent Power to be Used 71 Corresponding TAS 190
12 Loss (minus) or Gain (plus) +8
13 Average Cruising Ground Speed 198
14. Estimated Fuel Consumption 101 GPH.
15. Total Fuel on Board 480 Gal.
16. Estimated Fuel Range 4^43"'
-27""
17. Estimated Climbing Time
18. Estimated Cruising Time 3 .01*°
3^.28"°
19. Estimated Elapsed Time
20. Estimated Remaining Fuel Range ^ -15

21. Alternate Airports Akron

Procedure for:
22. Two-way Radio Failure
23. Directional-radio Failure
24. Total Radio Failure
25. Remarks Anticipating good weather conditions

27. Person Consulted Dispatcher

26. I have this date familiarized myself with all recent changes on the airway bulle-
tin board.

(signed) John Doe Pilot

Fig. 57. — Flight plan— a prophecy
88 AIH NAVIGATION

within i-iiii^e, or it may he used jis a "homing!;" looj). Proxisioiis for

taking drift ohscrwitions are at presemt iuadcciuatc^ and sorely needed on
air lines.

For praetieal celestial navigation on estahlisluMl airways, more atten-

tion must he i)aid to suitably placed skylights or windows for taking
observations. I^ro vision for this can best be done by the original
designer. The latest large air-line planes are designed for accomplishing
celestial navigation.
 AIR PILOTAGE 89

The accompanying forms and explanation of airways navigation are

condensed from the navigation data suppHed by TWA
to each of their
pilots. Other air lines use a similar although perhaps a less compre-
hensive system. Figure 54 shows the TWA navigation kit including
the necessary data, equipment, and charts for the flight to be covered.
The navigation data and forms have been worked out by Peter H.
Redpath, navigation engineer, and his force of experts.
Figure 55 shows the navigation schedule sheet for Flight 1. There
are separate sheets for each of 14 or more flights. The schedule times
are for elapsed time, block to block. The column ''Distance to go" is
measured from the approximate mid-point position in the adjoining
column.
Figure 56 is the mileage chart for Columbus to Newark. Similar
mileage charts are available for all flights. The flight plan (Fig. 57) is
filled out by the pilot before taking off. It will be noted that the form
is so prepared as to reduce to a minimum the labor of completing it.

Detailed instructions for completing the forms, with sample problems,

are furnished each pilot. Abbreviations are used where possible.
The actual conditions encounteredon the flight are carefully recorded
on the pilot's navigational log sheet (Fig. 58).
Both the flight plan and the pilot's navigational log sheet are analyzed
and filed in the office of the navigation engineer at Kansas City. Experi-
enced pilots submit flight plans that compare very closely with the log
sheet.
 CHAPTER V
RADIO

Tlie i)ui-j)oso of this cluiptci- is to give a brief description of the

fundaineiital principles of radio and to describe the apparatus (Mnployed
in radio aids to navigation. Special attention is devoted to the correct
employment of bearings obtained by i-adio.
Rapid Changes in Radio Aids. Advance — in radio ecjuipment is so
rapid that it is impossible to keep the details of the various types of
installation up to date in a book such as this, which is not revised annually.
Foi" this reason no attempt is made to include here technical details that
change from For further information on aircraft radio,
\^ear to year.
see ''Radio NavigationalAids" {H.O. 205) and ''Radio Weather Aids to
Navigation" (H.O. 206), recent textbooks on the su])ject, and also data
supplied l)y the leading manufacturers.
Field of Use. —
Radio aids are of great and increasing value to the
navigator. These aids are:
1. Radio-range beacons.
2. Two-way radiotelephone.
3. Aircraft direction finders, compasses, and homing devices.
4. Airway broadcasts of meteorological information and notices to
airmen.
5. Instrument approach and blind-landing aids, including airway
markers and airi)()i't-ai:)])i-oach markers.
All the preceding aids contril)ute largely to safety in flight, the principal
problem in aviation.
Limitations of the use of i-adio are:

1. The weight and cost of the radio installation.

2. The necessity for weai'ing earphones except when a ^•isuaI indicatoi-
is used.
3. The necessity for training the operator \\\\v\\ \\\v ra(li()t(^l(^gi:iph

is used.
4. If fixed stations determine the plane's j)()siti()n. tlie safety of tln^

|)lan(^ is placed in the hands of operators on the ground.

5. Radio bearings are great on the earth instead of rhuml>-line
circles
bearings {i.e.. and therefore need a special
c()m])ass-c()urse beai-ings),
plotting chart such as charts of the Department of Commerce on tlu^
Lambert projection to plot the bearings; alternati\ely, the bearings must
first be converted to rhumb-line bearings.
90
 RADIO 91

Fundamental Principles. — The basic principle of radio, as applied

to air navigation, is that Hertzian waves sent from a transmitting station
may be detected at a distant receiving station.
A second principle is that the direction from which radio waves are
received may be determined to within 1° to 3° by means of the directional
characteristics of the loop aerial. This same directional characteristic
of a loop (though not yet fully developed) is also applicable, to a limited
extent, to transmission as well as to reception, thus making it possible to
direct the radio waves in a path. The field patterns of loops, discussed
later, are essentially the same whether used for reception or transmission.

Rapid change

Max/mum Y Plane of

Z
Zero
Fig. 59. — Polar curve of the ignal strength of an ideal loop aerial unaffected by outside
influences.

Radio signals may

be sent and received in the form of Morse (or other
code) dot-and-dash signals, this method being known as radiotelegrayhy
By certain additions to the radiotelegraph equipment, the human voice
may be transmitted and received. The method of transmitting speech
is called radiotelephony and has many advantages over telegraphy; for

example, trained operators are not necessary, and the speed of communi-
cation is higher. Radiotelephone equipment has the disadvantage of
being heavier and more complicated in construction, but the operator is
more interested in the fact that it is simpler to operate and requires no
knowledge of code signals.
—
Theory. A radio compass is merely a useful application of the well-
known directional characteristics of a loop antenna. When the edge of
the loop is pointed toward the transmitting station, the reception is of
maximum strength; when the transmitting station is in a direction per-
pendicular to the plane of the loop, little or no signal will be heard.
Therefore, if a dial is mounted on the loop, the direction from which an
incoming signal is received may be determined by swinging the loop back
and forth until the point of minimum reception strength is found. The
point of minimum signal strength is used because that point is much
sharper and easier to detect than the point of maximum recepti^•e
strength.
92 AIH NAVIGATION

The adxiiuta^c of iisiii^ llici niinimuiu instead of the iiiaxiimiin j)oiiit

is shown b}^ the vector curve of signal strength of a loop antenna (Fig. 59).
This curve represents the relative strength of signals received from all
points of the compass. The relative strength of the incoming signal
received from an,y direction is measured l)y drawing a line from the center
O of the antenna in the direction from which the signal is coming.
DIRECTIONAL RADIO SYSTEMS
Radio-range or Equisignal Beacons. The c(iuisignal beacon is —
intended for use on legular air routes, the majority of which are so
e(iui])pcd.

V Equal
^ -frengi-h

^^ Excess power A over N

A appears io predominaie

Fk;. go. — Equisipiiial beacon signal system (radio range).

Radio-range beacons (radio directional beacons) transmit along the

airways radio signals, w^hich inform the pilot whether he is on the ])roper
course or, if he is off the course, to which side he has deviated.
This system utilizes the directional pro])erties of two loops inclined
to each other at a lai-ge angle. In the aural form, the loops are energized
alternately with interlocking Morse symbols. For instance, loop A
(Fig. GO) be transmitting the letter A (
may —
), while loop .V is sending

the letter N ( ); —
the timing is

to form a single prolonged dash.

so arranged that the two letters interlock
Figure 60 show^s the j^olar diagram
of radiation of the two loops. In the directions OTF, OA', OY and 07j ,

the two signals are exactly equal and interlock. The directions Ow and
Oy receive signals from the A^ loop only, while directions Ox and Oz receive
only the signal A. In all other directions both transmissions are heard,
but, owing one appears to predominate.
to tlic difi'crence in strength,
An air|)lan(^ ai)i)roachingfrom the direction OF receives a prolonged
signal rising in dots and dashes to form the letter A; this is an indication
tliat it is to the left of the defined track. The tracks defined l^y tlu^

Ix^icons n(MMl not be at right angles, but may be arranged to suit the
 RADIO 93

convenience of air routes as shown in Fig. 61. This is done by increasing

the power in one loop.
Radio-range Orientation. — Following a radio range, once the plane
has steadied on the proper course, is quite simple. When, however, the
plane's position nearing a station becomes uncertain, one of several

^— JO
//^ X\ /
Unused / ^ibroifinj
signal ^, reec/ mo/Zcator

Fig. 61. — Directional control of equisignal beams.

must be followed in order to approach the beacon on course.

definite plans
Some of these methods are:
1. 90° approach system, where the plane flies at right angles to the

"average bisector" of either of two diagonal quadrants until a change of

signals identifies his quadrant.
2. Fade-out system where the plane flies parallel to the average
bisector.
3. where the plane at first flies parallel to the average
Parallel system
then parallel to a range course as shown in Fig. 62.
bisector,
The parallel system of orientation is used by many air-line pilots.
The average bisecting course is flown, and the pilot identifies the quadrant
by the fade-out or build-up of the signal level (Fig. 62). If the pilot finds
himself in the northern quadrant and wishes to approach the station on
the northwest leg, he will fly parallel to the northeast leg in a southwest-
erly direction. Upon intersecting the northwest leg he will turn to the
compass heading of that leg and will stay "on course" by sound. He will
then let down to the minimum approaching the
safe altitude for that leg
station on the final approach. (See latest Civil Aeronautics Authority
and other methods of orientation.)
instructions for details of this
All aircraft, while progressing away from radio-range stations, are
required to keep to the right-hand side and definitely off the "on course"
signal at all times. -

A pilot should practice flying the radio ranges as much as possible

whenever even when it is "clear and unlimited,"
flying cross country,
so as to become familiar with each particular range and the accompanying
 94 AIR NAVIGATION

l)i()l)l(Mns, nnd slioiild practice^ inttMscct inji; tlio ''cone of silence" at every
|)()ssil)lc ()i)|)()it unity, until he becomes pioficient. He should have a
('()nii)let(» undeistandin^- of the inhei-ent limitations of radio ranp;es hefoi-e
att(Mni)tin^ to fly tluMu durinjj; inclement weather. Ran^e coui*ses, wliicli
th(M)i-etically should be })ei'fectly sti-aip;ht, may be found to have kinks or
bends in them. This is most likely to occur where they pass close to or
()\'ci' iiilly oi- mountainous terrain, large bodies of water, or over mineral
d('])osits. // should he rcmcmhcrcd that radio- ran f/c stations arc to he used

Fig. 62. — Parallel system of radio-range orientation.

strictly as an aid to dead reckoning. The pilot should not rely on the range
alone, ignoring the compass and other instruments, because there always is

the possibility that the range may be turned off because of mechanical diffi-

culties, or may be unintelligible due to static or other conditions such as

receiving ('(/uipment being in poor condition.
Radio Marker Beacons (Class M). —A marker beacon (,1/) is a low-
])owei-ed, omnidirective radio station that transmits a characteristic
signal,such as //(••• •) alxMit every 10 sec. It Ls also eijuipped for voice
communication with aircraft. Marker beacons have a range of from
to 10 miles. de))ending on the weather conditions and the type and con-
'.]

dition of i(H'ci\ing e(|uipment being used. Marker beacons arc noiinally

placed at \\\v two radio ranges, indicatin<i when to tunc
intersection of
to tlu^ next station. A marker beacon does not operate continuously,
but is turned on wIhmi tlu^ h)cal ceiling is less than "unlimited" and the
visibility is less tlian two mih^s, or at any time on ?-c(|Ucst.
 RADIO 95

Designations Used to Denote Class of U.S. Aeronautic Radio Stations

B Broadcast station. W Without voice facilities.

RA Range, Adcock (vertical radiators). T Teletype.

RL Range (loop antenna). TX Principal teletype.
M Marker (nondirective). P Point-to-point radio.
ML Low-powered range (loop antenna). D Distantly controlled.
MRL Medium-powered range (loop an- Z Zone high-frequency Cstation lofu-
tenna). tion) marker.
MRA Medium-powered range (vertical S Simultaneous transmission of
radiators). range signals and voice.
V Voice communication with aircraft.

The advantages of the radio-range-beacon system are:

1. Only an ordinary receiver need be carried.
2. No particular skill is required to receive and interpret the signals.
3. A specific track is defined, thus enabling the pilot to correct for
drift.
4. Operation is continuous.
5. It reduces danger of collision when used in accordance with regula-
which prescribe that all inbound
tions, aircraft fly ''on course" and all

outbound traffic keep to right of course in the "twilight zone."

6. In addition to affording a means of correcting for drift, the fixed
courses afforded by the range beacon direct traffic along prescribed lanes
laid out over the most favorable routes equipped with visual and radio
markers that warn of unusual hazards.
7. Ranges provide not only a definite fix marked by their cone of

silence but in a network of such stations many cross checks are afforded
where courses from two stations intersect at any appreciable angle.
8. Radio-range signals, especially those of the now standard ''simul-

taneous" type of facility, may be received on an aircraft direction finder

at the same time it is giving course signals for the benefit of those not
equipped with loop receivers.
9. The range is adaptable to the use of sharply tuned audio filters in

the output of the conventional aircraft receiver, since all such trans-
mitters are modulated at or near 1,000 c.p.s. Filters reduce atmospheric
electrical interference to a remarkable degree and increase the distance
over which course signals may be used, not to mention reduction of
ear fatigue usually resulting from prolonged listening to static crashes.
10. It is a one-way service independent of any transmissions from
the aircraft, which needs only a simple receiver. For this reason relia-
bility is increased manyfold.
11. It is capable of giving service to an unlimited number of aircraft
simultaneously without creating additional radio intoi-ference. It is also

c^uicker.
96 AIR NAVIGATION

'V\\v (lis;i(l\:inla^('s of the system arc:

1. ^^()In('\\ lull ('liihorjitc ('(luii)in('nt is rcciuircd on the ground.
2. It is iis(>ful only to {lirci-al't iij)|)roii('liin^ I'loni certain directions,
except where aircriift are fittcul with radio coni])ass or helming de\ice.
3. It jams other radio reception, because it is a modulated not(> willi

frecjuency s})read, though the inter-

fei-ence is not so great as with voice
transmission.
4. It is applicable^ only to estab-
Hshed airways, though the courses
may be rotated to serve four or mon;
airways.
5. The limitations considered in
this country to l)e the most impor-

tant, at least by transport pilots, are:

a. Multiple courses (due to

broken terrain).
b. Swinging of courses (due to
night effect).

Limitation a has been largely over-

come by the substitution of vertical
radiators for loop antennas.
It appears probable that the radio-
range system will ultimately be
replaced by an ultrahigh-frequency
(u.h.f.) operation.
Fig. 63. — Shielded loop serial. (Cour- Rotatable Loop Receiver. —
tesy of Western Electric Companij.)
loop aerial consists of a coil of wire
arranged so that the area of the cross section is as large as possible. A
standard type of loop for air use is illustrated in Fig. 63. The tube
serves three purposes:

1. As a rigid supi)()rt for th(^ looj) in the air stream.

2. As a means of j^rotection against the (elements.
3. As an electrostatic shield.

Wh(M\ a loo]^ is coupled to a suitable receiver, beaiings of distant radio

stations may ])v obtained by rotating the looj) until zero or minimum
signal is ixH'cnved. The loo]) merc^ly indicat(^s the bearing or its reciprocal
but does not gi\-e the '^sense" of the bearing. The latter may be deter-
mined by nn ai)proximate knowknlge of tlu^ aircraft's position, or by
noting the direction in which the bearing changes as the aircraft moves.
 RADIO 97

Bearings may be obtained very rapidly with the rotatable loop, and
ithas the advantage of simplicity. In metal aircraft, the loop must be
placed outside the fuselage, thus giving increased drag.
Loop receivers mounted on metal structures such as ships or air
frames are subject to an error called ^'quadrantal error." Currents
induced in the metal structure tend to change the apparent direction of
incoming signals, the error being zero on fore-and-aft and beam bearings,
and a maximum on quadrantal bearings. The aircraft should be swung
for a table of errors in a manner simi- ^^ .^

lar to that employed for swinging com-

passes. A table of errors differs from
a compass-deviation card in that errors
are dependent on the direction of the
loop relative to the aircraft's head, and
not on the actual direction of the loop
relative to north.
Loop receiving outfits may be ar- Pp/ary
ranged for sense finding by the use of off^^^
""~~bat^
an additional aerial, which will be "^-^ ___--'''
Fig. 64.— Resultant diagram from com-
either the trailing
.
^ aerial or the upper
^ ^ bmed open and loop aerial.
fixed aerial of the aircraft, although use
is sometimes made of the antenna effect of the loop itself. When the two
are suitably coupled to the same receiver, the resultant polar diagram is
the cardioid (heart-shaped) curve shown in Fig. 64, which has only one
minimum, thus permitting the determination of sense.
—
Homing Devices. Most homing devices are based on the principle
of a loop fixed athwartships. A rotatable loop set may be used for
this purpose, in which case the procedure is as follows: Lock the loop
athwartships and tune in the station toward which it is desired to steer.
Alter the course until no signal is heard in the phones, taking care to alter
toward the station and not away from it. The aircraft should now be
heading directly toward the transmitting station, and the compass reading
indicates the course to be steered. When a signal is heard, it indicates
that the aircraft has drifted off the correct track. Repeat the procedure
given above. The inevitable result of this method is that the aircraft
Avill approach the station in a spiraland will eventually be flying up wind.
The cure is to use the loop, not as a homing device, but as a means of
obtaining an occasional bearing, the correct use of w^hich is explained

later. In some receivers a potentiometer is fitted, hj means of which the

pilot is enabled to offset the zero to allow for drift. If the loop is
rotatable, it may be turned through the amount of the drift angle. The
disadvantage of this method is that signals are weakest when the aircraft
is heading toward the transmitting station.
98 AIR NAVIGATION

Most of \\\v. mo(l(Mii outfits make use of the cardioid j^ohii- (liii<2;rain

of ;in ()i)eii ;ieri;d working- in conjunction with a loop, as sliown in Fij^. 64.
Tlie open aerial is left connected permanently to the receiver, and the
loop is switched in intermittently, either b}^ hand or automatically. If
the aircraft is headed toward the station, there is no variation in signal
strength; if the station is not straight ahead, the strengtli fluctuates.
The course is altered until rapid operation of the switch produces no effect
on signal strength.
When a broadcasting station or airway station of siniultaneous type
is used for homing, the signal is continuous, and a visual indicator may
be used. This is merely some form of meter indicating signal strength.
In Fig. 64 a loop is fixed athwartships and the aircraft's head is in the
direction OA. In this direction the loop has no effect. If signals are
received from the direction OB, the effect of the loop is in opposition to
that of the aerial, and strength drops; signals from C give an increased
reading.
Only those instruments in which provision is made for correcting for
drift can be considered satisfactory. The others, by which the aircraft
is merely headed toward the station, may be regarded as a convenient

means of obtaining bearings. Homing devices may also be used for

going away from a station on a direct track.
—
Night Effect. Bearings taken at night, or at dusk or dawn, on tlie
Bellini-Tosi system or loop receivers are liable to be seriously in error.
The reason is that part of the signals arrive b}^ reflection from the Hea\'i-
side layer in such a manner as to induce e.m.f.'s in the horizontal jx)rti()ns
of the loops. During the dark hours, the "sky wave" forms a much
greater proportion of the total signal received. In order to obtain a
minimum, the goniometer must be turned away from the correct direc-
tion. The effect is variable and cannot be predicted. Night effect
applies to the radio compass, the direction finder, and the radio beacon;
the error from this cause might be 10° to 20° or even more.
The Adcock and ''vertical-radiator" aerial sj^stems have hvvn (l(^\is(>(l
to overcome night effect.
Pan American Airways Adcock direction finders have a range of
1,800 miles, gi^'ing c()\'erag(^ i)\vv 3,600 miles. The acciu'acy of bearings,
even at miles, is better- than P^ clegrees.
1, ()()() Figure 65 shows the
actual 32 bearings taken on \\w run from Alameda to Hawaii.
])l()t of
Blind -landing Radio Equipment. —
Instrument api)r()ach for making
blind landings is an iurr(>asiugly important phase of air navigation.
There are various methods for accomplishing the a])])r()a('h by radio.
As far l)ack as 1907, Sch(41ar in Germany advanced tlu^ idea of
equisignal l)eacons, from which th(^ glide-path blind-ap])r()ach system
was developed by Diamond and Dunmore at the U. S. Bun^au of Stand-
 RADIO 99

ards. Later, Lorenz in Germany combined the equisignal and glide-path

transmitters.
The Lorenz System. —This system consists of a short-wave beacon
that provides guidance in the horizontal and vertical planes, and two

145° 140** 135° 130° 125° 120°

Fig. 65. — Course chart of a flight made by Pan American Airways early in 1935.
The crossingbetween CaUfornia and Hawaii took shghtly over 17 hours, and was checked
by 32 radiocompass bearings, which gave positions indicated by the dots. {Courtesy of
Electronics.)

Loud dashes

yM///////W///A^^/, Course

Louc/ c/o-f-s

Fig. 66. —Plan view of blind-approach beacon. {Courtesy of Standard Telephones and
Cables, Ltd.)

marker beacons to indicate distance from the landing ground. The

—
system is considered in two parts horizontal guidance and glide-path
indication.
The main beacon, which is situated at the far end of the landing
runway, consists of a small transmitter radiating from a vertical dipole
aerial. On either side of it are similar aerials having switches in their
100 AIR SAVIGATION

centers. When these switches are open, the polar diagram of radiated
field strength is a circle. When the switch of one of the aerials is closed,
and the diagram of field strength assumes an
the aerial acts as a reflector,
oval shape. The switches of the two aerials are opened and closed alter-
nately by means of an automatic timing device. One is closed for short

Inner marke r Oufer marker

signal "wall signal'^wall" 3

Beacon l<^=«
\ Airpor
-'Heighi

^:^ ,'CA 0.19 miles

Landing \;^. CA
po/nf 2 miles J
Fig. 67. — Glide-path beam and marker signals.

or dot, periods, and the other for long, or dash, periods. The field thus
assumes the oval shapes of Fig. 66 alternately. Along the course, field
strength remains the same, whichever aerial is energized.
A pilot approaching from the direction marked ''Loud dashes," and
listening with headphones, hears a series of dashes. Approaching from
the sector marked ''Course" he hears a steadv note, and from the sector

600
500

400
>300
/
10

V
/y
8 7

.
'^
6 5

Direct10 n of flight

^^2 00
y/y/
y^y^ ^-^4 Receiver
100
^
OAiVporf 1000
i^:^^^
2000
Yds. fro
ouipui-

3000
I Beacon
4000
volrage

5000

Fig. 68. Gli(U>-path beam.

marked "Loud dots" a series of dots. He endeavors to keep a steady

note in his phones by means of his rudder.
When the aircraft has found the equisignal track and is fh'ing along
it, indications of distance from the airj^ort boundary are gi\en by two
marker beacons (Fig. 67). One of these is about 2 miles from the airport,
and the other a few hundred yards from the boundary. The aircraft
approaches the first marker at a standard height, which is determined
by means of a sensitive altimeter previously set to the ground pressure
as signaled from the airport. On passing this marker, which is indicated
 RADIO 101

by dashes of low-pitched tone, the ghde indicator is adjusted to the center

of its scale, the throttles are closed, and the aircraft controls adjusted to
maintain the glide indicator on its central reading until the machine
touches down. Just before landing, the inner marker beacon, which gives
a series of dots of high-pitched tone, is heard. This indicates to the pilot
that he is just about to pass over the airport boundary.
Figure 68 shows a vertical section through the landing path. The
curves represent lines of equal field strength, decreasing in intensity
according to their distance from the transmitter. A meter is connected
in the output circuit of the receiver and, as the aircraft approaches in
level flight, its reading will rise steadily. A certain reading of the meter
corresponds to a definite curve of Fig. 68. From this it is seen that the
curves of equal field strength converge toward the surface of the airport.
By holding the reading constant, the aircraft is guided to a definite point
on the airport.

ERRORS IN RADIO DIRECTION FINDING

In using directional radio equipment there are several types of errors
that may be encountered. In addition to the night effect, the following
errors may be encountered when using the systems shown in parentheses.
Mountain or "Multiple" Effect. {Radio Compass, Direction Finder,
—
and Radio Beacon). This is similar to night effect previously described,
but the waves are reflected from surrounding elevated country. The
error ranges from 0° to 5° or even more and is extremely troublesome in
certain localities.
Mountain effect is generally referred to in this country as ''multiple"
and ''bent" courses as distinct from the swinging caused by night effect.
Only the latter phenomenon has been overcome with anything approach-
ing complete success. The remedy appears to be suppression of sky-wave
radiation through use of a vertical transmitting antenna which confines
emission to direct propagation along the earth's surface (ground wave).
Interstation Interference. {Radio Compass). — It may be found some-
times that stations cannot be sufficiently separated by the radio compass
on account of lack of receiver selectivity. This may not be obvious to
the user, as the interference may
not be audible. Sometimes this effect
may be detected by wandering of the bearing.
General Failures. {Radio Compass and Sometimes Direction Finder).
These may arise from a failure of part of the antenna system, or because
the receiver has been maladjusted or improperly aligned.
Heavy Static. {Radio Compass). —A radio compass will deflect on
ordinary heavy static and the static course laid out will be toward tlio

center of the electrical disturbance.

102 AIR NAVIGATION

Miscellaneous errors [Radio Compass) sucli as those due to li('a\>- lain

static, wluMc tli(> (•onii)ass ceases to indicate, are ohxioiis, as a change in
lieadin^ j)roduces no x'isual change in
indicat ion.
Pulsing of the indicator needle on
keyed signals such as A or \ can l)e coi-
rccted by a\'ei-aging tlu* rc^adings.
Coast Refraction. When radio
waves ci-oss a coast line at an angle,
they are bent or refracted, as shown
in Fig. ()9. This bending is not notice-
Fig. 69. — Coast refraction.
able at large angles, but at small angles
it may be considei-able. Bearings that make a small angle with the coast,
or that pass alternately over land and water, should be regarded with
suspicion.

THE TECHNIQUE OF RADIO NAVIGATION

—
Convergency. Radio waves travel along great circles, which cut
different meridians at different angles, so that a bearing of B measured
at A (Fig. 71) would not be the reciprocal of the bearing of A measured
at B. The difference is called convergency. Convergency is the angle
between the tangents to two meridians and is found from the formula:

Convergency in degrees = DLo. sin L,„

whei-e DLo. = diffei-ence of longitude, and L„, = mid-latitude. The con-

\ergency may be found quite simph^ by gi-aphical means, as shown in

Fig. 70, or from tables.

Convergency

Convergency

Lm
(). Fiiuliii mvcrnfiicy
(liaiis.

Tf a ground station at .1 (Fig. 71) observes the bearing of an air-

craft at li, the b(\ning is plotted directly with reference to the nearest
meiidiaii. If the aircraft takes the beai-ing. con\(M-g(Micy must be applied
befoi-e plotting fioni .1. The bcniiing nuist make the angle h at the air-
craft and is plotted as the angle a fiom the station. In this case, con-
 RADIO 103

vergency is subtracted from the observed bearing. In applying the

convergency angle, remember that the great-circle course passes into
higher latitudes than the rhumb course.

Example. —An aircraft observes the bearing of a radio station to be 250°; the
difference of longitude is 3°, and the mid-latitude convergency is 2°
45°S., so that the
(to the nearest degree). A rough sketch (Fig. 72) shows that the bearing should be
plotted as the reciprocal of 252°, i.e., 72°, from the station.
Convergency must also be applied when comparing bearings taken at the ground
station with bearings taken at the airplane, as is sometimes done when calibrating the
airplane for D.F. It should be remembered that radio bearings are relative to the
head of the plane and should be converted to true bearings. This may be done by
adding starboard or subtracting port radio bearings from the true heading of the
plane.

•^^ Bearing as piof fed

Conversion oinofle

Fig. 72. —Plotting radio bear- Fig. 73. — Converting great circle to Mercator
ings. bearings.

'^^ -'
Arbitrary scale
Fig. 74. — Finding conversion angle by plotting.
Conversion Angle. — In navigation we often wish to convert the radio
or great-circle bearing to the rhumb-line bearing for plotting on a Mer-
cator chart. This conversion is not necessary on the United States
sectionaland regional charts on Lambert projection. The angle between
these bearings is half the convergency discussed above and is known as

the conversion angle. It must always be applied, whether the bearing is

taken by the radio station or by the aircraft.
In Fig. 73, if a radio station at A observes the bearing of an airci-aft
at B, the conversion angle must be added; if the aircraft obser^'es the
bearing, the correction is subtracted. Since the conversion angle is half
the convergency, the same rules apply and may be found graphically^ as
104 AIH NAVIGATION

shown ill V\y[^. 71. It is so easy to find the com'ersion anj^le graphically,
th:it 1;ihl(\s U)v (loiii^ the same thiiifi; should he ijz;nored.

Example. —A plane by dead reckoning receives

in Lat. SS'^OS'N., Loiif^. 5oi)()'W.,
a radio heariiifr of IIH'^ from Bar Harbor Station (Lat. 44^19'X., Long., 68°11'W.).

To find the Mereator bearing:

Bar Harl)or: Lat. 44°19'X., Long. GH ll'W.

Dead-reekoning position: Lat. 38''()3'N., Long. oo^OO'VV.
L„„ 4l°ll'N., DLo. 13°irW.

Find graphically as explained above or enter table with middle latitude 41 and
difference of longitiuh; 13.2°. The correction is found to l)e +4.4° (since the vessel
is in north latitude and eastward of station).
Mereator bearing is the radio bearing plus correction, or 118° + 4.4° = 122.4°.

Electrical "Deviation.'' — Bearings taken with a loop antenna or radio

compass mounted in a plane are subject to errors caused by the electric
conductivity in the metal of the plane affecting the incoming waves, so
that the plane must be swung until signals have been received from all
directions and a table of corrections similar to a compass deviation table
made out for each relative direction of incoming signals.
The ''deviation" due to local metal can be almost entirely eliminated
in most installations by the use of compensators, which are grounded
wires over or under the loop. By varying their number and distance
from the loop the effect of local metal can be balanced out. This is

exactly equivalent, in a magnetic compass, to compensating it so that

it points to magnetic north.
Special Projections. — Charts on the gnomonic projection are some-
times used for plotting long-distance bearings. The compass roses cen-
tered on the obsei'ving stations are distorted, so that the bearings will be
correct when plotted.
The best practice is to use Lambert projection charts on which l)oth
the great-circle courses and the distances may be measured with required
accuracy.
—
Curves of Equal Bearing. Where it is intended to do long-distance
navigation l)y means of short-wave D.F., it may be of advantage to

prepare a chart showing curves of equal bearing to the radio stations

that it is proposed to use. If the bearings are observed at the stations,
these curves are great circles. If the aircraft observes the bearings,
the curves are lines passing through all places from wluch the bearing
of the station isthe same when taken at the aircraft. A Mereator chart
l)repare(l for the north Atlantic is shown in Fig. 75. At long distances,
it is almost essential to use such charts, owing to the large difference in
angle between the true position line (the curve of equal l^earing) and that
plotted as a rhumb line.
RADIO 105
l()(i AIR NAVIGATIOX

Plotting Position Lines from Long-distance Radio Bearings. 11 a —

(I Will of CMjual l)earin^;s is not available, the following methods may be

used. Two cases are considered: (1) when the bearing is given from the
ground station, (2) when the aircraft ol^serves the bearing. In case 1
the position line is a part of the great circle passing through the position
of the aircraft and the radio The
position line in case 2
station. is a
part of the curve of equal great-circle bearing previously described.
Plotting may be done on a map or chart on Mercator's projection,
or on some other projection for which a great circle does not differ
sensibly from a straight line over a distance of GOO miles.

Radio
S i-aiion

Ploi from si-a-tion 085°

Draw posii-ion fine 065^
through A
Fig. 7G. — Plotting position linos from radio hearings on a non-Mercator chart.

Nor+h laiii-ude

Radio Grea-t circle

staiion
"^-^ Rhumb
^ line

Curve of equal bearing

a R. long.
Fig. 77. — Plotting position linos from radio l)oaiings on a Morcator chart.

For a non-]\lercator projection, bearings observed from the ground

station are plotted directly with reference to the meridian of the station.
For a bearing observed from the aircraft, a D.R. longitude and latitude
are chosen, and from these the convergency iscomputed. This is ai^plied
to the observed bearing and the reciprocal of the corrected bearing is
plotted from the radio station. Through the point .1 (Fig. 7()) where
this line cuts the TO.R. longitude draw a line making an angle ecjual to
the convergency with the bearing as ])lotted. The line so obtained is a
tangent to the curve of equal bearing and does not differ appreciably
from the true curve, even if the error in the D.R. longitude is considerable.
For on a Mercator i^i-ojection, a D.R. {)()sition is assumed
i)l()tting

MS before imd the conversion angh* ('()n\|)ute(l. For a ])eai-ing given by

the i-adio station, the conversion angle is api)lie(l, and the I'huinlvline
l)eaiing from tlie station plotted. When the aircraft observes the bearing,
the conversion angle is applied, and the reciprocal of the rhumb line so
 RADIO 107

obtained plotted. Through the point where the rhumb hne cuts the
assumed longitude, draw a line making an angle equal to the conversion
angle with the rhumb line, as shown in Fig. 77. If the bearing is observed

from the radio station, the line is drawn to represent the tangent to the
Required -track 090'

,.__^
^^^^»-
Subsequeni bearings
Pilo+alters co. changing
10 °pori- Js-f bearing
100°
Fig. 78. — Use of radio tail bearings.

great circle. If the aircraft observes the bearing, the position line is

plotted as a tangent to the curve of equal bearing. The correct direction

for plotting the position line is determined by the rule that the great
circle is convex to the nearer pole, whereas the curve of equal bearing
is concave.
Use of Tail Bearings. —When attempting to maintain a track by radio
tail bearings of the point of departure, it is desirable that the actual track
line should be followed. In Fig. 78, the radio bearing discloses an error
of 10° in the track. If the pilot merely turns parallel (^.e., alters course

090"^
-^ .> .

> ».
fOOO

^100°
Fig. 79. — Use of radio tail bearings.

by the amount of the error), the bearing continues to change and thus
ceases to be of any value for subsequent checking. The correct procedure
is to change course through twice the amount of the error for an equal

interval of time, and then alter back through the amount of the error.

—
Example. Track required, 090°; departure at 1000; at 1010 the bearing is 100°.
Change the course 20° to port until 1020 and then alter 10° to starboard, as shown in
Fig. 79. Any subsequent change of bearing then indicates an error in the track.
The careful navigator, when estimating the actual alteration of course and the time
to fly on it, will consider the general direction of the wind and its effect on drift angle
and ground speed.

Use of Homing Bearings. —When radio bearings of the destination

are obtainable, either by means
homing device or from the ground,
of a
a definite procedure should be followed if it is desired to fl}'' on a line
as straight as possible. With a heavy beam wind, this would necessitate
traveling a slightly greater distance but it does not make much difference
in fuel. This method, however, provided the sending
is nearl}^ foolproof,
and receiving sets do not get out of order. Also, it has been demon-
strated that practically no time is lost b}^ using the method. Figure 80
108 AIR NAVIGATION

illustrates the (effect of merely setting the successive bearings on the

compass and hcadinj^; toward the station. It will be seen that the eouise
is changed through al)out 60°, the change being more rapid as the station

is approached. If bearings are obtained from the ground, a point is

reached where the bearing changes
too rapidly to be followed, and, if

the visibility is poor, the pilot over-

shoots the station.
Ilie first case to be considered is

that of approaching b}' D.F. in con-

ditions where the surface is vi.sible.

Before a bearing is o})tained, a drift

reading should be taken. Suppose
that the course steered is 240° and
that the drift is 10° to port, i.e., the
track is 230°. If the observed bear-
WIND
ing of the destination is 235°, drift
allowance will be about the same for
235° as for 230°, so tlie ])ilot should
steer 245°. The important j^oint is
to use radio bearings and drifts to-
gether whenever possible.
The second case deals with ap-
proach by successive bearings when
drift cannot be observed. Let us
assume that the navigator or pilot
has some idea of his distance from the
Fig. 80. — Allowance for wind drift.
station at the moment of obtaining
the first bearing, and that he has an approximate knowledge of his
ground speed.
In Fig. 81, the aircraft A is about 100 miles from the station B when
the bearing is found to be 090°. After flying about 25 miles, the bearing
luumiies •
^
p- ---25 miles ---> - 090° 1

B
a"^""^--^^ X \_0872_^_,
-^^

Fi(i. SI.— Cor M'tion f(

changes to 087°; what alteration of course should be made? The aircraft

has di'ifted laterally a distance A', which subtends an angle of 3° at
the station. By A should be about
simple proportion, the angle at
3X3 = 9°. If the ])il()t merely makes good a track of
alters 9°, he
090°. A furth(M- altt^-ation of 3° must be made to make good a track
of 087°. 'i'lu^ total alteration is 12° or four tinu^s the change of bearing;
 RADIO 109

the distance flown is one quarter of the initial distance. Hence the rule
is to multiply the change of bearing by the reciprocal of the fraction of
the distance flown, and alter the course in the same direction that the
bearing changes.

Example. — If the bearing changes 4° clockwise while flying one-fifth the initial

distance, the course must be altered 4X5=

20° to starboard.
It is better to work on time than on distance. The shde rule may be used to deal
with awkward figures.
—
Example. The pilot expects to reach his destination at 1500. At 1408 the bearing
is 44°; at 1422 it is 41°. The initial time is 52™, the time flown 14™, and the change
of bearing is 3° left. Since ^^4 X 3 = 11, the course is altered 11° to port.

has no idea of his distance from the destination, he must

If the pilot
rely on overcorrecting. Each time the bearing changes he should alter
course by three times the amount of the change. A couple of corrections
of this description will nearly always ensure a straight approach.

^ Broadcasi sia+ion

Fig. 82. — Use of radio station not on the route.

Use of Stations —
Not on the Route. An aircraft equipped with a
direction finder to fly between two airports, neither of which has a
is

radio station, but there is a broadcasting station some distance to one side
of the track. How
can best use be made of the direction finder?
Set the course by using a forecasted or assumed wind. Obtain a
bearing of the station when it is as nearly as possible at right angles to
the track, and note the time. Plot the bearings and, using the distance
AB (Fig. 82), calculate theground speed. Take and plot a second
bearing, noting the time. Multiply the ground speed by the interval
elapsed since departure, and cut the second bearing at this distance (AC).
This gives the track made good, and any error may now be corrected.
If it is not possible to get a right-angle bearing, the problem must be
attacked in a different manner.
The point of departure (Fig. 83) is not treated as an actual position
but merely as a point on the position line joining it to the station. The
track is found by using a scale of time as in the well-known method of
finding track from three bearings. The intersections of the track with
the position lines represent fixes, within the limits of accuracy of the
bearings.
110 AIR NAVIGATION

Tli(H)r('ti('ally a plane flj'inp; 100 miles on the fixed-looj) homing;

device in a 50-mik^ cross wind at 180 m.p.h. air speed would lose 1.5 min.
over the time re(|uired for straight flight, 'ilie sniallness of this loss in
time is due to the fact that for straight-line flight the plane must l)e con-
tinually headed into the wind by the amount of the di'ift angle. This
D ^ J.
reduces the si)eed o\'er the entire
^^'® sfo/fion course. On the cuiAcd homing course
the speed is not reduced at the start,

although the reduction at the end of the

flight is greater.

oqoo / \
Although the time lost in the hom-
ing method is not serious, there an^
0q20 other objectionable features as noted,
Fig. 83.— Homing by course and run so that a mcans for homing on a direct
between bearings. •< i i , ,• •
i
•

course on any suitable station is desir-

able. This may
be accomplished by means of a D.F. loop that can be
rotated to allow^ for wind
drift. With allowance for drift feasible, the
homing method has the advantage of simplicity, longer range, and more
transmitting stations available.
Indirect Homing. — Indirect homing is the process of navigating
to a given destination b}^ means of bearings from a radio station off the
direct route.

—
Example. It is desired to fly to an airport 300 miles away. Fifty miles on the
near side and 20 miles off the track, there is a radio station. Navigation in thick
weather should be via the radio station, as this ensures accuracy, while hardly affect-
ing the total distance. The station is approached on a steadj^ track by means of the
homing procedure. The last 50 miles are flown by holding the apjiropriate tail
bearing on tlie radio station.
Example. — The destination is 250 miles due north, and there is a radio station
30 miles northeast from it. Fly well to the west of north until tlie radio station bears
northeast; then turn on to that bearing.

Flights na\'igated by radio should be carefully prepared in ad\'ance

by noting the transmitting times and frequencies of the various stations.
Bear in mind that ''the longest way round is often the shortest way
home" in this class of work.
—
Radio-compass Station. Radio-compass or RC stations are operated
by \\w. Navy Department and are usually located along the seacoast.
These stations are operated principally for the usc^ of tlu^ mariner, but
are also a\'ailable for the use of the airman. Since sonu^ of these stations
an* not calibrated for arcs over tlu* land, i.e.. Ww bearings coi-i-ectcHl foi-

local conditions, the navigator is cautioned to g(>t (•()m))let(* data on the

station used.
Aircraft Radiotelephone. — The use of airciaft ladio for coinniuni-
cation fiom plane to plane, from j)lane to ground, and foi' summoning aid
 RADIO 111

in an emergency has been greatly facilitated by the development of th(i

radiophone. Radiophone, for aeronautical use, has been a goal sought
since commercial air lines began scheduled operations calling for flying
irrespective of weather conditions and at night.

Fig. 84. —Practical use of the radiophone. (Courtesy of Boeing Si/stem.)

The ground-plane and plane-to-plane telephone service calls for

complicated engineering in installation, but its use by the pilot is sim-
plicity itself. The entire equipment is nearly automatic in operation,
requiring no adjusting on the part of the pilot, whose full attention can hv
1 12 AIR NAVIGATION

directed lo the operation of liis eiip;iiie and to keeping Uw airplane on its

course.
As soon as the pilot takes off, the ground station checks on the pilot
and adjusts its mechanism to tune in with the pilot, who does not
adjust his set in flight. The ])il()t turns the switch to receive and waits
for the periodic reports that give him the latest reports on the weather,
on wind velocity at various altitudes, dispatching com])any orders, and
other helj^ful information. If he wants to talk to the ground, he switches

to send on the panel board.

Distance range of transmitters in planes and at stations is about
200 miles and, when half that distance away from the ground station
last passed, the pilot picks up the next ground station ahead, and so on
during the flight. The device is set to receive at all times the pilot
does not want to and at neutral only when the plane is on the ground.
call,

Transport planes have a pilot and a copilot, who can also fly the
plane. Figure 84 shows the practical use of the radiophone for navigation.
Conclusion. —The navigator who proposes to make effective use of
radio bearings w^ould do well to investigate the principles underlying the
examples given in this chapter. Let every bearing be chosen for a
definite purpose and see that the maximum value is obtained from it.
Most pilots obtain far more bearings than they actually need, thus going
a long way toward overloading the ground organization. Bear in mind
that an isolated radio bearing has only three possible uses:

1. A check on track.
2. To check ground speed.
3. As a leading line.
Make sure that the bearing chosen serves one of these purposes.
A navigator's capabilities may be judged by the in\'erse ratio of the
number of bearings he requires on any given flight. Radio direction-
finding facilities should be used as guides, not as a substitute for railroads.
Government weather information is discussed under aids to naviga-
tion in Chap. VI
 . (

CHAPTER VI

DEAD RECKONING—THEORY
Dead reckoning is the method of determining a position by keeping an
account, or reckoning, of the direction and distance run from a previously
known position called the point of departure. The navigator's duty is to
keep a careful record of his dead-reckoning position at all times and to
check this position by piloting, by celestial navigation, and by radio.
Dead reckoning requires a knowledge of the direction and the
speed of flight. In still air direction is obtained from the compass,
the speed is read from the air-speed indicator, and the navigator's task
is simple. Generally, however, the position of an aircraft on the surface
of the earth is the resultant of two distinct motions: the motion of the

plane in the direction in which it is headed and the motion of the air itself
relative to the earth, which is commonly referred to as the wind.
The accuracy with which the course and distance flown are determined
depends upon the accuracy of the instruments used, the skill of the
operator, and the conditions in the air. At best, dead reckoning may not
be expected to produce extreme accuracy.
—
Value of Dead Reckoning. The advantage of dead reckoning as
compared with other methods is that it is available when lowered visi-
bility obscures landmarks and makes piloting difficult; when the sky is
overcast, making celestial navigation impossible; when flying over
unmapped country or over water; and when for any reason navigation
by wireless is not available. It is the one method that is at all times
available, and the finished navigator will always make use of it, whether
or not other methods are employed.
The disadvantage of dead reckoning lies in the fact that the farther
the plane travels, the greater is the probable error in the dead-reckoning
position, and the further fact that it does not determine a position
definitely after that position has once become uncertain. Once the dead-
reckoning sequence of a plane is broken, dead reckoning is of little value
until the position has been reestablished by other methods of navigation.
A pilot at such a critical time may find that simple piloting will not help
him, or that the direction finder will not work, or that celestial navigation
cannot be used. But the skillful and resourceful navigator who has
mastered all four methods will almost always be able to find one method
that will work. If no method can be made to work, the pilot should make
the best landing possible.
113
114 AIR NAVIGATION

Unless ail Jiccount or i-iM-konin^- is kcj)! of an aircraft's course and

speed, would l)e "lost" contiiuiously except for instants when definite
it

positions aie determined by the other three methods. By keeping a

simple lecord of course, distance, and time, and estimating the wind,
the navigator may estimate the plane's position at any instant with an
accuracy dependent on the reliability of his determination of these
quantities.
Of the various methods dead reckoning is unc}uestion-
of navigation,
ably the most universally^ used. always required in some form,
It is

however simple, even when reliance is placed on one or more of the othei-
methods. Dead reckoning can never be dispensed with entirely.
—
The Importance of Wind. In actual practice, finding one's way by
dead reckoning hinges largely upon the success with w^hich the wind
drift ma.y be determined. A good compass gives the navigator his
heading with reasonable accuracy. The air-speed meter gives a close
approximation to the speed of the plane through the air. However,
the essence of the problem is not the course and speed through the air
but the course and speed made good over the ground, and these depend
upon the accuracy of the determination of wind direction and velocity.
The most practical means for obtaining wind data, and the method
ordinarily used, is for the navigator, before taking off, to obtain directly
from the Weather Information Center all the data needed. Expert
observers working together collect and digest the data and prognosticate
the wind and weather. Since wind effect is inseparably associated witli
dead reckoning, w^e shall deal with wdnd before proceeding any fuitluM-.

WIND AND ALLIED PROBLEMS

When an airplane leaves the ground and flies in any direction, tlie
motion through the air alone is not sufficient to ena])le its motion rehitive
to the ground to be stated; it is necessary to know also the motion of the
air itself relative to the ground, i.e., the wind.
The problem is by thinking of a man in a boat
easily visualized
rowing over a river and trying to reach a i)()le dri\'en into the river bottom
and projecting above the surface. The man and the ])()at moxQ relatively
to the water and the water also mo^'es relati\'ely to the \)o\o. The man
soon finds that from positions straight up the river or straiglit down the
ri\'er as measured from the pole he can row straight foi* the pole, but that

his rates of ai:)proach are different; he also finds that from a position
abreast of the i)()l(^ he must direct his boat to some extent upstream as
well as toward the pole. In the air the conditions ai(^ \ (M'v similar, with
the wind taking the place of the river current, and it is just as necessary
to set a course to some extent upwind as it was to head to some extent
iipst r(\im.
 DEAD RECKONING— THEORY 115

Definitions. —When flying through moving air, it is necessary to use

definite names for certain directions and speeds. The following names
have been standardized:
The heading is the direction in which the airplane is pointing. This
may be relative to the true north, the magnetic north, or the compass
indication of north, and so may be true heading, magnetic heading, or
compass heading. See also the official definitions in Chap. I. Some
duplication is given here to make the picture more complete.
The course is the direction in which
it is desired that the plane should

travel. This may

be relative to the true north, the magnetic north,
or the compass indication of north, and so may be true course, magnetic
course, or compass course. It is the course laid out on the chart and may
be defined as ''intended track."
The track is the direction of the actual path over the ground covered
by the airplane. Except when there is a dead calm or when the wind
is blowing exactly along the heading or the heading reversed, the track

will differ from the heading. It will also be true track, magnetic track, or
compass track as before.
The distinction between these three terms is very fine. Often they
are carelessly used to mean the same thing, but their proper use ensures
an easier and more exact understanding of the problem.
The drift angle is the angular difference between the heading and the
track. The drift is said to be right when the airplane is driven by the
wind to the right of the direction in which it is pointing; if the airplane
is driven to the left, the drift is called left.
The air speed is the true speed of the airplane through the air and is

therefore always measured along the heading.

Indicated air speed (I.A.S.) is the reading of the air speed indicator.
Calibrated air speed is the reading of the air-speed indicator, corrected
for instrumental and installation errors.
The ground speed is the speed of the airplane over the ground and is

therefore measured along the track.

The no-wind position of an aircraft at any moment is the position
where the aircraft would have been at that moment if no wind had been
blowing.
The wind direction is the direction from which the wdnd is blowing.
Surface wind directions are reported by the Weathpr Bureau as one of 16
compass points, such as E.N.E., whereas winds aloft are reported as one
of 36 ten-degree directions, such as 260°.
The wind speed is the speed at which the wind blows. Wind direction
and wind speed may also be considered together as just wind; for example,
wind east, 30 m.p.h. means that the wind is blomng from the east at 30
m.p.h. The wind is always given as a true direction (i.e., with reference
 :

I Ml AIR NAVKIATIOX

to \v\\v north); consequently, wlicii working wind pi-ohlenis tlie /^^o^in^,

course, and track will also necessarily be the true heading, true course, and
true track and this will be assumed in all subse(juent work.
The above elements are clearly shown in Fig. 85.

t.

P P'
Fig. 85. — Dead-reckoning terms.
To save himself from making careless slips, the student is ad\'ised
to judge every triangle of velocities he draws, by the following four
common-sense considerations
1. The three sides of the triangle must be heading and air si^eed
(AS), track and ground speed (GS), and wind speed and direction,
coupled like that.
2. The aii-j)lane is blown by the wind off its heading onto its track.
3. The heading will always be a little into wind from the track.
4. If is blowing from ap})re('iably ahead of the beam, the
the wind
GS must than the AS; if it is blowing from ai)i)reciably abaft the
be less
beam, it must be more than the AS.
Triangle of Velocities. —
The speed and direction of an airplane
flying through the air, which itself is moving bodily in some dii'ection,
are given by the triangle of velocities.
Any velocity may
be repi-esented by a straight line with an arrow,
by making tlic as shown by the arrow represent the direc-
dii-ection
tion of tlie motion, and by making the liMigth of th(^ lin(^ ))roportional
 DEAD RECKONING— THKOUY 117

to the speed. The resultant of two simultaneous velocities can then be

found by starting from any point and drawing a line so that its length
and direction represent one of the velocities, and from the end of this
line drawing another line to represent the
second velocity. The resultant velocity
is found by closing the triangle in the

reverse direction.
In Fig. 86 let the line E -^ W repre-
sent a wind of 30 m.p.h. from the east;
and let the line W —^ P represent the
heading and air speed of an airplane fly-
ing northeast through the air at 80 m.p.h.
These two velocities form two sides of
the triangle EWP, starting from E to W
for the wind direction and speed and
going from W to P for the heading and w
^'
^/ ^^
direcfion and speed
j ,

air
'
A
speed, u-
rr..
ihe resultmg A
motion due
, ,1 T„- r J.- i.i„FiG- 86. — Triangle of velocities.
to the combination oi these two veloc-
J- 1

ities can be represented by the line E —^ P, which closes the triangle

in the reverse direction; in other words, E -^ P represents the track and

ground speed. This triangle of velocities is of the utmost importance in
all problems of dead reckoning, and it must be thoroughly understood.

In the chosen lettering:

E = earth.
W = wind.
=
P plane.
S = ship, while two letters connected by an arrow indicate direction
and distance (or velocity) between the two points (Fig. 90).
For example, E —> P indicates the speed and direction of the plane relative
to the earth—in other words, the plane's track and ground speed; W —^ P
represents the speed and direction of the plane relative to the wind, which
is the heading and air speed.
The triangle of velocities will now be used to solve a series of typical
problems
Problem 1. — To find the heading to make good any giA^en track when
the wind and air speed are given.
Draw E —^ W to represent the wind in speed and direction, and from
E draw E -^ P to represent the track (Fig. 87). With center W and
radius equal to the air speed, draw a circle cutting E -^ P sit P and join
W —^ P. Then TT — P > represents the heading, and the length of E— P >

gives the ground speed.

Problem 2. — To find the heading and air speed to make good any gi\eii
track and groimd si)eed, given the wind.
1 1 AIR NA VIGA TION

R('f(M riii<2; to Fij^. 80, it will Ijc clear that a little variation of the con-
struction is all that is necessary. Draw E -^W to represent the wind,
and draw E -> /' to represent the track and jrround sj^eed; the difference

Irom Prol). 1 is that the length E -^ P is now known before completing

the trian<i;le. Join W —^P', then W -^ P represents the heading and air
spe(Ml re(iuir(Ml.
Problem 3. — To find the wind, gi\-en the heading and aii- si)eed and
also the track and ground speed.

Fig. 87. — Determination of heading and ground speed.

The order of drawing the sides of the ti-iangle Ls different (see Fig. 86).
From W
draw TF-^P to represent the heading and air si)eed, and from
P draw E <r- p (with arrow reversed) to represent the ground speed and
track; join EW. Then E -^ W represents the ^^ind.
—
Problem 4. To find the wind from two or more diift ()])sei'\-ations on
known headings for a given air speed.
Referring to Fig. 88, from a center 11' draw W-^P, IF-^P,, and
TF —> P2 to represent the known headings, with a radius ecjuivalent to

the given air speed, and from P, Pi, and P2 draw PE, P^E, and P2E so
that the angles WPE, WPiE, and WP2E are ecjual to the observed
drifts. It will be found (if the obseiwations are all absolutely accurate)
that the three lines PE, P\E, and PoE cut in E; in actual ])ractice the
three or more lines will form a small triangle oi' otluM- fi,i2;ui(^ instead of
intersecting at one ])oint, and the center of the small figure can loe taken
as the point E. Join /tTF; then PJ —^ W represents the wind.
Problem 5.- The out-and-honie i)i-()1)1(mh.

In Fig. 88, Pi has been so chosen that the tracks E— P > and E -^Px
are exactly opposite in direction and tluMc^foie re})resent out-and-home
 DEAD RECKONING— THEORY 119

tracks respectively. Thus if ^-^P is the outward track, E-^Pi will

be the track home, and vice versa. The length E —^ P also represents
the outward ground speed and E—^Pi the homeward ground speed;
these are not equal unless there is no wind or the wind is at right angles
to the track.

Fig. 88. — Determination of wind from drift observations.

Now, by geometry, because W

-^ P = W-^Pi (being radii of the
same circle), it is known that the angles WPE and WPiE are equal, or ^

that the drift on the outward journey is equal and opposite to that on the
homeward journey. For example: given wind 30 m.p.h. from east, air
speed 80 m.p.h., and outward track 25°, the outward heading was 45°,
giving 20° left drift. Now because the two drifts are equal and opposite,
the navigator just notes that 45° less 25° is 20°, and 20° from 25° is
5°, the opposite of which is 185°; thus 185° is the return heading. If the
outward had been right drift, say 10°, and track 25° as before, the
drift
outward heading would have been 15° and the calculation would have
been 15° to 25° is 10°, and another 10° is 35°, the reverse of which is 215°,
the homeward heading.
Put into words, the procedure is to go from the outward heading to the
outward track and then by an equal step to the homeward heading
reversed, when adding or subtracting 180° gives the homeward heading.
This property is most important and is to be utilized on all suitable
occasions; for instance, when a solo pilot flies into mist he can at once
turn around or retrace his track if he so desires.
^ By geometry, angles opposite equal sides of an isosceles triangle are equal, Bv
construction (see Prob. 4) triangle PWPi is isosceles.
120 AfR AM V I CIA T ION

—
Problem 6. The out-and-lioinc i)i()l)l('in contiinHul.
—
Time to Turn and Radius of Action. Redrawing!; Fig. 88 as Fig. 80,
and omitting W
—> Pi and E —^ P2 as not of interest at the j)resent
moment, we have E -^ P as the outward ground speed and E —^ Pi as
the return ground speed. These are umHjual on an out-and-home flight,
while the distance out and home is the same, whence it can be shown
that the length E-^Pi can represent the time taken on the outward
flight and E —^ P the time taken to return, both measured on some
unknown scale of time; consequently the ratio of {E -^P\) to (E -^ P)
gives the ratio of the out flying time to the home flying time.

Fig. 89. — Determination of radius of actioi

If preferred, this may be stated as follows: the ratio EPi to PPi, the
sum of the two lengths, is the proportion of the total time after which it is
necessary to turn back. From this it would not be difficult to calculate
the radius of action or distance at which to turn back, as given below,
but this can be more easily arrived at as follows:
Draw EF parallel to Tf — Pi to cut W — P in F, and from F draw FG
> >

paiallel to P^^Pi to cut E — W in G. Then FG is the radius of action per

>

fuel hoiu', and, multiplied by the number of hours for which fuel is
available (less safety margin), gives the total radius of action. The
proof of this may be left to the student as an exercise in plane geometry.

Formulas for Radius-of-action Problems

T]i(> ))r()blein hvw von^xdvvvd is that of determining liow far a ])lan(^

may fly from its base under dif'fen^nt wind conditions.

R = distance^from l)as(^ at time of turning l)a('k, i.e., radius of action.
/i = time of outward fliglit.
 DEAD RECKONING— THEORY 121

t2 = time of return flight.

T = total time of flight = ^i + t^.

Si = rate of departure (ground speed) from base.

*S2 = rate of returning (ground speed) to base.
Since

h -^ and ^2
t = ^
we have
R RiSi + ^2)
01 02 /S102
from which
i /S105
R =
Sl + S2
But R = tiSi, so

= TS2
ti
Si + ^2
TSi
U = T -h
S1 + S2

Moving Base and Relative Wind (Interception). — In flying over the

sea it is quite normal practice to fly from the aircraft carrier and to return
to it, so that the aircraft carrier is really a moving base, of which the
course and speed are known. The same type of problem is now present-
ing itself in civil aviation when airplanes fly out to transfer passengers
and mails to ships that have already put to sea and are out of sight of
land, and conversely when airplanes
fly from ships approaching land in
order to land passengers and mails
before the arrival of the ship.
All such problems can be greatly
simplified by considering the ship
or moving base at rest and combin-
Relative wind
ing the ship's motion reversed with
Fig. 90. Determination of relative
the actual wind to constitute what wind.
is called the relative wind. The truth
of this can be easily seen by supposing the ship to be proceeding west at
30 knots and the actual wind to be 30 knots from the east; when the
ship's speed reversed, i.e., 30 knots toward the east, is combined ^\Tth the
wind, i.e., 30 knots from the east, there will be no relative motion between
ship and air and the relative wind is zero. All the problems to which
the triangle of velocities has been applied can be solved in exactly the
same way by first combining the actual wind with the coiu'se and speed
of the ship or moving base to obtain the relative wind, and then jn-oceeding
as before.
122 AIR NAVIGATION

To suppose a carrier is proceeding at 24 knots on course

illustrate this,
127° while the wind is 18 knots from 37° (see Fig. 90). From E draw
E S to represent
-^ the ship's speed and course, and from E draw E —^ W
to represent the wind, drawing the line from E toward 217° (180° 37°), +
the direction toward which it is blowing; join S ^yW.
The relative wind furnishes a very easy method of extending the
l)robl(Mns solved to cover other problems.
—
Problem 7. The out-and-home problem (moving base).
If the wind is determined by drift observations (see Prob. 4) of the
aircraft carrier, the wind found, represented by S —^W, is the relative

Fig. 91. — Pr()l)loin ai inoving base.

wdnd, and all the information re(iuired (relative to the ship) can be
obtained in exactly the same way as for the fixed-base problem given in
Probs. 5 and 6.

If the wind has been ascertained b}" some other method and is given as
the true wind, this onl^^ means that two extra lines must be drawn as
shown in Fig. 91. From E draw E ^>' S to represent the ship's course and
speed and from E draw E -^ W to re])resent the wind, drawing the line
fr(;^m E toward which the wind is l)lowing, and join
in the direction
<S -^ IF as described above for finding the relati\e wind. Now proceed
exactly as in Probs. 5 and 6, remembering that all the quantities found
are relati\e to the aircraft carricM*.

It will now be preferable to cnll the (iu:uitit.i(\s S —^ P and S -^P\ by

otluM- names. In th(* case of the fixed biise they were the outward and
homeward tracks and ground speeds, but \\\v^v tei-ms can no longer be
used as they are no longer relative to the ground but to the carrier or
 DEAD RECKONING— THEORY 123

moving base they are now

; called the hearing and rates of departure and
approach, respectively.
Problem 8. — The problem of intercepting a ship.
This problem is now extremely important and can be handled in the
same way as the moving base. From the ship's known position or
bearing, course,and speed, at the time the airplane takes off, the direction
S —^ P determined (Fig. 91). Using the ship's course and speed and
is

the true wind, which is known (or if not known can be found as described
previously), draw E -^ S and E —>W and find S -^ W, the relative wind.
From S set off the ship's bearing S -^ P and join W
—> P, which gives the
heading for air speed W ^ P.
—
Problem 9. The problem of flying from the ship to land.
That is similar to Prob. 1. The ship's position being fixed for the time
of the plane's departure makes it a fixed-based problem. E —^ is true W
wind and E —^ P track or bearing. Adding E —^ S and obtaining —^ S W
(relative wind) is superfluous and makes a complicated problem out of a
simple one. True wind can always be found aboard ship before taking
off.

Problem 10.^ —^The problem of flying out from one fixed base and
returning to another fixed base.
This problem becomes exactly the same as Prob. 7 by considering
the first base to move uniformly toward the second base in such a manner

as to cover the distance in the predetermined time of flight. By this

means the outward and homeward headings, and the times out and
home, cari be found; the radius of action will now be measured from
some point between the two bases; if the track and ground speed are
drawn, using the true wind, the knowledge of the outward and homeward
times gained from the use of the relative wind can be used to determine
the exact position of the turning point and the outward and homeward
tracks.

Note The scope of this book does not allow for an exhaustive treatment of relative
:

movement problems. For a complete presentation of the subject the reader is referred
to Tornich's ''Radius of Action of Aircraft," by Weems System of Navigation,
Annapolis, Md., 1940.

Wind Diagrams. — Figures 86 to 91

are diagrams in which each line
represents direction and speed and must not be confused with other
diagrams in which the lines represent direction and distance. The
attentive reader will at once refer to line FG of Fig. 89, which is stated to
represent the radius of action per fuel hour; this is a rate of so many
miles per hour and, although not usually regarded as a speed, should be so
regarded. In all the wind diagrams the same letter has been used for
the same purpose.
 -

124 \ll{ XAVJGATJOX

All iittcuiipt has Iku'Ii iiukIc; to trc.at the subject systematically by

W, the center of the only circle used, the intersection of the air
iiiakinj^

speed and wind; this was done to avoid the confusion that may easily
arise when arcs or circles are drawn with their centers at different corners
of the diaf2;raiii.

—
Dead-reckoning Methods. Having discussed the important subject
of wind and having ])i-(n'iously discussed the means of deteiTnining
direction (under Compass), we are now read}^ to take up the dead-reckon-
ing methods of tracking a plane's position in the air. The means for
determining air speed (air-speed meter) and for measuring ground speed
and wind drift will be discussed in the next chapter.

70° 60° 50° 40° v30< 20° 10'

Fig. 92. -Great-circle and Mercator courses from New York to Paris, plotted on a
gnomonic chart.

Plotting on a Chart. —
Obviously the most practical method for solving
problems involving position, direction, and distance is by means of a
suitable chart and plotter.
Great-circle Sailing. —
It is not possible to steer a great-circle course
by compass, since this course by compass is continually changing. In
practice, however, suitable chords of the great-circle course may be
steered, and when so steered give a close approximation to tlie great
circle course.
The most practical w^ay of laying down a great-circle track is by
working directly on a navigation chart drawn on the Lambert projection.
It will be recalled that this is a conical projection so drawn that it will give
the minimum distortion over the greatest percentage of area. A straight
line drawn on this chart, although it does not fall exactly along the great
circle, is within the limits of required accuracy.
For those who \\'ish to compare the Lambert track with the gi(^at-
circle track, the method of laying down the true great-circle track is

given. It may be used where there* is no sectional, regional, or skeleton

Lambert chart availal)le.
 DEAD RECKONING— THEORY 125

Firs^ the track laid down on a great-circle chart by connecting any

is

two desired points by a straight line. Unfortunately, a great-circle

chart is not suitable for navigation therefore, the latitudes and longitudes
;

of convenient points along the great-circle track are transferred to the

navigation chart. Compass courses and distances are then measured
on the navigation chart for the chords or legs transferred from the great-
circle chart (see Figs. 92 and 93).
In this connection small-scale skeleton great-circle and Mercator
control charts will be found convenient. The great-circle control chart
may be a blank chart showing fixed latitude and unnumbered longitude
lines, which may be numbered as required.

80' 70^ 60' 50° 40° 30° 20° 10°

.^[q irofck^lSOm/'/es

80° 70° 60° 50° 40° 30° 20° 10° 0°

Fig. 93.^ — Great-circle and Mercator courses from New York to Paris, plotted on a
Mercator chart.

Trigonometrical Calculation of Great-circle Course. — For more

accurate work, such as computing the shortest distance between two
points for record flights, the great-circle distance is calculated by spherical
trigonometry as described in Hydrographic Publication 9 (Bowditch).
Great-circle Versus Mercator Flying. —
In practice, we steer Mercator
courses, i.e., compass courses. When a long flight is made, these courses
should be altered at suitable intervals in order to approximate the great-
circle track. For distances greater than about 400 miles, and especially
when in high latitudes, the saving in distance by approximating the great-
circle track is considerable.
On his flight from New York to Paris, Colonel Lind-
epoch-making
bergh followed the great-circle track, which he had previously computed
carefully and plotted on a Mercator chart of the north Atlantic Ocean.
The saving in distance hy following the great circle on that flight was
140 nautical miles or 160 statute miles. The true compass course was
changed to conform to the great-circle track at intervals of 100 miles.
Figure 92 shows the appearance of the great-circle course and the
rhumb-line or Mercator course when laid down on a chart constructed
on the gnomonic or great-circle projection. Figure 93 shows these
12G AIR NAVIGATION

courses as Ihoy ai)|)oai- whou i)l()tt(ul on a chart constructed'* on the

M (Meat or })rojc('t ion. It will be noted that the initial great-circle
couise north of east (54°), while the final great-circle course Is south of
is

east (112°), with a continuous change along the course. While on the
gi-eat-circle track, LindlxMgh was always headed directly for Paris; if
he had followed a Mercator track his plane would have been headed to
the right of Paris until he got close to it. The great-circle track appears
longer than the Mercator track in Fig. 93, because the Mercatoi- ])r()joc-

tion distorts the ai-eas in high latitude.

Conversion of Great-circle and Mercator Courses.^ — On long flights
it is desirable to follow the great-circle track. Owing to the convergence
of the meridians, the great circle cuts each meridian at a diffeient angle,
while the Mercator course cuts meridians at the same angle. Since
all

it Ls not practicable to steer a constantly changing course, it becomes

necessary on long flights to steer chords of the great circle, each chord
or leg being a Mercator course steered for a chosen interval of distance
or time, say for 100 miles, or for 1 hr. At the end of each leg a new
Mercator course must be set, the new course including not onlj^ the
convergence of the meridians, but also the changes in variation, devia-
tion, and w^ind drift discussed elsewhere.
The conversion of great-circle courses to Mercator courses and the
reverse may be accomplished by tables or graphically.
We give belo'sv an example solved grai)hically. See also Chap. V
for converting radio bearings to ]\Iercator bearings. The formula is
Conversion angle = I'oJyLo. sin L„,

Figure 74 shows graphically how the conversion angle is obtained in

practice. A right triangle is constiiicted ])y using the mid-latitude as an
angle between the base and hypotenuse; the hypotenuse is di-awn to
some convenient scale to equal J^DLo. The side opposite the mid-
latitude LS then the conversion angle in units equal to those of the J^DLo.
Figure 94 shows the application of the modifying angle to the con-
version angle to convert to a series of chords api:)roximating the great
cii-cle. This modifying angle is merely the initial con^'ersion angle (at

l)()int of do))arturo) divided by the total number of legs to be flown.

—
Applying the Conversion Angle. Since the great-circle track, except
when it coincides with a mei-idian or the e(|uator, passes into higher
latitudes than the Mercator ti-ack, it is necessary to keep only this fact
in mind when making c()n\eisi()ns. Foi- exami^le, in north latitude on a
westerly coui-se the conversion angU^ would l)e added to a Mercator
course or sul)tract(Hl fi-om a gi-(\it-cii'clo course.
Practical Use of the Conversion Angle. — In pi-actice it is not possible
to \kvv\) continuously on the great-circle track. In fact, it might become
 DEAD RECKONING— THEORY 127

necessary to make radical changes in course due to storm areas or other

causes. Under such conditions new great-circle courses will be required
from time to time. A method whereby these course conversions may be
done simply and quickly is therefore most desirable, and the simple
formula above, when worked graphically, seems to meet the need.
The great-circle distance is also needed by the air navigator. It may,
of course, be computed at leisure before the take-off but, once in the air
and committed to the flight, the important factor is the course. The
speed is affected by wind and other factors, but eventually, if the correct
course is followed, the plane will pass over the destination and, since
the ground speed may be controlled within wide limits by means of the

^,— Tangents to G.C.

! Great circle I

30°N
Modified
conversion angle ~ .^^

to convert
tangent course
to ctiord A 23°N
95°W / 85°W 75°W 65"W
Conversion angle
Fig. 94. — Determination chord courses from great-circle course on Mercator chart.

engine throttle, the desired schedule may usually be followed. On the

other hand, if off the course, the plane might miss its objective entirely;
hence, the importance of maintaining the proper course.
The Determination of Ground Speed in Flight. —There are three
methods available:
1. Direct determination by noting the time elapsed between passing
over two points defined on the chart and dividing the distance b}^ the time.
The accuracy of the result is good if the points observed are sufficiently
far apart.
2. Indirect determination by noting the time an object takes to
cross the interval between two cross wires in a drift frame or other similar
arrangement. In this case the actual height of the aircraft above the
object observed is required, and this height is subject to considerable
error, which is transferred to the ground speed; thus the resulting error
in the ground speed may be relatively large.
The errors in the ground speed so found may be classified as follows
a. Error in determining the time of passing between the wires. The
time varies according to the type of instrument used, but is generally
about 5 to 15 sec, so that an error of i^ sec. in the timing may oi\e ;i

4 per cent eri'or in the ground speed.

128 A in .\AVi(L\ri()N

J). Vatov ill the iissuincd xahic of the height of the aircraft al)0\c
tli(> ()l).i(M-t ()1)S(m-\(hI. llvvv there are two sources of ei'i'or. naniely, tlio

error of the altimeter due to change of haroinetrie i)ressure, and the usual
lack of exact kno\vled^(^ of tlu^ h(Mj!;ht of the ()l)sei-\'(Ml object al)o\e the
ref(M-ence plane to which the altimeter reading is i-eferred. ()\-ei- wild,
unmai)i)ed country tlie luM^lit of the observed ()l)ject can only he guessed.
As the percentage error in the gi'ovnid-speed detei-mination is appi'oxi-
mately ecjiial to the percentage error in the altitud(\ it w ill he appreciated
that this error wlien flying at 3,000 ft. can easily amount to 10 per cent
when flying over well-charted territory, and even 20 per cent ovei-
unknown country. Thus the ground speed determined by timing o\er
a drift fi'ame and making use of the altitude of the aircraft above the
object timed can ])e as much as 25 per cent in error when circumstances
are imfavoiable.
3. Indirect determinations by double drift, utilizing the air speed
as the scale factor. The accuracy
method, apart from the question
of this
of the exact \'alue of the air speed, is good, and the error when using a
well-made instrument should not exceed about 1 per cent. Fiu"ther,
as three drifts can be worked just as easily as two, the use of a third
drift observation gives a measure of the accuracy obtained.
The value of the air speed to be used is the corrected or true air
s))eed, and this can be readily obtained from the air-speed meter leading
and a correction table, or air-speed computer; the true air speed so
obtained is not absolutely accurate, but the error is not likely to exceed
about 3 or 4 per cent, and is usually less at normal flying altitudes of,
say, 4,000 ft. Thus by this method the ground speed can certainly be
determined within 5 per cent.
In order to use the double- (or triple-) drift method, the coui'se has
to l)e altered twice, involving an increase in the distance flown, but this
('isadvantage is more apparent than real, as will be seen later. The
increase of distance flown is not large if the courses are arranged as follows:
Course ]. Normal course.
Course 2. 45° to right for 3 min.
Course 3. 90° to left for 3 min.
Course 4. Revert to noi*mal course.
Neglecting the second-order effect of wind on the distance flown
on the above courses, we shall have made good on the normal coiu'se,
during the min. that the aircraft has been off that course, a distance
(')

equivalent to 4.2 min. flying, so that our real loss of distance has been
e(|ual to 1.8, or less than 2 min. flying. In return for this exi)endit\u-e
thei'c^ has ])een obtained an accurate knowledge of the ground speed

and the wind. This knowh^lge will enable the lunigator to set impro\ed
courses which will save all that 2 min.. and ])r()bably more, so that
 DEAD RECKONING—THEORY 129

the actual air mileage flown i^ not really increased by the intentional
small excursion to obtain accurate knowledge of the ground speed and
wind.
In the case of aircraft operating over wild uninhabited areas, the
reduction of the uncertainty in the dead-reckoning position when using
the above method of determining ground speed and wind is of the greatest
value in those rare but inevitable cases where forced landings have to be
made.
Navigation Errors Introduced by Incorrectly Determined Ground
—
Speeds.- Of the three methods of ground-speed determination just
considered, the first direct method introduces no errors into the naviga-
tion, as inevery case a new point of departure is gained.
In the third, or double-drift, method practically the whole error
arises from a small uncertainty in the true air speed. As this error
willnot vary greatly during any one flight, the general effect on dead
reckoning is merely a small-scale error.

In the second or timing method, the errors arise principally from

uncertainty of the true altitude, and also uncertainty of the height of
the observed object; the latter quantity varies independently of every-
thing else, while the altimeter uncertainty usually becomes greater as
the distance and time interval from the beginning of the flight increase.
Thus there will be an increasing divergence of the ascertained ground
speed from the true value, and the effect on the dead reckoning is, of
course, similar.
If the courses to be made good during the flight are point-to-point
courses to avoid natural obstacles, to keep within reasonable distance
ofemergency landing grounds, or for other reasons, the change of course
to be calculatedby the navigator (owing to wind) will not be accurate
when method 2 is used, but will be more accurate when method 3 is used.
 niAPTKl^ VIT
DEAD-RECKONING EQUIPMENT
Navigation has necessitated the development of s('\eral ncnv types
of instruments to assist the flier in piloting his craft and to aid the naviga-
tor in determining his position. Sevei-al of these, such as the inclinom-
eter and the turn indicator, have no direct bearing on determining the
position of the craft but are required for navigation und(^r conditions of
limited visibility.
—
Correct Arrangement of Instruments. Proper instrument flying can
be done only by using the instruments in combination with one another;
therefore it is of the utmost importance that they be properly grouped
so that the eye can travel from one to the other with maximum ease.
The arrangement of the instruments on the panel should be carefully
])lanned with this fact in mind, and the student should then be trained
to take advantage of this arrangement and learn to read the instruments
in their correct sequence.
It is the purpose here, however, not to discuss instrument flight (thc^
reader is referred to ''Instrument Flying," by Weems and Zweng, for
detailed study of this) but rather to point out the existence of instruments
of two classes — those for navigation and those for plane control — and to
describe those navigational instruments necessary for dead leckoning.
These latter may be grouped as follows:
a. Compass (magnetic).
b. Drift sight.
c. Altimeter.
d. Air-speed indicator.
Watch, or elapsed-time clock.
e.

/. Charts, chart board, and aircraft plotter.

Other instruments not strictly necessary, but (l(\siral)U> for dead

reckoning in certain circumstancc^s, are:
g. Turn-and-bank indicator.
/?. Inclinometer or ])ank indicator of gra\'ity t\'p(^ and fore-and-aft
level.
?".
B(niring i^late and ]K4orus, or ()l)S(M-\-er-typ{^ c()m})ass.
j. Uate-of-climb indicator.
A'. Directional gyro.
/. Gyro hoi-izon.
m. Dead-reckoning computers.
130
 DEAD-RECKONING EQUIPMENT 3]

The Compass.- — The compass, as discussed in Chap. Ill, indicates the

direction in which the plane is flying and also enables the navigator to
take bearings of visible objects.

ree fine

/fofa/ab/e.
arm

-Dnff- angle
p/afe

Fig. 95. — Diagram of a drift indicator.

Drift Sights. — The

fundamental components of any drift sight are
means apparent direction of
for setting a line or wire parallel to the
movement of the ground and some means
of measuring the drift angle, i.e.^ the angle
between the line or wire and the longi-
tudinal axis of the airplane.
The plain drift sight (Fig. 95) is in-
stalled where the navigator can look
through it at objects on the ground. It
is installed so that the zero degree line is

parallel to the fore-and-aft line of the

plane. To use it the navigator, with eye
held in one position, looks through the slot
in the rotatable arm at objects on the
ground and turns the arm until the ob-
jects appear to travel down the slot, par-
allel to the wire or to the sides of the slot.
He then reads the angle of drift from the
Fig. 96. —
Longines speed timer,
permitting ground-speed and other
scale on the drift-angle plate. calculations to 0.2 sec. and up to
60 sec. on outer dial, or up tc 60 min.
To find the drift angle in this way, it is on small top dial, or up to 12 hr. on
not necessary to know the altitude; it is small lower dial. The plunger at
the left permits time to be "taken
only necessary to be able to see stationary out," leaving desired flying-time
ob j ects on the ground It is therefore easy
.
record. {Courtesy of Longines-W itt-
nauer Co m pan // .

to get the drift when flying over land.

When flying over water, objects to sight on are not easy to find, but the
break of waves or ripples can generally be seen and a reasonably accurate
132 AIR XAVJGATION

(liill i(':i(lin<:; obtained. By adding two sliders and an eyepiece to the

])hiin drift sight shown in Fig. 95, itbecomes also a ground-s])eed meter.
The eye is held at a fixed distance above the drift arm, and the shders
are set to correspond to the altitude. The time required for the observed
object to pass from the first to the second slider determines the ground
speed. Special timers, such as the one shown in Fig. 96, are used for
timing the observations.

«#

Fig. 97.— Gatty drift indiratc ind(^x hown at the ripht.

Gatty Drift Indicator. — Figure 97 shows the drift indicator designed

by Harold Gatty to provide a means for measuring drift from inside a
plane by a pilot at tlu^ controls with the eye in normal position. The
drift grid and ground ai)i)ear in the same i)lane through a periscope.
Drift is determined by obserA'ing an object on the ground or on the water.
The drift grid is placed parallel to the aj^parent motion of the observed
body by means of the knui'led screw, and the drift is indicated on the
scale. The Gatty drift indicator may be mounted in any plane and is
easy to operate.
TheAltimeter. —
The altimeter is required, not only for use in the
(iireclnu^thod of dc^termining ground speed, but also for correcting the
readings of tlu^ air-speed indicator, as well as for general dead-reckoning
 DEAD-RECKONING EQUIPMENT 133

purposes; for example, a change of altitude may be regarded as a warning

to check the wind, as this generally varies with the altitude.
The altimeter (see Fig. 98) is an adaptation of the aneroid barometer
to indicate altitude. Its face is graduated in altitude in feet, instead of
in barometric pressure. The scale is uniformly graduated, i.e., the angle
between the zero mark and the 1,000-ft. mark is the same as that between
any two adjacent 1,000-ft. marks. This, together with the fact that
the face can be rotated by means of a knob provided for that purpose,
makes various adjustments possible. For instance, suppose the plane
takes off from an airport at an altitude of 2,000 ft. above sea level, and
that the pilot is interested, not in
his altitude above sea level, but
only in that above this airport or
the surrounding country. He can
then set his altimeter at zero before
taking off, instead of at 2,000; it
will then register directly the alti-
tudes in which he is interested.
It must be remembered that the
altimeter, being a barometric in-
strument, is graduated for an alti-
tude scale that is purely arbitrary.
The atmospheric pressures for
which the instrument registers
various altitudes are pressures
which on the average do corre- Barometric
setting
spond to those altitudes but on any
;

Fig. 98.- -Barometric-setting altimeter.

particular day the pressure at any
given altitude may vary from this arbitrary standard by an amount that
will register several hundred feet on the altimeter. This may be readih^
understood, when one remembers that clear weather is general^
accompanied by a high barometer, and stormy weather by a low one.
If the face of the altimeter were fixed and the zero mark corresponded
only to the arbitrary standard pressure for zero altitude (29.92 in. of
mercury), an altimeter at a sea-level airport might register —500 ft.
one day in clear weather and H-400 ft. the next day if stormy. The fact
that the face of the altimeter can be rotated permits the pilot, before
taking off, to set it to the true altitude of the airport, or to zero for sea
level.

—
The Air-speed Indicator. The air-speed indicator (Fig. 99), as its
name implies, shows the speed of the plane through the air. Its use is
\ necessary to the navigator (a) if he is flying a straight point-to-point
course and desires to predict his time of arrival; ih) if he is flying a broken
134 AIR NAVIGATION

(•()iii-s(». and must turn at a i)()inl not indicated 1)\- a i)i()nnn(Mit landmark;
((•) if he wishes to find the speed and direction of tlic w iiid.

As ('\j)lain('d before, the na\igator can ol)tain ^lound sj^eed from

tlie

the drift indicator, hut he cannot fly at a steady ground specul unl(^ss he
fhes ata steady air speed. If he knows the j2;i-ound speed, drift, com])ass
course, and air speed, he knows that thc^ factor causing the difference
hetw(H'n th(» air speed and comjmss course on one liand and the giound
speed and course made good on the other is the speed and direction of
the wind, and tliis can h(^ ohtaincnl hy easy j^lotting.

AIR WEED
loo-ii:

V 180 "—,,' .

Fig. 99. —-Air-speed meter.

The
Pitot tube is placed where it will receive the i)ressure of the
relative wind caused by the passage of the j^lane through the air at the
air speed. It is readil}^ sec^n that this pressure d(^}XMids upon the air
speed. It has been determined that it is directly proportional to the
square of the air speed and to the densit}^ of the air; the latter depends
chiefly on the barometric pressure, but also to some extent on temperature.
The barometric pressure falls with increasing altitude. Therefor(\
although the air speed of a plane may be the same at 10,000 ft. as at sea
level, the pressure })roduced by the Pitot tube will be less at 10,000 ft.
than at sea le\'el hence, the air-speed indicator will register less at the
;

higher altitude than at the lower. The correction for this altitude effect
is roughl}^ 2 \wv cent per 1,000 ft. of altitude abo\e sea hnel. For
example, at 5,000 ft. above sea level the true air speed is 10 per c(Mit
greater than that shown by the indicator; thus if the indicator registers
100 m.p.h., the true air speed is 110 m.]).h. These corrections may also
be made by means of \'ari()us mechanical devic(\>^ such as the heiglil and
air-spiMul computer and the Dalton Mark \'I1 ('omi)utei- descriixMl Inter
in this cliai)ter.
 DEAD-RECKONING EQUIPMENT 135

In using the air-speed indicator for accurate navigation, it is essential

to make Although air-speed indicators are accu-
this altitude correction.
rately built instruments, they are connected by long leads of tubing to
the Pitot tube. This tubing may leak, in which case the indicator will
not register accurately. If he needs accurate air speeds, the pilot must
ensure that there are no leaks in the tubing and, as a final check, deter-
mine the other errors by flying the plane up and down wind over a
measured course. A good air-speed indicator properly installed should
not have errors exceeding 2 or 3 m.p.h.
Most air-speed indicators are graduated in land miles per hour, but
those used by the Navy are marked in knots or nautical miles per hour.
Since the nautical mile equals, for all practical purposes, the minute of
latitude, the use of a knot indicator helps to simplify aerial navigation
and is recommended particularly for flying over seas. If, however, a
miles-per-hour (m.p.h.) indicator is used, its readings may be converted
to knots by diminishing them by ^'^, or, more accurately, by multiplying
by 0.868. Various computers also make this conversion.
Air-speed indicators that show true air speed regardless of the altitude
have been built, but their complexity, cost, and weight have restricted
their use to highly scientific work.
—
The Watch. ^The use of a watch in dead-reckoning navigation
is merely to multiply speed by time to give distance. Any reliable
— —
timepiece even a wrist watch may be used for dead reckoning, although
special watches with stop-watch features will usually be found more
desirable.
A now installed as standard equipment in many military
timepiece
aircraft known as the elapsed-time clock. This instrument operates on
is

the stop-watch principle and provides a convenient method of keeping

an account of the elapsed time between check points. Its other uses in
the dead-reckoning problem are readily apparent.
—
The Gyro Turn Indicator.^ ^The construction and theory of this
instrument will be described in Chap. IX, but its application mil be
dealt with here. It has by custom been saddled with a wrong name,
as it is really a rate-of-turn indicator. It indicates ver}^ small rates of
turn (rates of change of direction) and hence gives a definite warning
that the magnetic-compass reading may be affected by the accelerations
causing the turn. It is usually combined with a transverse level which
indicates the correctness of the banking during turns, or that the plane
is level when flying straight, and thus serves as an indicator of whether

side slip is taking place and, if so, to which side.

Turn indicators are of two types, air driven and electrical, according
to the arrangements made for driving the gyroscope. The air-driven
type (Fig. 100) is usually driven by suction from a Venturi tube or a
136 MH \ A VldATlOX

Slid ion box and is cxl icincl^' reliable, but care must 1)0 taken that thc^

Slid ion used is of the coii-ect amount for the partieular instrument.
I'A'cess of suction causes the rotor to re-
\olve at too high a speed, with consequent
rapid wear and also excess of sensitivity of
the instrument. The electrical type neces-
sitates a suitable supply of electric current.
Bearing Plate and Pelorus.— Formerly,
and aecorihince witli marine practice,
in
circleswith sighting vanes were sometimes
mounted on a compass and used for taking
bearings; such a fitting wa>s called an azi-
Fig. 100.— C'oinhiiu'd tuni-and muthor hearing plate, and the
circle
bank iiulicator.
was read against the compass
bearing
card. When the compass was fitted in a position from which it was
difficult to take bearings, another position was chosen, and the sighting
gear w^as mounted on a dummy compass card which could be set to
correspond to the real compass card some distance away. Such an
arrangement is called a pelorus (Fig. 101).

VANE RING
FIXED RING
SIGHTING VANE
DUMB COMPASS RING
DRIFT WIRES

Fu;. 101. -Polorus.

The introduction of the apc^riodic compass and the transfer of the

compass card graduation to the grid ring, with the accompanying lowering
of the compass position, made the use of the bearing plate on the steering
compass im])racticable; the pelorus required to be set correctly, which
often presented considerable difficulties. .Vs a result, an azimuth circle

of ])rismati(' \ypc was fitted to another compass in which a light card

was s(H'ur(Ml to tli(^ niagnc^tic element, thus forming an obs(M*\'er compass.
—
The Rate-of -climb Indicator. The rate-of-climb indicator shows
in hundreds of ivv\ \)vv minute the rate of climb or rate of descent.
Figur(^ 102 shows the app(^arance of the instrument, which is self-contained
without any outside connections. It is used indirectly for navigation,
 :

DEAD-RECKONING EQUIPMENT 137

since the rate of climb or descent affects the speed of the plane. It
acts on the principle of the altimeter with the addition of a capillary tube
for the slow escape or intake of air as the pressure on the diaphragm
changes.
ArtificialHorizon or Gyro Horizon.
The use important instrument
of this
is described in Chap. IX.

—
Directional Gyro. The directional
gyro is a gyroscopic instrument that
has the property of remaining in any
direction in which it is set over a
period of time. It is not affected by
accelerations, as is the magnetic com-
pass, but has no azimuth-seeking
properties; consequently, it will
wander from the set direction after a
short time and do so in an irregular Fig. 102. — Rate-of-climb indicator.
manner. Its purpose is to indicate
direction when the compass is not available owing to turns. In use it is
set to the compass indication before making turns, and then used instead
of the compass while carrying out the turns; it is also used instead of the
compass in blind flying. Owing to the absence of any azimuth-seeking
quality, it requires frequent setting.
Relative-bearing or Drift Lines. — An
extremely simple and useful
scheme for the navigator is on the fuselage, tail, and wing
to paint
surfaces of his aircraft plainly marked lines showing relative bearings.
It is then possible for the navigator to take approximate relative bearings
or wind-drift observations by sighting along these lines. Since these
lines radiate from one center the observer's eye must be at or near this
point when observations are taken and this fact should be kept in mind
when deciding upon the point from which these lines radiate and which
governs their location. This scheme will be found particularly useful in
single-seater planes where the pilot must also be the navigator.

DEAD-RECKONING COMPUTATIONS
The greater part of navigation, other than piloting, as done by the
average aviator, consists of
1. Computing the ground speed and compass heading, given the
track, air speed,and wind force and direction.
2. Computing the ground speed and the track, givt^n the compass

heading, air speed, and wind force and direction.

3. Computing the time of flight, or the distance covcu'ed in a gi\'en

time at a given ground speed.

 1:^8 AIR .\.\ VKiATlOX

4. Comcutinj;- coiiipiiss couiscs to iiKi^nctic or true, and y'wxi versa,

and j)lottiug courses, positions, and distances on a chart.
Willi th(^ wind force and direction, the air s))eed, and the compass
course known, there remains a considerable amount of computation
still

to be done in order to lay the i)roper headino; and to keep to a definite

schedide of flight. The wind di-ift and ground sp(;ed must first be
determined, and then the distance traveled in a given time must be
c()m])uted freciuently.
The computations for ground speed, diift, distanc(;s, and time may
be made b.y:
1. Sei^arate calculations for (^ach i)i()l)lem.
2. Special tables giving (juick solutions.
3. Diagrams.
4. Plotting on a chart.
5. A'arious types of navigational computcM-s.

Se])arate calculations for each problem recjuire the solution of a right

t riangle and are little used in practice.
Special tables for convenient solution of dead-reckoning problems
were included at some length in the earlier editions of this book but,
with the development of efficient computers, the tables have been largely
replaced by such computers as the Dalton Mark VII. Some of these
tables are shown in Appendix A.
Dead -reckoning Data from Diagrams. —
The tables discussed above
and other data may be put into graphical form b}^ means of diagrams.
In using a diagram the interpolation required is done by ^ye and is
usually easier and faster. Since the various navigational computers
(described later) ha^-e for the time being largely supplanted tabular and
gra])hical methods, no further mention will be made of diagrams.
Dead-reckoning Plotting on Charts. This is the usual method of —
accomplishing dead reckoning and, because of its importance, is discussed
at length in Cha]). II on Charts.
—
Dead -reckoning Computers. It is not possible to (h^scribe all llu>
various types of dead-reckoning computers that have \n\n\ i)roduced, but
tlu^ following ar(^ gi\'en as rei)i-(^s(Mitative of their class.
The Jenson Aircraft Computer. This computer (Fig. 103) was —
(l(\signed by Captain H. M. Jensen, U. S. Navy, to solve problems involv-
ing air s]:)eed, ground s])ee(l, wind angle, wind velocity, and drift angle
any two IxMiig (visily determintul \\\\v\\ the other three are known. Other
|)r()l)l(Mns, such as compass corrcH'tion to parallel ti-ack when miles
flown and miles off course known, may also be soIvcmI. The device
ai'e

consists of a base plate on which the diagram is printed and to which is

pivoted ;i t ra,ns))nr(>nt sj)iiui(M- with a scale and an-ow.
 DEAD-RECKONING EQUIPMENT 139

To give one example of the facility with which the device may be
used to solve any of several problems, suppose that we are given a course
of 150°, a wind of 15 knots from 30°, and a true air speed of 120 knots,
and that we require the ground speed and course correction. Set the
arrow of the rotating (top) disk at the zero of the outer (fixed) circle.
Pencil-mark the point on the top disk corresponding to the intersection

Fig. 103. — Jensen aircraft computer.

of the 120°-wind-angle curve (150 — 30) and the force 15-knot curve as
shown at A in Fig. 103. disk until the point A is over
Then rotate the top
the 120-knot air-speed curve as shown in Fig. 104. The course correc-
tion is equal to the number of curves between the point A and the outer
circle, or 63^° as shown under bracket B. Opposite the arrow read the
ground speed 127 knots as indicated at C.
The Aircraft Navigational Computer Mark VII. — Aerial dead reckon-
ing requires that the course be corrected for ^^-ind drift, magnetic
variation, and the compass deviation, and that the speed be corrected
air
for the air-speed-meter calibration, the pressure altitude and air tem-
perature, and the increase or decrease of speed due to the wind. Xone
140 AIR XAVIGATION

of thos(^ corrcH'tions is in itself pjiiticuhiji>' difficult, but it takes time and

consiclerahlo mental effort for the navigator to be sure of his results.
A computers, starting with the Dead Reckoner by the author,
series of
has been developed since 1932 to solve these various problems; the Mark
VII is one of the best of these. It was developed originally by the late
Lieut. Philip Dalton, U.S.N.R., for military purposes. Soon afterward,
it was widely adopted by air-line pilots.

Fig. 104. — Jensen aircraft ooinpntor alipjnod to sliow {iroiuul speed.

Figure 105 illustrates the side of the instrument used for solving wind
problems. A is a transi)arent rotatable celluloid i)lotting disk on
which a wind arrow, such as OW, is pencil-marked in })roper orientation
with respect to the disk com]>ass rose and to the scale of the transj^arent
grid piece B. C is the base ])i(M'(\ the center Ihie of wliich has an air-
speed scale on which are pencil-marked the true air si)e(Hl. as at H, and
the magnetic xaiiation, as at .1/. With these data pencil-marked on the
comi)utei-. a drift and gr()und-sj)eed problem may be solved as follows:
The |)l()tting disk .1 is rotated to set the track or course desired to be
made good at the track index Tr and held there while the grid piece B
 DEAD-RECKONING EQUIPMENT 141

is rotated to adjust the points W

and H along the same vertical grid line,
as shown in the figure. The ground speed HW
can then be read from
the vertical scales of the grid piece, and the magnetic heading can be
read directly at the pencil-marked magnet-heading index M, the true
heading at T being disregarded.
The computer can be used to solve all types of wind problems. For
example, if the course and air speed and the track and ground speed
had been known, and the wind speed and direction required, the procedure
described above could be reversed to plot the unknown wind arrow OW.
Figure 106 illustrates the circular dead-reckoning slide rule on the
back of the computer. Like all circular slide rules, it has continuous
scales that can be used to solve any problem in multiplication, division,
or proportion. As shown at the left-hand side of the figure, the main
outer scales are labeled ''Miles" and ''Minutes," and adjacent to the
"minutes" scale is an extra scale labeled "Hours." The 60-min. and
1-hr. divisions of the time scales are marked with an arrow labeled
"Ground-speed Index." With this index set to read a given speed on
the "miles" scale, the time required to make good any distance at that
speed, or vice versa, can be read directly from the time and distance
scales. Or, by setting an elapsed time opposite the distance made good,
the ground speed can be read from the distance scale opposite the speed
index.
The 33- and 38-min. marks are labeled "Naut." and "Stat.," respec-
tively, for conversions from nautical to statute miles, or vice versa. By
setting the index "Naut." opposite a distance given in nautical miles,
the "Stat." index is opposite the equivalent number of statute miles,
or vice versa. Obviously these indexes also give the relation between
knots and miles per hour.
In addition to the scales for speed-time-distance computations and
nautical-statute conversions, this slide rule has scales for appl3dng air
temperatuf-e and pressure altitude (see below) to correct the aii'-speed
meter and altimeter readings for variations from standard atmospheric
conditions.
Air-speed meters should be calibrated for instrumental and installation
errors. Then the true air speed can be accurately obtained by correcting
the calibrated air speed for variations from standard sea-level pressure
and temperature. At high altitudes and in hot weather an air-speed
meter reads low because the air that operates it is less dense. Installation
errors may amount to 2 or 3 per cent, bvit at an altitude of 15,000 ft.
an air-speed meter may read as much as 30 per cent low because of tlio
less dense air.
To make the density correction to air speed, the J\Iark VII computer
is provided with scales labeled "For Air-speed INIeter Corrections."
142 AIR NAVIGATION
/T

Ftg. 105. — Dalton aircraft computor, Mark VII.

 DEAD-RECKONING EQUIPMENT 143

As shown in Fig. 106, set the air temperature A opposite the pi-essure
(barometric) altitude B, pressure altitude being the altimetej- reading
when it is set to read zero for standard sea-level pressure. Having thus
set the slide rule for temperature and pressure, find the calibrated (or iridi-

Jl!lL,t

K^^t^ FOR ^%
AIRSPEED METER
CORRECTIONS
On the sea es 01 bo vesefy our air femp-
1

erafure opposite your baromefricaltifude.

Then on the outer scales.
CORRECTED AIRSPEED _ MILES SCALE
INDICATED(CALI BRATED)A.S. MINUTES SCALE
punoj6 aqj uo oiaz pcaj (^\ jas si \\ u9qM 6uipio9J japm
\\\x>mf\ SI apfijijiB pansDipui puv'SJnsssjd iaA9|

bas pjiopuio|SJo] ojez/-\peij 0| ps si |i u9qM &ui

-pD3Jjaf3Lui||iojnoA's!^ 3pnjj|[io ou'iaujojiog
awjssaifiNioivCqgivaanvbjQgLvoiQNi
aivossBiiW" aaniinvaiLD^aaoD
:s3jDOSja|no8q|uo
uaqfapnijii 1(3 oupuuojioq ui33LU9q|afisod
do ajnpiadLuaj uioauj sqi ps 'u/wou>j AjajDj
-nxDSi ajn|i?jadiJU9]. punojb aqi ji ^ajpq jq
apnjjiiDOijpujajioq jnoA'ajisoddb ajniDja :^^J^J/
duiajjiio jnoA'49S3Aoqio saiioos 9q4 uq^
^/^Noii03yyo3 adi3winv"
'^^.^^-^ yoj

^^

S^
Airspeed Met-er Calibroi+ion Date: 'l/8/34\
For 60 70 80 90 too 110 120
Read: 5<5 61 11 5S 99 W9 /2^
130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200
/3/ /4/ /52 /65
Fig. 106. — Slide-rule feature of the Dalton Mark VII computer.

cated) air speed C on the '' minutes" scale, and opposite it the corrected
or true air speed D.
Altimeter corrections aremade by a similar procediue. If the ground-
level temperature and pressure altitude are not known, set the tempera-
ture aloft on the scales labeled 'Tor Altimeter Corrections," and read
t)ie corrected altitude fnmi the "miles" scales opposite the caHl^iated
144 AiH .\.\\ic;at/on

alt it iidc on t he " inimilcs '"

scale. 4'his coi'icction is l)asecl on the assump-
tion that the standard tcniixMatuic lapse rate of 2°C'. per 1,000 ft. of
altitude exists. If the ground-level temperature and pressure altitude
are known, set the mean temperature ()])i)()site tlie mean i)ressure altitude
and read th(> coiicH'ted altitude as befoie; this assumes only that the
temiXMatuic laps(^ rate is uniform.

Fig. 107.— Dalton oomputcM-, typo E-lA.

In addition to the uses mentioned above, an alert R.A.F. officer has

listed more than thirty uses for the ]\Iark VII computer. Complete
instructions with sample problems are furnished with the Dalton Mark
VII computer.
Dalton Computer, Type E-lA.^This is an enlarged edition of the
circulai- slidc^ rule found on the back of the Dalton Aircraft Navigational
Computer, Mark VII, Init having the back printed with a three-color
(l()ubl(»-(li-ift diagi-am (Fig. 107).
To use the t hi'ee-coloi- double-drift diagram, first obtain iwo drift
measurements on courses 45° either sid(^ of tlie track to be made good.
The diverging gi-een lines and the green scale of the diagram re])iesent
 DEAD-RECKONING EQUIPMENT 145

drift measurements on the course 45° to the right of the track, and the
red lines and scale represent drift measurements on the course 45° to
the left of the track. The intersection of any green line with any red
line represents the wind point for
those two drift measurements.
The position of this wind point with
respect to the black lines parallel
to the black track arrow, as read
from the black scale at the top of
the diagram, gives the track correc-
tion necessary to allow for the wind.
The position of the wind point with
respect to the black circles and scale
along the track arrow gives the fac-
tor to be applied to the true air
speed to find the ground speed.
An illustration follows.

Example.
Given: Track to be made good, 60°.
Drift, 1° left on course 105° (45° MODEL-

to right of track).
Drift, 8° right on course 15° (45°
to left of track).
True air speed, 150 m.p.h.

Required: Heading to make good the

track, and corresponding ground speed.
As shown in Fig. 107, mark the wind
point W at the intersection of the green
line representing drift 1° left and the red
line for drift 8° right. Then read from
the black scale at the top of the vertical
black lines the correction —5°, which,
when applied to the track 60°, gives the
Fig. 108. —
Dalton model J computer.

heading of 55° necessary to make good the track. From the black circles and the scale
along the track arrow read the ground-speed factor 1.11, which, when multiplied by
the air speed 150 m.p.h., gives the ground speed 166 m.p.h.

Dalton Dead-reckoning Computers. — The Model G computer is a

device for quickly obtaining the solution of drift and interception triangles
and similar graphical problems encountered in aerial dead reckoning,
without the necessity of plotting the complete triangles. For example,
two or three small pencil marks made on the face of the computer and
the manipulation of two operating knobs give the solution of any wind
problem. The computer is also designed to eliminate all the mental
arithmetic ordinarily involved in applying variations, drift angles, wind
 140 AIU AM VICATIOX

angles. nr()iiii(l-sj)(M'(l iaclois. etc., all ^i\ en data and answers ])cinj2; road
dir(M'll\ on \\\v scales ol the iustninient. The computer includes a
eireulai- slide lulc lor si^eed-tinie-distanee computations with additional
scales ioi- aii-speed meter and altimeter corrections.

Fic;. lOOa. —-GillnuM- coinputer.

The insti-unient consists of a flat 1)()\ 3 in. wide, OU in. long, and 1 in.

thick with a hinged c()\(m-on top and two operating knobs on the right-
hand side. It is pj-ovidcnl with leather strai)s for fastening it to the
oi)erat()i-'s knee. The instrun\(Mit ('o\-er carries the cu'cular slide rule on
its upixM- si(l(^ and, when it is hinged hack, a note pad fastened to its
undei-side niadc^ a\a.ilal)le and the face of the wind cominiter is exi)osed.
is

Tlie wind computer consists of a transparent plotting disk mounted in a

c()mj)ass ring, rotatcnl by an ()j)erating knob. A section of a polar coordi-
 DEAD-RECKONING EQUIPMENT 147

nate chart, in the form of an endless belt mounted on i-oUers, is \'isihle

directly beneath the transparent plotting disk.
The Dalton Model J computer differs from the Model G only in con-
struction. Instead of the drift grid being mounted ''belt style" on

— 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

^.'sM-Y^'o-Vi
\\ '%T fH-a'cY^a'sl
H-hiXft'i"Vvi 1 r
290 -i-XJLJj/ ///r~A/
-o'\
-10 \
\\ \ \\\\\\\ \ 1 1 /
f-
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0-280
C\ \ \3rA\\\ \ \ L- ~r~T—f-i- 1 rTir^ fA~-
:\V — :l
270
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\\j\t
axWuvUwVn -o uTiiir mtuir rk-r
~v V'-V\^ \ \

:VvWuSAVmif^\TnjjL
"^\
\W\\ \ \3rV>\\
\ \—\'\'\ \ \ \ \

Muummmi
0-240
:260-4-4-LL

- 1

444~LL
I I 1
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1
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1
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//"O^tC/
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7/:
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-\ \^
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-I iTTT1rT~H~^
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f
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/ / ^ Tt^(L 1 / l<1^-~J
: 1 1

-o\j>X^\\\\\VmVr 230 ] jjffj-LUj mil//-

mm
~r-t~i~4J
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10 E220- HWl
X^V^^^^^ tHjfffM
nV^ ^^^^v^^&
\ \ A-A\\ \ \ \
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30-200
[II

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210-

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iiiiTma44JI
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)0 -1 20- -i-l-LLI

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^^^^^^^^^^ 10 X+iXLl 1 1 1
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:<^v
^^^Q^S^^v^^vCvw : rTlr^w// W///7wyy//%cV V8^
-Xo'v"\So\\^\\\\Nc\\v 90f——JL / /^(J/////T/yC/////)C////\///ji'VoV-
/

IP
XcOPYRlGHT '^''IsSoAAVWVV^^

~N.<^OnSCALE 1-2 00Q000'

-^!;iC^O<^^ip0;p'.Os^3p
,
\ y^\
4pcf5p., ^,°,',°}=,°rr-*
\ .\\ \ \
40 :80
—
-'11
— :7pi 10-^,20 (l~r^^ /
130,140
f--!73''^
/7
1
/^^Z^T/GREEN

/\
,50,.,60,,70^8^
SCALE

/ ^^•//^^X/'yyOC<Py5c<^~
"Wr^
vzoooiaoy

P
-vfcj/-

Fig. 1096. —Gillmer computer.

\ rollers, it consists of a sliding card inserted under the compass rose. The
circular slide rule mounted on the other side. The operation is identical
is

to that of the Model G. The popularity of both of these computers has

grown considerably since they were first developed because they both
have individual features that increase their desirability. ]\Iodel G is
easy to operate in the air or under flying conditions. IModel J is compact
and easily stowed or carried in the pocket. It has become a standard
item to Arm}^ air navigators and is shown in Fig. 108.
Gillmer Flight Computer. Similar in principle to the preceding com- —
puters, the Gillmer computer may be used as a successful substitute.
148 AIR .V.l VKiATlOX

'V\\v drift ^lid Is in the form ol" a t iansi);ii('nt j)lasti(' platc^ to he oiicMited

freely on toj) of the compass rose. By marking the wind diiection and
velocity with a \)Oj\v\\ mark on the compass rose and wind grid plate,
the velocity triangle (wind side) Is located. The is completed
triangle

Fig. 110. — GilhiuT computer,

by placing the drift grid on top of the compass rose plate, the center
])late

drift lineon the course of thecompass rose, and the grid's speed circle
passing ovci- th(> i)enciled wind mark. The readings are then taken off
directly.
This type of computer is capable of handling any wind drift, radius of
action, or interception problems possible on other types. Its most advan-
 DEAD-RECKONING EQUIPMENT 149

tageous features are low cost, accuracy, simplicity in operation, and

extensive speed range. It makes no provision for magnetic correction,
all directions being true, and there
is no time, speed, or distance scale.

These be
latter omissions should notconsidered defects or lack of refine-
ment, since they cannot rightfully be considered part of the graphical
problem.
Figure 109 shows separately the two parts of the Gillmer flight com-
puter. Figure 110 shows the two parts together.

Operation : To find the heading and ground speed for a given track and air speed.
Given: Wind, 20 m.p.h. from N.W.
Track to be made good, 75° (T).
Air speed, 150 m.p.h.
(Note: Use black and green scales.)
Procedure: (See Fig. 110.) Locate the wind by a pencil mark in the quadrant it is
blowing from on 20-mile wind circle on N.W. bearing. Place plate B on top of plate A
with the course arrow (center line of plate B) through the center of the compass rose
on plate A and through 75° (track). Keeping the plates thus aligned, move in or
out until the 150 (AS) speed circle falls over the penciled wind mark of plate A. Now
read 6)^° drift from the drift lines through the same wind mark and read the ground
speed at the center of the compass rose, 159 m.p.h. The drift (63^°) is between the
heading (drift line through wind) and the track. Drift is always named right or left
of heading. In this case it is 63^° right drift and is subtracted from the track to
obtain the heading. Thus,

Heading = 75° - 6i^° = 683^° (T)

Remarks: Remember, air speed is always measured along heading. Ground speed
is always measured along track.

—
Lyon Computer. This is a circular computer designed by T. C. Lyon
and described in Civil Aeronautics Bulletin 24. On one side is a slide
rule similar to that on the Dalton Mark VII computer; on the other side
is a wind-drift computer.
Several air lines. Cox and Stevens Aircraft, and others have produced
special aircraft computers, but space does not permit of detailed descrip-
tions of them here.
—
Dalton Plotting Boards. These plotting boards may be used to sohe
many navigation problems quickly and simply. To do this, however,
the procedure must be thoroughly understood by the operator. By
orienting the transparent celluloid top disk, the dead-reckoning track of
the plane may be recorded. The bearings, courses, etc., may be drawn
in by hand and accuracy maintained if only the critical points are defi-
nitely marked. The principles used with this board are those described
at length in Chap. VI. Also, the same features are included in this board
as on the grid side of the Mark VII computer. These boards are at
])i-esent widely used in the air arm of the I^. S. Navy. Many c^f its
applications are of a restricted nature.
 CHAPTER Mil
DEAD RECKONING PRACTICE
For tlayli^ht flying- in fair wcathor, liii\'in^ j)l()tt('(l tlic dosii-od roiirso
on the (*luii-t, it is custoniarv and ([uito practicable ni(M-ely to note on the
chart any chai'acteristic landmarks along the route to be followed and to
shape the course in the air with reference to them. This is air i)ilotage
and has been discussed in Chap. IV.
However, many accidents have i-esulted because pilots, running
unexpectedl}^ into fog or bad weather, have been forced to i-ely wholly
upon instruments with which they were not thoioughly familiar. It
is strongly urged, therefore, that pilots practice instrument flying, in

order that they may be ])rei:)ai'ed for such emergencies.

—
Accuracy of Dead Reckoning. Reasonably efficient dead reckoning
should produce an accuracy well within 5 per cent of the distance flown,
or within 5 miles in 100, 10 miles in 200, or 15 miles in 300. Efficient
dead reckoning requires frequent observations for the wind force and
direction, and also requires that an accurate record be kept of all data
obtained. It profits the navigator little if, while working dead reckoning,
he notes the craft's position by pilotage but fails to make the necessary
lecord of the time and the new point of departure.
A good compass provides the heading with reasonable accuracy,
though in bumpy air it is sometimes difficult to steer an accurate course.
The air-speed meter gives a close approximation to the speed of the plane
through the air. The track and ground speed, however, are the data
requii-ed for keeping a continuous reckoning of the plane's position,
and these values are affected by the inaccuracy in determining ihv wind
force and direction.
It is a good i)oint to lemember that if a plane flies (iO miles on a
course 1° in error, it gets 1 mile off its proper course. A 3° error in course
over a distance of 120 miles causes an error to the right or left of the
course of 3 X ^'"^^^o == (> miles. Had Colonel Lindbergh steered a course
3° in error on from New Yoi'k to Paris, he would have aiTived no
his flight
closer to Paris than 3 X 3,()00/()0 = 180 miles. An error in speed alone
is no \]\n\v complicated than an erroi- in the speedometer of an aut()m()])i]e

— the plane will airi\(* ahead oi' Ix'hind schedule by the amount of time
gained or lost. in case of exc(>ssi\-e errois in estimating the speed, fuel
might l)ecome exhausted oi' ;i night landing might ])ecome necessary.
ir)0
 DEAD RECKONING—PRACTICE 151

Dead reckoning alone affords no means of determining definitely a

plane's position, once the position becomes uncertain. When in sight
of known objects on the earth's surface, the position may be determined
by methods of pilotage; otherwise, recourse must be had to radio or
celestial navigation, discussed later.
Suitable Charts. —
One of the most important items of navigational
equipment is an accurate chart. In fact, some of the other instrum.ents
are of fundamental value only as related to the chart. For example,
the pilot may be able to follow any given course by means of the compass,
but there are no practical means of determining the course to be followed
except by measuring it on a chart. Again, the altimeter registers the
height of the plane above sea level, while the pilot is chiefly concerned
with his height above the ground. At present the height above the
ground may be had only as the difference between the altimeter reading
and the ground elevation indicated on the chart. The distance to be
traveled, intervening landmarks, location of aids to navigation, airports,
airways, magnetic variation, etc., may be determined readily only by
reference to charts. Thus it is evident that a chart is essential to all
navigational control, regardless of the method of navigation used.
—
Importance of Keeping Records of Position. If flying over a fog
bank, or at other times when we cannot see the earth, it is necessary to
keep an accurate account of the courses steered, the air speed, and the
time on each course. For instance, if we fly 40 min. on course 77° by
compass and then steer 59° for 58 more min., we must step off on the
chart the distance on each leg in order to find the position after the second
leg has been completed.

Log of Plane
FEOM SMITHTOWN TO JONESBORO DATE July 1, 1942
TIME REMARKS
1010 Took off. Wind force 20 from 45°. AS 90.
1015 Reached altitude 800. Set course 87°PC, 70°T.
1028 Directly over Millville.
1052 CC to 83° to allow for increased wind.
1120 Speeded up to 95.
1150 1 mile north of Nixon. Altitude 2,000.
PC is abbreviation for per compass.
T is abbreviation for true.
CC is abbreviation for changed course.
The importance of keeping an accurate record of the dead reckoning
cannot be stressed too much. Each time the course or speed Ls changed,
this fact together with the time should be noted. Also, in actual prac-
tice, piloting is combined with dead reckoning. Therefore, there should
be a careful running record of all possible data pertaining to both methods.
A good way to arrange the notes is to put the time in hours and minutes
152 AIR .V.l \ /CAT ION

in the left coluinn, then to make tlic notes in as al)l)i('\'iat(Ml a foi'm a.s

l)()ssil)le to tln^ rip;ht. 'l'h(^ reason the notes should he ahhrexiated is

because of the difficulty of writing clearly owing to the \'il)ration of the

plane, and further, to save time. A suggested form is something like
the one sliown on page 151.
A running record, or log, like tliis will l^c found helpful in many ways.
When all goes well, these notes might not he necessary, })ut in order to
keep them correctly, one must practice, and wlien the data are needed,
tliey will 1)e needed urgently.
Preliminary Work.— Ik^fore taking off, the navigatoi- should arrange
the equipment, collect all required data, and in fact do everything that
he possibly can in advance. The course should be plotted, and suitable
intervals of either time or distance or both should be stepped off along
the course. Twenty-mile intervals will often be a convenient scale to
measure along the course.
From the latest wind data, air speed, and tiiu^ course (track to be
made good), all of which are usually known in advance, the true heading
and ground speed are computed. Then the variation, taken from the
chart, and the deviation, taken from the compass deviation table, are
applied to the true heading to obtain the compass heading (or course to
steer). This and other pertinent data are tabulated for convenient
reference and noted on the chart as indicated in the ])receding paragraph.
—
Operations in the Air. On taking off, the pilot gains the proper
altitude and sets the compass heading previously computed. For short
flights under 200 miles where piloting alone is required, the navigator, who
is also the pilot in a single-place plane, frequently checks the plane's

position by comparing recognized objects on the ground with those shown

on the chart. Ranges are followed where possible.
If it is found that the wind drift does not agree with the drift allowed

for, a new check is made on the wind, or an estimated correction is

applied.
If the visibility is low, or if on flights longer than about 200 miles,
the navigator should keep a careful written record, oi* log, of navigational
data, plotting changes in the original course laid down, or new courses,
as necessary. It is particularly necessary to keep an accuiate account
of the time, ground speed, and compass course steered.
Whei-e the pilot is also navigating tlie })lane, i)articular cai-e should

be taken to have the equipment reduced to a mininuun and arranged for

the most convenient use.
WluMi l)il()ting is i)ossil)le, advantage of this method should Ix^ taken
to k(>ep the plane's position dcierinincd continuously and recorded. There
will be times when keeping a running record of the plane's position will

appear unnecessary and useless work. However, when low visibility

 DBA D RECKONING—P HA C TI CE 153

from any cause is encountered, the latest recorded data of the plane's posi-
tion, the course steered, and the average air speed aie vitally necessary.

For (magnetic) N. 330° 300° W. 240° 210°

Steer (compass) N. 328° 297° W. 243° 212°
For (magnetic). S. 150° 120° E. 60° 30°
Steer (compass). S. 148° 117° E. 63° 32°

Fig. 111. — Deviation card.

Since taking drift observations is somewhat difficult and also inaccu-
rate, many navigators shun this operation. Where a plane has two-way
radiotelephone equipment, the wind data will usually be obtained in flight
from ground stations with more accuracy and with less trouble than it
may be determined in the air by drift observations. Notwithstanding
the inaccuracies and the difficulties in making the
observations, it is advisable for navigators to make To head Steer with
plane compass
frequent observations of wind drift.
(magnetic) reading
Where conditions permit, the plane's position
should be determined continuously, that is every 0° 0°
2 or 3 min., by piloting, and ample data recorded. 30° 32°
When methods cannot be applied, especial
piloting 60° 63°
90° 90°
attention should be given to dead reckoning.
Correction for Compass Deviation. — Owing to 120°
150°
117°
148°
the magnetic disturbances in the plane itself, the 180° 180°
compass does not register the correct magnetic 210° 212°
course on all headings, but deviates a few degrees 240° 243°
270° 270°
to the right or to the left on some headings. The
300° 297°
amount and direction of deviation are recorded 330° 328°
on a deviation card, which should be tacked up
in the plane for ready reference. It is recom- Fig. 1 12. — Deviation
card.
mended that deviation be checked frequently
(see Chap. III).
Figures 111 and 112 are typical forms recording compass de^^ation.
Both cards record the same deviation for the same compass but in differ-
ent terms and arrangement. It will be noted that this compass is so
compensated that true magnetic readings are obtained on north, south,
east, and west headings, and that deviations of 2° and 3° occur on the
other headings, i.e., to head plane on a course of 60°, the compass should
read 63°.
• For deviation cards having wording and arrangement different from
these, the principles are the same, and by a comparison with these, the
elements involved may be identified.
Note: To correct a magnetic course falling between those listed on the deviation
card, note the correction for the nearest reading, whether it is increased or decreased
154 AIH SAVIdATlOX

niul the luiiiilx'i- of (lcji;i('<'s of (linVrciicc. Applx' tliis correction to the magnetic
course to \i,v\ the concct compass headiiif^ to ste(-r. I'Aainple.s:

Desired (
'orrespondiiifi;
Nearest ( orrection Steer with
magnetic compass
heading indicated compass reading
course reading

65° 60° 63° + 3° 65° + 3° = 68°

145° 150° 148° -2° 145° - 2° = 143°
275° 270° 270° 0° 275° + 0° = 275°
310° 300° 297° -3° 310° - 3° = 307°

Correction to Course in Flight— Since the direction and velocity

of the \\in(l \aiy with altitiid(\ the initial wind corrections, made l)efoi-e
leaving the giotmd, shoiikl l)e checked in flight when possible, as these
will affect both the ground speed and the compass course.
To check ground speed in flight, transfer the 10- and 50-mil(^ inter\als
fioin tlie border scale of the chart to the course line by means of pencil
marks along the straight edge of a piece of paper. Ilse short cross lines
for the 10-mile marks and diamonds for the oO-mile intervals. By
noting the time of passing landmarks near the scale markings, the
distance covered in 1 hr. of flight may be read directly; this gives the
ground speed of the plane; i.e., if 120 miles of the course scale has been
covered in 1 hr. then the ground speed is 120 miles per hour, etc.
In practice there is no such thing as a constant comj^ass course.
The initial course must be corrected in flight for every change in direction
or velocity of wind. Wind corrections are always made toward the wind.
To Find Compass Course by Flight. — Ha\'ing drawn the course
line on the chart and divided it for the 10- and 50-mile intei'vals as in
Fig. 113, the pilot may begin his flight in clear iveather, without ])re\ iously
determining his compass course. Follow the course by landmarks for a
reasonable distance and imtil the compass card has come to rest, then
read the course directly from the compass. This Is the correct "ifn'tiar^
compass course, including cori'ection for magnetic variation, v ind force,
and compass deviation.
It must be noted, however, that this is onh/ the initial compass
coiu'se and that further correction must he made in flight for change in
magnetic vai'iation, convergence of the meridians, and changes of the
wind. Correction foi- changes in compass deviation are to be disregarded.
The correction for change in magnetic variation may l)e made by ai)ply-
iiig one-half of the difference between the magnetic lines at the beginning

Mild (Mul of tilC (•()U1'S(\

( nncctioii f()i- c()n\(Mgeuc(* of the meridians may be made by noting

the number of degrees of longitude crossed b}' the coiu'se line and on an
 DEAD RECKONING—PRACTICE 155

easterly course by adding 1° to the compass course for every 2° of longi-

tude crossed. On a westerly course subtract 1° from the compass bearing
for every 2° of longitude.

Starting Point To Destination

(§)— I 1 1
1
1 1 1 h—4 1
>
Transter Itie 10 and 50 mila intervals from the map border scale to the course line as illustrated.

This permits checking GROUND SPEED and Distance Covered while flying.

Fig. 113. — Checking ground speed in flight.

Note: This correction, for convergence of meridians, also applies when the true
course has been measured from the initial meridian instead of the mid-course meridian.
The amount of this correction varies with the latitude but the value given will serve
all practical purposes for flying in this country.

Correction in flight for change in direction and velocity of wind

can be made only by estimate, after a thorough understanding of the
foregoing has been gained through experience.
To measurethe initial compass course in flight, as described above,
is and practical that many pilots are tempted to use this method
so simple
exclusively. The result is that when they are called upon to use the
previously described methods for thick-weather flying, they are either
unable to do so, or become so confused with the elements involved that
the results will more than likely be wrong.
Though the pilot uses the simpler method normally, it is recommended
that he also thoroughly acquaint himself with the use of the first methods

described and employ them month, or preferably fort-

at least once a
nightly, to keep in practice and protect himself and the good name of
aviation in time of need.
Identifying the Ground — In fog
fljdng it is an easy matter
Position.
for those not thoroughly familiar with the magnetic compass and turn
indicator to lose all sense of direction; the compass may even oscillate
until it begins to turn slowly, like a top, as explained in Chap. III.
Even if the sense of direction is not lost, it is not always eas}' to
identify one's position on coming out of a fog. At such times a properly
air-marked city is most welcome. But, in the absence of such air mark-
ing, nearly every city or town has its own distinctive marking.
A city may be located where two main raih-oads cross this is a mark ;

that will not be duplicated within a radius of many miles. Even the
angle of their crossing is faithfully pictured on the chart. Another city
lies in the V where two rivers meet; another is just beyond the inter-

section of one of those rivers with a railroad.

County seats are marked on the chart with a circle and dot symbol.
In flight, the distinctive architecture of the courthouse usually a dome —
is an easily recognized landmark. Even the coiuity lines and township
156 AIR NAVIGATION

linos may i)iove of value, as minor highways and fences generally trend
with tliese lines, taking their direction from them.
one has identified one's position and Is still uncertain of the direc-
II

tion. stiaight course may be steered in any direction until a second

;i

ground position can be identified. The course followed between these

two points can now ])e determined by reference to the chart, and a new
coui'se set for the destination.
Highways have been advisedly omitted from some aviation charts.
It realized that in some sections highways do constitute important
is

landmarks, and for this reason a number of experimental charts were

prepared including highways. It was foimd, however, that to include
even major highways introduced an element of confusion that only
obsciu'ed more important and reliable details —
a conclusion that has
been confirmed by many leading pilots.
For those desiring a strip chart over a regular route it is suggested
that after plotting the course and dividing it into 10- and 50-mDe inter-
vals, a strip 10 in. wide, 5 in. on each side of the course, be cut and
mounted on cloth and folded accordion style. Some prefer mounting
on thin plyboard, and continuing the map with some overlap on the
reverse side of the board.
When the route passes from one chart to another, the charts should
be joined so that the plotted course forms a continuous line; the transition
from one chart to another may be made more easily if the adjoining
edges of the charts are divided into 10-mile intervals perpendicular to
the course.
Source of —
Wind and Weather Information. The Weather Bureau
forecasts wind and weather conditions for aviators at frequent intervals.
This information should be obtained from your local airport, or the
nearest pi-incipal airport, and those along your route, by phone before
taking off, or by radiophone in flight. This is the only safe way (see
Chap. XII on Meteorology).
Conclusions drawn from charts, graphs, diagrams, and general state-
ments of average or prevailing wind and weather conditions for years or
seasons are likely to be erroneous for any particular flight.
The ])ilot's interest and safety lie in definite knowledge of conditions
to be expected along his immediate route, and this can be obtained only
from current weather reports and forecasts.
Wind direction is that direction from which the wind blows. The
V. S. Weather Bureau uses the eight ])i-incipal true directions given in
Fig. 114.
Befoie working out tlu^ wind correction for the magnetic course,
true directions must be converted into magnetic directions by adding
west variation or subtracting east variation, as the case may be {i.e., for
 DEAD RECKONING—PRACTICE 157

Maine a northwest wind equals 315° + 20° west variation = 335° mag-
netic. In Washington state the same wind equals 315° — 23° east
variation = 292° magnetic).
Wind velocity is the rate, in statute miles per hour, at which the wind
is blowing. The U. S. Weather Bureau uses the terms given in the
Beaufort scale, Fig. 144, for reporting wind velocities.

Direction
Corre-
(usedby
sponding 45° sector
U.S.
true included
Weather
bearing
Bureau)

3373^° to 22)4'
22K°to 67K'
67K° to 1123^^^
112M° to 157K'
157>r to 2023^^'
202H° to 2473^'
2473^° to 2923^^
2923^^*^ to 3373^^

Fig. 114. — Table for converting wind directions into degrees.

SOLUTION OF PRACTICAL PROBLEMS

1. Given: An aircraft leaves a fixed base on true track 270°, air

speed, 80 m.p.h. Wind is from 136°, 37 m.p.h.

Required:

a. Ground speed and flying time out for 1 hr. flying.

6. Ground speed and flying time in for 1 hr. flying.
c. Same as (a) and (5) except total flying time is 2 hr.
d. Same as (a) and (6) except total flying time is 3 hr.

Procedure: (Solution from ''Radius of Action of Aircraft, bv Mary

^ Tornich.) Figure 115 is the unit triangle for 1 hr.'s flying.
E ^W wind speed and direction = 136^ 37 m.p.h.
W ->P heading and air speed flying out - 251°, 80 m.p.h.
W -Pi heading and air speed flying in = 109°, 80 m.p.h.
Sl rate of departure = 100 m.p.h.
S2 rate of return = 50 m.p.h.
Apply the values found to the foi-mula

R = T{si X s.)

\ Sl + S2

V
158

Fig. 115. — Grapliical solution of ladiiis of action from fixcnl lias(^ for 1 lir.

a. Radius of action for 1 lir.

, ^ 100 X 50 .^.. .. .,

' ""
100 T^) ^ '^'^'^ ''''^''

h. Radius of action foi- 2 lu-.

,^ ^
X
100 X 50 _ . .,

' 100 +-50 = ^'-^^ ''''^''

r. Hadius of action foi' .'5

lu.:

.. ^ 100 X 50 ,^^^^ .,
•^X '^^^'^^''"^
,00 + 50=
( )r, sohino; for /. to find the flyin<2: time out to the point of tuinin^.
in the foi'inula,

/,
= T X 52

:i + S'l
 DEA D RECKON I NG—PHA C TICE 159

lUU ~r 5vJ
2 X 50
(^) TT^Ti —+i"^/^ = 0.667 hr. or 40 miri.
100 oU
. . 3 X 50 ^ ,

^"
^^)
I00-+50 = ^

It is seen in the following that R = t X ground speed out:

(a) 0.333 X 100 - 33.3 miles

(5) 0.667 X 100 = 66.7 miles
(c) 1 X 100 = 100 miles

If R = ti X ground speed in, then

—. T-T- = flying time in

7^1
Ground speed m
Applying the values found for R to the above formula,

33.3 miles
(a) ^7^^ -,— = 0.666 hr., or 40 min.
50 m.p.n.
., 66.7 miles oo r.^
r- =
. . •

Q^) 1^ 1-334 hr., or

. i

'
^ i
1 hr.,' 20 mm.
50 m.p.h.
. . 100 miles ^ ,

(^) ^n vT
50 m.p.h.
= 2 hr.

Recapitulation

Ground Air Radius of

Track Heading Flying time
speed speed action

, ,i Out 270° 100 251° 80 20 min. 33 3 miles

.

(^^jln 90° 50 109° 80 40 min.

60 min.
„, iOut 270° 100 251° 80 40 min. 66 6 miles
.

^^^jln 90° 50 109° 80 Ihr. 20 min.

2hr. 00 min.
,
, ^ Out 270= 100 251° 80 1 hr. 00 min. 100 miles
^^^iln 90= 50 109° 80 2hr. 00 min.
3 hr. 00 min.

2. Given: True course 300°, variation 5°W., deviation 3°E, Distance

350 miles, indicated air speed 108 m.p.h. After flying at 6,000 ft.,
temperature 52°F., for 2 hr. the navigator determines his position to be
200 miles from his point of departure and '60 miles to the right of his
course.
 160 AIH XAV/GATrOX

R< (jiiircd:

1. A^\\v (()inj)ass heading; to destination.

2. Ivstiniatcd fiyin<;- time to destination.

Solutio)} (Fioin ''Instrument Flying," by \\'eenis and Zweng)

liefer to Fig. 1 J(). Use Mark II plotter and Mark \'1I cominiter.

DESTINATION
MS l20mi.head270°T
'W

POINT OF
DEPARTURE

Fig. 116. — Off-courso problem

1. Giound speed out: 200/2 = 100 m.p.h.
2. True air speed for indicated AS 108 m.p.h., temperature 52°F.,
at 0,000 ft., is 1 20. The indicated AS may be converted to true AS direct
by the Mark VH computer, which gives true AS 111 per cent of indicated
AS.
3. Plot the wind for 1 hr. by connecting a point 120 miles along the
couise line with a point 100' miles along the track line, giving a wind of
;iS'.j m.i).h. from 249° true.
 DEAD RECKONING—PRACTICE 161

4. Transpose this wind to the position determined at the end of

2 hr. and plotheading and GS in to the destination, giving heading
for
= 270° true, GS = 85 m.p.h.
5. Compass heading for 270° true, variation 5°W., deviation 3°E., is

270° + 5° - 3° = 272°.
6. Distance in = 171 from the plot; therefore 171/85 = 2 hr. 1 min.,
flying time to the destination.

Note: A practical method for computing true from indicated AS is to assume

2 miles increase in indicated air speed for each 1,000-ft. increase in altitude. In this
problem 6,000 ft. increases the indicated air speed 12 m.p.h., giving a true air speed
of 108 plus 12, or 120 m.p.h.

Explanation: The first step is to lay off your course from the point of
departure or last known position. This is the heading that has been
maintained. Along it, with a suitable scale, lay out the air speed or the
distance at the end of 1 hour's travel.
Now from fix you determine that you
the point of departure by radio
have been set off this course a definite distance and a certain number of
miles from the point of departure. From the account of the time and
the distance between this new fix and the point of departure the ground
speed may be determined. It is laid out on the track line determined
above. The triangle is then completed by connecting the ends of the
air-speed and ground-speed lines with the wind force and direction line.
As soon as this wind is determined, lay out a new course to the destination
from the present position. This now becomes your track, or the ground
you must actually cover. From your position then place your wind force
and direction arrow and connect the two lines by striking an arc from the
head of the wind line equal to the air speed. This line, then, is the new
heading. (See Fig. 116, EWP.)

Letdown Procedure
In order that a pilot flying on instruments may make allowance for
descending from normal cruising altitude to break out over or near the
location where he desires to approach his field for landing and determine
the time for this descent, the following procedure should be adhered to.
The indicated air speed being controlled at constant value, the pilot
may determine the true air speed for the letdown by averaging the true
air speed at his cruising altitude and the true air speed at the altitude
he desires to level off near his landing. With this as the letdown air
speed, we consider the letdown as a separate drift problem, soh'ing for
our ground speed and heading thus: With the neAv air speed, construct
the air-speed side of the triangle from the head of the wind line to deter-
mine the new ground speed. The wind used here is the same ^^'ind used
throughout the course or a corrected wind determined duiing flight as
i(;2 A Hi \.\ via.\Ti()\

Ix'in^ the With the new ground sj)ee(l detei-

most accuijitc estimate.
mined, the tinn^ loi- letdown ma\' he set and tlic letdown
l)e«i;iiiiiinjr tlie

begun at the proper time to bieak out at the desired spot. A tj'pical
problem is here given for illustration.

3. Given: C,XT) = 270°(ti-ack to be made). Wind = 225°(S.W.),

50 m.p.h. Distanee = 200 miles. (Indicated) AS = 100 m.p.h. at
Hying altitude 10,000 ft. Letdown AS = 100 m.p.h., rate 500 ft. per
minute to break out at 1,500 ft.

DRIFT PHASE

Ground speed 79 m.p.h.

Fiu. 117. —Letdown problem diit't i>lui.se.

Required: What course to fly [heading (7') J; the total flying time.
Solution: True AS = 120 m.p.h. at 10,000 ft. (2 m.p.h. for each
1,000 ft.).

1. Drift phase: See Fig. 117.

2. Letdown phase: See Fig. 118.

10,000 ft. to 1,500 ft. - 8,500 ft. to drop at 500 ft. per minute
= 17 min. to letdown.
True as at 10,000 ft. = 120 m.p.h.
True as at 1,500 ft. = 103 m.p.h.
Average ti-ue as for letting down = 111.5 m.p.h.
17 min. at 70 m.i).h. OS = 19.8 miles
19.8 miles from total distance of 200 miles leaves 180.2 miles.
180.2 miles at 79 m.\).\\. = 2 hr. 17 min.
19.8 miles at 70 m.p.h. = 17 min.
Total time to fly 200 miles 2 hr. 31 min.

.\t 2 hi-. 17 min. out from the point of de|)arture, change the heading
from 253° T to 251°. 5 7\ and start letting down at indicated air speed of
100 m.i).h. and rate 500 ft. per minute.
 DEAD RECKONING—PRACTICE 163

Note: Another component might be considered in that the sloping track dur-
ing the letdown would actually be longer than the horizontal track. However,
on long sloping descents this difference may be considered neghgible along with
the component of the horizontal wind.

LET DOWN PHASE

New ground speed 70 m.p.h. E

Fig. 118. —Letdown problem—letdown phase.

Climb Procedure

The problems involved in climb with regard to the navigational

factors are very similar to those of letdown. Because of varying load
and its effect on safe rate however, a wider range of factors
of climb,
results. The indicated air speed on most air-line planes is normally
maintained at 120 m.p.h. throughout the climb. The rate of climb at
sea level is, however, far higher than that upon leveling off around 10,000
ft. So in reaching a single value for computing the time for climb, an
average must be struck between the two.

4. Given:' True course = 270°(track). Wind = S.W., 50 m.p.h.

Rate during climb = 400 ft. per minute. Indicated air speed throughout
climb = 120 m.p.h.
Required: Heading and distance covered during climb.
Solution: AS (true) at 10,000 ft. = 140 m.p.h. (2 miles per 1,000 ft.).
Average true AS = 130 m.p.h.
At 400 ft. per minute, it requires 25 min. to reach 10,000 ft. (See
Fig. 119.)
For 25 min. at 90 m.p.h. GS = 37.5 miles.
Level 25 min., 37.5 miles from the point of departure.
off after
At 37.5 miles from the point of departure the plane is at its cruising
altitude (10,000 ft.) and on track to the destination, and the problem is
164 AIR NAVIGATION

computed for simple drift, as in Fi^. 117.' The heading should be

adjusted, and allowance made for a new ground speed.

Ground Speed 90m.p.h.

Fig. 119. — Climb procedure.

Alternate Airport Problem »

The following radius-of-action problem is one given on recent examina-

tions for instrument rating:
5. Problem: A pilot desires to fly from airport A to airport B under

instrument conditions and gives as the alternate airport C. The true

course from yl to B is 50°. The distance is 350 miles. The true course
from 5 to C is 180° and the distance 140 miles. The air speed of the
plane Ls 90 miles per hour. Wind is from 270°, 30 miles per hour. Aside
from the required reserve, the plane has fuel supply for just 4 hr. How
far may he proceed toward B and still have fuel enough to reach C if

advised by radio that the weather at B has closed in altogether?

The solution and explanation
of this problem are given in Fig. 120.
Solution: Plot B350 miles to scale from .4 and plot C 180°, 140
50°,
miles from B. Draw lines connecting AB, AC, and BC. Draw the
wind line A W
from 270°, 30 miles to scale. From W, the end of the wind
vector, with a radius equal to the air speed of the plane, 90 miles to scale,
strike an arc. It will intersect the course line AB at Pi. The direction
of the line WPi, 38°, is the heading necessary to make good the course of
50° true. Measurement of the line APi to scale gives the ground sjieed,
111 miles per hour.
To determine how far toward B the i)ilot may fly and still arrive at
the alternate airport C within 4 hr. we proceed as follows:
Assume airport .1 moves along AC at such a rate that it will reach C
in 4 hr. Measurement AC to scale shows it to be 281
of the length of
miles. In one hour must move at the rate of 281 4 = 70.25 miles
.1

per hour, to .li. Fi-om P\ through .4i, draw a line of indefinite length.
From W, with a radius ec^ual to the air speed of the i)lane, 90 miles to
scale, strike an arc. It will intersect the line Pi.4i extended, at P2.
 DEAD RECKONING—PRACTICE 165

PiAi is the rate of departure (aSi) ;

P2A2 is the rate of return {S2). WP2 is

the heading. Now, if we connect AP2 with a hne, its direction gives us
the track after turning, 163° true, and its length to scale, the ground
speed of 94 miles per hour. Since this is the track to C from the point

Miles
Fig. 120. -Alternate airport problem or radius of action from a moving base.

of turning, we may lay off this line from C. Where it intersects the course
AB will give the point to turn, R.
By measurement to scale of the line AR we find the distance to
the point of turning to be 306 miles. Dividing this by the ground
speed, HI miles per hour, gives us the time to point of turning, i.e.,

306/111 = 2,76 hr., or 2 hr. 46 mln. By measurement to scale of

166 AIR NAVIGATION

the tnick from R to C \\v find tlic distance to C to 1)0 110.5 miles from
the point of tuiiiin^. Dividintr tl)is by the ground speed, 94 miles
per hour foi- this leg, gives the time to leach the alternate aiipoj-t, i.e.,
116.5 94 = 1.24 hr., or 1 hr. 14 min.
Checking oui" i-esults, we ha\'e the time to the i)()int of tuiiiiiig ])lus
the time from there to C = 2 hr. 4() min. + 1 hi-. 11 min. = I lir., the
total flying time.
After finding *Si and ^S2 in the 1-hr. ti-iangle, the time to turn, tin;

distance from A at tm-ning, and the time to i-each C and the distance to
C from the i)oint of tuining may be solved in another wa}' by substituting
in the following formula:

where T = total flying time.

^1 = time out from A before turning.

to = time from the point of turning to C.

Qi = ground speed for the first leg.

92 = ground speed for the second leg.

Thus
,
^1 =
4
— = ^_
—X 118
T^^,
1/1
,
2./6 hr.

yl/e = 2.76 X 111 = 306 miles

RC =
t'^ =
^P = 1-24 hr.

=
1.24 X 94 116.5 miles

6. In order to emphasize the ti?nc element in wind and speed problems,

a simple problem where a plane is flying directly with and against the
wind will be analyzed. Such problems as these are of a ''practical"
nature in that a pilot, unthinking, might essay something like this: "I
have a 7-hr. fuel supply and the wind is off shore, blowing at the rate of
50 m.p.h.; therefore, to get the experience of overwater flying, I'll fly
3 hr. to sea and back. This will allow me an hour's supply of gas as a
safety factor." The sad result in such an attempt would be that the
l)lane would iini out of gas 50 miles at sea.
In ()i(l(M- mental picture of what takes j^lace, a
to gi\'e the student a
diagram The essence of the problem might
of se\'eral cases will be given.
be summed up as follows: Since less time is recjuired in going a given
distance with the wind than when going the same distance against the
wind, the gain in time going with the wind is less than the loss in time
while going against the wind. The usual mistake will ])v in considei-ing
(/istdncc and not time. The wind elTect of a given wind spcM^l is |)r()-
portional to the time it acts on the plane.
 DEAD RECKONING—PRACTICE 167

We will take the case of a plane with air speed of 100 m.p.h. flying
300 miles to sea with a wind along the track of 0, 50, and 100 m.p.h.
With no wind, the round trip would obviously take 6 hr. It will be seen,
by studying Fig. 121, however, that with a 50-mile wind the round trip
will require 8 hr. Also, it will be clear that a plane cannot gain in a
100-mile wind if its air speed is only 100 miles.

Airspeeaf/OOM.PH., wincfO
— ZOO Miles in 5 hours
>
-*—\ Round
'^
,

trip
500 Miles In 5 hours Shours
im
CASEII
Ain speec/IOOM.RH., wmd50M.m
wlh wind f§^=Ehours /^o^nd

(0
^— )- frip
^^^^^"^
Against wind ^-6hours

/oo-
CASE in
Airspeed 100M.RH., wIndlOOMm
*
will? wind ^=lz hours /?oundfr/p
y "i)Impossk

Agalnsf- wmcf ^= «>^ Plane

Fig. 121. — The time element in wind and speed problems.

We may also find the time of flight for this type of problem by using
the formula (explained in Chap. VI)

T =
.Si X S2

From which we have for Case 1

300(100 + 100) _ 300 X 200 ^

^ _ ^ Ans.
100 X 100 10,000
For Case 2:
300(150 + 50) ^ 300 X 200
T = 8. Ans.
150 X 50 ~ 7,500
For Case 3
300(200 + 0) 300 X 200
T = Ans.
200 X

7. A flight is to be made from Pittsburgh-Allegheny County Airpoi't

to Chanute Field, Rantoul, 111.

For this flight either the Cleveland and Chicago sectional chai'ts, or

regional chart 9M may be used. In this case the ship Ls fairly fast, dead
168 AIR NAVIGATION

reckoning (rather than piloting) will be employed, and the diainage

])attern and larger cities will fuiiiish sufficient check of position; therefore
chart 9M is chosen.
Known data: Cruising speed of plane 105 in.p.h.; wind 20 m.p.h.,
from 165°.
Required: The
distance, compass headings, and the total flying time.
A straight between the two airports is drawn on the chart and, by
line
means of the border scale of miles, the distance is found to be 434 miles.
When the route crosses more than 3° or 4° of longitude, the straight
line should be divided into sections crossing approximately 2° of longi-
tude each, and the true course for each section should be measured with
the middle meridian of that section.
After a careful study the route Is divided into three sections:
a. Pittsburgh—Mount Vernon, Ohio.
h. —
Mount Vernon Portland, Ind.
c. Portland — Chanute Field.
The information required for each leg is tabulated below.

Meridian nearest halfway 81°15' 83°45' 86°30'

True course 271° 270° 268°
Variation +4° +2° -1°
Magnetic course 275° 272° 267°
Deviation + 1° + 1° + 1°
Compass course 276° 273° 268°
Wind -7° -7° -7°
Compass heading 269° 266° 261°
Length 136 miles 132 miles 166 miles
Distance; from Pittsburgh 136 miles 268 miles 434 miles
Time from Pittsburgh . . . . 48 min. 1 hr., 35 min. 2 hr., 34 min.

8. A flight is proposed from Pittsburgh- Allegheny Airport to North

Platte Airport, Neb.
Required: The distance and compass headings.
The cruising speed of the plane in this case Is relatively low. and the
flight w^ill be chiefly for pleasure. Navigation will consist in large meas-
ure of piloting, and the sectional charts will therefore be used.
Since the Lambert projection alYords a perfect junction between any
num})er of charts, if space is available, the charts required may be care-
fully fitted together and a straight line drawn across all of them, from
starting point to dastination.
However, when more than two or three charts are involved, it is often
easier to plot the route first as a straight line, or series of straight lines,
on a small-scale control chart, such as Coast and Geodetic Survev chart
 DEAD RECKONING—PRACTICE 169

3060a or 3074. The points at which the straight line crosses meridians
and parallels on the small-scale chart are then measured and transferred
to the large-scale charts, and connected on each of them with straight
lines. The portion of the route appearing on each of the large-scale
charts is treated as in the two preceding examples, in order to obtain the
required distance and compass headings.
Following this procedure, we find that the straight line between the
two airports on chart 3074 crosses longitude 84° (the western limit of the
Cleveland sectional chart) at latitude 40°48'. This point is plotted on
the Cleveland chart, using the marginal scale of minutes of latitude, and
connected with Pittsburgh-Allegheny Airport by a straight line.
The portion of the route on the Cleveland chart crosses 4° of longitude,
and is therefore divided into two sections crossing 2° of longitude each.
The then obtained, and magnetic variation,
true course for each section is

compass deviation, and correction for the effect of wind are applied in
order to find the required compass heading for each section. The total
distance on the Cleveland chart is 215 miles.
In the same way the portions of the route crossing the Chicago, Des
Moines, and Lincoln sectional charts are subdivided into sections of
practical length, and the compass heading for each section determined.
The distances from the various charts are totaled, of course, to obtain
the distance for the entire route.
9. Assuming that the Hawaiian Islands extend 300 miles and that
a.

the distance from San Francisco to Hawaii is 2,100 miles, what maximum

error in compass course may be tolerated and the islands still be reached?
Solution: If we aim for the middle we have 150 miles on each side.
Solving by simple algebra: Let x = maximum error in degrees from
compass course that can be tolerated. Remembering that 1° error in
course gives an error of 1 mile off course in 60 miles traveled we have:

When it is realized that some aircraft compasses are not marked closer
than 5°, we see at once the necessity for steering a careful course.

h. If Colonel Lindbergh had steered a course 5° to right of the proper

course on his 3,600-mile flight to Paris, how far from Paris would he have
landed?
Solution: 5 X 3,600/60 = 300 miles.

c. If Admiral Coutinho had depended solely on his compass on his

famous Rock, and assuming he could see
flight of 1,100 miles to St. Paul's
170 AIR NAVIGATIOW

25 miles, what luaxiiiiuni enoi- could he ha\e had in the coiiise made good
and still have picked up the lock?

Solution: Let x = maximum permissihle error in degrees.

1,100
X X = 25
60
60
X = 25 X
1,100
X = 1°.36
 CHAPTER IX
INSTRUMENT FLYING
Instrument or blind flying is the term applied to the art of flying and
navigating aircraft under those atmospheric conditions where neither
the earth nor the sky is visible to the pilot. Such conditions are exempli-
fied by thick fog, dense cloud, snowstorms, and the complete darkness of
night, any of which would prevent a pilot from being able to orientate
himself in space by reference to any known datum. The arts of piloting
and navigating aircraft under circumstances so described are fundamen-
tally connected, and must for this reason be studied as one subject.
Piloting and celestial navigation become impossible when neither the
earth nor the sky is visible. The only methods of navigation applicable
to blind flying are dead reckoning and radio position finding. It is, there-
fore, highly desirable for the navigator to become proficient in these
methods before attempting to fly blind.
—
The Impossibility of Blind Flying by Instinct. It is now a well-known
fact that man cannot fly blind by instinct. The following extract from
a British pilot's record of his experience in 1915 describes vividly the
sensations and experiences of a pilot flying blind without special instru-
ments and without special training for blind flying.

A huge bank of black clouds loomed ahead. Our orders were to land if clouds
were too bad, but as two machines pushed on ahead of me, I pushed on too. It
started with a thin mist and then gradually got thicker. It continued so for
about 10 min. and then I found that according to my compass I had turned
completely round and was heading out to sea. The clouds got thicker and the
compass became useless, swinging round and round. I was about 7,000 ft. up and
absolutely lost. The next thing I realized was that my speed indicator had
rushed up and the wind was fairly whistling through the wires. I pulled her up,
but had quite lost control. I nose-dived, side-sHpped, stalled, etc., time after
time, my speed varying wildly. I did not get out of the clouds until I was only
] ,500 ft. up. I came out diving headlong for the earth. As soon as I saw the
ground, I of course adjusted my sense of balance and flattened out. I was,
however, hopelessly lost —the sea was nowhere in sight. I steered by my com-
pass (which had recovered, being out of the clouds) and after a short time picked
up the coast.

An interesting description of the mechanics of blind flying is given

by Donald Keyhoe in his book, '' Flying with Lindbergh." Describing
Lindbergh's blind flying between Boston and Portland, Keyhoe writers;
171
172 AIR NAVIGATION

I could almost see the cockpit of the Spirit of St. Louis, iind watcli Lindbergh's
eyes as they passed quickly hut methodically from one instrument to another.
Only by his perfect understanding of that set of instruments before him, and his
calm vigilance in reading them correctly, could he win that battle with the
elements.
It would almost be the same as the (iglit he had waged with the fog on the
transatlantic flight. From the compass which kept him on his course, his eyes
would have to go on rapidly to the bank-and-turn indicator. This would tell him
whether he was flying straight or turning, and how steeply the wings of his ship
were inclined, if he was not in level flight. Next, to the altimeter, so that he
would not get dangerously close to the ground. With this, he must coordinate
his knowledge of the particular terrain below, remembering whether it was rising
or not, so that the sea-level altimeter would not betray him through a false sense
of security.
From the altimeter his glance w^ould have to go to the engine tachometer
and the air-speed meter, so that he would be warned if the plane was climbing or
diving, the first of which might lead him to a stall, the other perhaps to destruc-
tion were not quickly corrected.
if it

At would have to pass on to the clock, so that he could

intervals his eyes
estimate the distance to be checked off on his map. Without this method of
locating himself approximately he would indeed be lost. When he could find a
spare second he would shoot a swift glance at the oil pressure and temperature
gauges. Thus the cycle would end —to begin again, at once.
And this must go
on, over and over, gave up and showed him the land below.
until the grudging fog
All of this while he hurtled along at almost a hundred miles an hour!
Blind flying such as this is the supreme test of any pilot. Some cannot stand
this rapid movement above a hidden world, nor the haunting fear that they may
have calculated erroneously and may be about to crash into some unseen obstacle.
Sometimes their senses tell them that the instruments are wrong. They break
under the strain imposed by their lack of confidence in their ability and realization
of their own weakness. In desperation they climb up higher in the effort to pull
out of the enshrouding fog, sometimes reaching clear air only at high altitude.
At this lieight they cruise along miserably, afraid to come back through the mists,
wondering where they are, and tortured by the knowledge that their gas is being
used up and they soon must plunge back into that terrifying realm of blindness.
Or else they dive down with the hope of finding a clear spot close to the ground,
where they can make a forced landing. Sometimes they succeed, Init sometimes
disaster comes without warning as the earth appears through the fog too late to
avoid a crash.
Panic is fatal in this kind of flying. Only the man witli utmost calmness and
perfect understanding of his instruments can keep it uj) liour after liour. . . .

Physical Reactions to Blind Flying, -ruder normal conditions of

visibility a pilot controls his aiicraft mainly by I'ospoiuling to his own
sensory reactions. The senses most iiu|)()rtaiit to him are sight; the
sensations of the vestibular labyrinths, from which is derived the sense
of balance; deep muscle sensations consecpient upon the shifting of the
 INSTRUMENT FLYING 173

bodily weight; and, to a smaller extent, the sense of hearing. Sight Ls,
of course, the chief guide, and while he is able to retain a view of the
horizon or of the earth he can maneuver his aircraft accurately
itself

without reference to any of the instruments on his dashboard. With

any diminution of visibility it may be necessary to make occasional
reference to certain of his instruments, but it is only when he is completely
deprived of external vision that he has to apply an entirely different
technique in order to maintain control. It is now incontrovertibly

Fig. 122.— The three reference Unes for establishing automatic control. Directional
control (rudder) is applied about axis Z, lateral control (ailerons) is applied about axis X,
and longitudinal control (elevators) about axis F.

accepted that man cannot fly blind without the aid of suitable instruments
and special training in their use. Even birds will not venture on the
wing out of sight of the ground in thick fog. Experiments with pigeons,
etc., have proved that they are as helpless as humans under blind condi-

tions. We, however, have the advantage of mechanical aids. Since the
mechanical aids used in blind flying usuall}^ include gyroscopes in one
form or another, it is now necessary to give a brief description of them.

—
Gyroscopes. A gyroscope is a spinning mass universally mounted;
i.e., mounted so that its axis may be pointed in any direction. This is
accomplished by mounting a mass that is free to spin in a support carried
on pivots whose axis is perpendicular to the spin axis, and finally sup-
porting the whole on pivots whose axis is perpendicular to the other two.
as shown in Fig. 122. Instruments that employ the gyroscope can
be divided into two general classes (a) those employing a free gyroscope
:

and (6) those employing a controlled gyroscope. In the case of the free
174 AIK \A VKiATlOX

j^yroscopc tlic p;yr()\vlicel is supported in a mounting

or spinning mass
system that provides the least possible friction or resistance to movement
about its supporting pivots. In the case of the controlled gyroscope
certain forces are employed which, in a way, I'cstiict the freedom of the
gyroscope but make it do useful work.
In Fig. 123 is shown a simjile gyroscope. It will be seen to contain
a wheel or mass free to spin. This mass is mounted in a ring that is

pivoted on axis A A'. The support for the pi\'ots tliat provide axis A A'
is mounted to turn on a vertical axis.
in turn
Without the w^eight W
this Is a free gyroscope, since the gyrowhcel
may be set spinning and the spinning axis will hold its position in respect
to space as the base is mo\'ed to various anglas
or rotated. Now
add the weight and it W
might })e imagined that this would cause the
gyroscope and inner ring to tilt about axis .4.4',
thus allowing the weight to fall. This, how-
ever, would occur only if the gyrowheel were
not spinning. The addition of the weight W
will, in fact, cause the spinning gyrowheel and
'^^^ supporting ring to rotate, or '' precess " about
A ^IL' B
jHj the vertical axis B as shown b}^ the arrow. It
^
JP
' is this characteristic of the gyroscope that is

employed in various ways in the controlled

gyroscope. The torque need not necessarily
be applied by a weight, but may be applied by a
spring, friction, air reaction, or by any of several

Fig Simple gyroscope, other means. be seen therefore that the

It will
least friction about any of the pivots must tend
to reduce the accuracy of the gyroscope. If the gvrosco])e just described
were frictionless, the W would cause the gyroscope and the inner
weight
ring to precess al)out the vertical axis 5, and the weight W would not fall.

Suppose, however, that considera])le friction exists about the vertical

axis B] this friction will clearly cause a frictional torque in the dii'cction
()l)l)()site to that shown by the arrow. Any such t()i-(iu(\ tVictional oi-

otherwise, will cause the gyroscoi)e to ])recess about the hoi'izontal axis
A A' and will allow the weight to fall after turning the gyroscoj)e only a
slight amount around axis B.
The following three simple ruU^ will helj) in understantling the
descri{)tions that are to be gixcMi:
1. Any toixjue about the horizontal |)i\()ts will cause a i:>recessi{)n in

azimuth.
2. Any toi-cjuc^ about the \-ei-tical. or azinuith, axis will cause a preces-
sion about the horizontal oi- j^itch axis.
 INSTRUMENT FLYING 175

3. All friction or restraint tending to oppose free movement about

the vertical or horizontal axes will cause inaccuracy and must, therefore,
be avoided as far as practically possible.
Applications of the Gyroscope in Aircraft Instruments. — The applica-
tion of the gyroscope in aircraft instruments can generally be classified
under the two types and the controlled.
of gyroscopes: the free
1. The which the gyroscope is used to indicate
free types are those in
a set direction by means of the very low frictional value of its supports
and its property of maintaining the direction of its axis in space. The
directional gyro employs this type of mounting, which is provided with
means of setting the spin axis in any desired direction then releasing it.

aE£-: ri-B-

vy

Fig. 124. — Schematic arrangement of turn indicator.

2. The controlled type is that in which a force is made to act on the

gyroscopic system in order to produce the required results by precession.
Under this heading is included the gyro turn indicator, and the gA^ro
horizon. In the gyro turn indicator, the gyroscope is restricted b}^ the
omission of the axis represented by B our knowledge
in Fig. 123. From
of the gyroscope be seen that, if weight
it will were removed, the W
freedom by pivot B removed, and the base then rotated, the gyrowheel
will be made to tilt, causing the top of the gyrowheel to move right or
left depending upon which way the base is rotated. Mount this gyro-
scope in an airplane with axis A A' fore and aft, attach a pointer to the
ring supporting the gyrowheel, and provide a dial for it, and we have a
crude form of turn indicator. The gyro horizon has the full freedom
of a universal mounting but is restrained in a position with its spinning
axis vertical by one end of the gyrowheel being made heavier than the
other. It is further controlled by air reaction that will be described
later.
The gyro turn indicator consists of a spinning gyrowheel ha\'ing a
horizontal athwartship axle carried in a gimbal ring that is pivoted on a
horizontal fore-and-aft line. Figure 124 shows two schematic views
of the turn indicator, where W is the wheel having its axis AB horizontal
 ;

176 AIR NAVIGATION

and athwartships ; this axis is mount (mI in the ^imhal ring R, which is

pivoted in a horizontal fore-and-aft line, the front pivot being shown at C.

A pointer P is secured to the gimbal ring and moves over a dial.
When the airplane turns, a torcjue is applied through the gimbal-ring
bearings to the gimbal ring and so to the wheel axis in a direction at right
angles to the axis. As already explained, the wheel will then precess
al)out an axis at right angles to the axis and to the
of spin (wheel axis)
axis of the applied torque (the vertical about which we are turning)
this axis can be only the horizontal fore-and-aft axis. As the gimbal
ring is pivoted on this axis, it will rotate on its bearings and so move the
pointer over the scale.
In order to prevent this motion from becoming excessive and to ensure
the pointer's returning to its central position when the turn causing the
precession ceases, a centralizing spring is fitted. The instrument then
becomes a rate-of-turn indicator having the property that the pointer
displacement is proportional to the rate of turn so long as the rate of
rotation of the w^heel is kept constant. Actual instruments must also
have some kind of damping device fitted and the indicator or cross level
must be incorporated, but these details are not necessary to an under-
standing of the fundamental principles of the instrument.
Turn indicators are generall}^ driven either by suction, when the
incoming air is made to drive the wheel by striking buckets cut in the
rim, or by electricity, in w^hich case the wheel becomes part of a small
electric motor.
—
Gyro Horizon. The gyro horizon (Fig. 125) contains a controlled
gyroscope, and its spin axis seeks the vertical w^hen for any reason it
has become displaced; it show\s deviations from the vertical both in the
fore-and-aft direction (pitch) and in the lateral direction (roll). It
consists of a gyroscope with a universal mounting having the wheel axis
A'ertical; the vertical-seeking quality may be imparted by any suitable
means of detecting the deviation from the vertical and of applying the
correct torque to precess the instrument back to the vertical.
The common peg top is a vertical-seeking gyroscope, as is known to
any boy, but it does not seek the vertical directly although it finally
gets theie. The torque, due to the center of gravity of the top not being
vertically above the supporting peg when the top is first spun, causes
the axis of the top to precess sideways round the surface of a cone, the
angle of which is steadily shrinking owing to other causes. The motion
of the top axis is at right angles to the plane containing the vertical
and the top axis.
Gyro hoi-izons have been constructed that behave like this, but
they are not so convenient or serviceable as those that move directly
toward the vertical instead of following a shrinking cone. The pre-
 INSTRUMENT FLYING 177

ferred type of instrument will precess directly toward the vertical instead
of reaching it ultimately through conical precession.
In order to replace the conical precession of the peg top by a direct
precession it is necessary to apply the torque in a direction at right angles
to both the wheel axis and the desired direction of return, which is the

Climb

30** Left Bank

Glide
Fig. 125. — Sperry artificial horizon.

plane through the wheel axis and the vertical. In the Sperry gyro hori-
zon, this done by allowing the pendulous vanes to alter the openings
is

of the ports through which air is forced. This arrangement is A'ery

convenient, as the Sperry instrument is contained in a case from which
the airis evacuated.

In the Alkan electrically driven gyro horizon there is a channel in a

plane at right angles to the wheel axis and, therefore, normalh' hori-
178 AIR NAVIGATIOX

zontal. A littl(\ constant-lorciuc friction diivc Ls used to drive a steel

hall around tliis horizontal channel at constant load. AVhen the gyro
axis is off tli(^ vertical, the steel hall i-uns uphill slowly, thus providing
the correct imbalance to cause the gyro to j))-ecess back direct h' in the
direction of the vertical; when the ball has reached the summit, it is
allowed to run down the other side very (juickly, so that the average
imbalance Ls just what is 'fhe slight, permanently rotating
recpiired.

imbalance, due to the ball'slunning round at constant speed when the

gyro axis Ls vertical, Ls useful in causing a very slight nutation, which
keeps the bearings from sticking.

Fig. 126. — Directional gyro.

The axLs of the gyroscope of the gyro horizon seeks the vertical,
but the vertical it seeks Ls not the true vertical; it is the apparent vertical,
which is the resultant du-ection of the acceleration thu^ to gravity and of
any other accelerations that hap])en to be present. If a 180° turn is made,
the erecting de\'ice will cause a slight tilt of the horizon a degree or two
in the direction of tiu-n. This is caused by ccMiti-ifugal force acting on
the pendulous vanes in the erecting device on the gyro, causing the
gyro to precess in the diiection of turn. If the turn is continued through
to 360°, the erior will cancel itself so that no (Mior will exist. In any
cas(\ a f(^w miiuit(\s of level flying will correct any errors introduced
Directional Gyro. — Tlu^ (lii(H'ti()nal gyro is a gyroscope universally
inouiitcMl ill n(Mitial (Miuilibrium. It will iHMuain in whate\-ei- direction
it is s(M until disturlxnl and made to i)recess. C\)nse(]uently. if a perfect
directional gyio could be made, it would maintain its direction in space
undisturbed.
 INSTRUMENT FLYING 179

In the actual instrument (Fig. 126) the vertical gimbal ring is used to
carry a strip compass card, and provision is made to set the instrument
to agree with the magnetic compass. This must always be done, as the
directional gyro hasno azimuth-seeking properties, and its main purpose
is knowledge of direction during the intermittent periods
to prolong a
that the magnetic compass is known to be unreliable because of turns and
accelerations. It must therefore be checked at intervals and reset when-
ever necessary.
Gyropilot. — The gyropilot may be likened to the human body, but
it detects smaller departures and acts on the controls with less delay

Fig. 127. — The plane from above, on a northerly course.

through its ''brain," ''nerve," and "muscular" systems than does the
human body.
The control gyros are like the "brain," the servo unit the "muscle,"
and the air relays and oil valves are like the "nerve" system that ties
the "brain" and "muscle" together in order to obtain action and control.
The follow-up system is also part of the "nerve" system, carrying infor-
mation back to the "brain" from the "muscle." The action of the fol-
low-up is such that control is applied in proportion to disturbance, and
overcontroUing of the aircraft is prevented.
The gyroscope that controls direction (the steering) is similar to the
directional gyro but is arranged so that, in addition to indicating a depar-
ture from the course, it operates the necessary controls to return the air-
plane to the prescribed course. The gyroscope that provides lateral and
longitudinal control is similar to the gyro horizon. It controls the posi-
tioning of the ailerons and the elevators (horizontal rudders).
180 A in \AVI(i.\TI().\

The oi)(Matin<;- i)riii('ii)l(\s of the Si)('ii\\' ^yi-()j)il()t tliat is in most

;('iHM-al use can best \)v dcscrihcd witli the aid of illustrations:

Fig. 128. As the aircraft makes a turn, the directional gyro maintains its position and
the card indicates the change of heading.

In Fig. 127, looking at the plane from above, the directional gyro is

set to north, and the plane is flying north. If the plane turns left to a
position as shown in Fig. 128, the gyro maintains its position, and the
card reads 315°, a change in course of 45° west. This change in relation-

Y\c.. 129. — The uir pick offs, added to the bank and climb gyro, are neutral wlien the phme
is in k>vel fliglit.

ship between the gyroscope and its supi)oi'ts is utilized to ()i)ei"ate through
an air relay a servo motor that moves the rudder to correct the departure
from tlie coiu-se. The directional gyro, therefore, foi-ms one unit in the
"brain" of the gyropilot.
For the lateral and longitudinal controls, the departure of the airplane
from th(^ ])lan(* of the gryoscope o])erates the air valves for either or both
axes and likew ise m()\es either the lateral or longitudinal control, or both
if the departure is about i)()th axes.

In ()r(l(M- to create the hvist possil)le amount of friction on the gyro-

scope the longitudinal and the lateral are arranged to provide control of
 '^

INSTRUMENT FLYING 181

their respective functions by means of ''air pick offs"; therefore, no effort

is required of the gyroscope.
Around the gyros are the air pick offs {XX'), as shown in Fig. 129.
There are three sets of air pick offs — two connected with the bank-and-

FiG. 130. — In a bank (exaggerated for explanation purposes) the air pick offs are actuated,
putting the system in operation to return the plane to level flight.

climb gyro for lateral and longitudinal control and one with the direc-
tional gyro for directional control. To illustrate the action of the
gyropilot, only the aileron control will be used, as the rudder and elevator
controls are operated in a similar manner.

Fig. 131.—" Brain. " The gyro is placed Fig. 132. —When the plane banks, as
in a box with its air pick offs. shown in Fig. 130, the gyro maintains its
positionand the box tilts, air being
drawn from the air relay through the
open port, D.

In Fig. 129 the attitude of the plane laterally is normal. In the air
pick off {XX') are two ports {DD'). In this position, air from the air
relays flows equally through the ports as indicated by the arrows {DD').
When the aircraft deviates from the level flight laterally as exag-
gerated in Fig. 130, the air pick offs, which from an integral part of the

k aircraft, take up the position as sho\^Ti.

is opened. Air, therefore, flows
Port D' is shut off, and port D
through port D and actuates the air
relay-operated oil valve, which transmits oil to the servo piston to move
182 AIR NAVIGATION

\\\v ailerons in \\w coirect direction to brin^ tlic aircraft horizontal. The
operation is reversed if the aircraft takes the opposite position.
Figure 131 shows the gyro and the aileron air i)ick offs placed in a box.
Air is drawn into the bottom of the box by the suction pump and M
directed to the gyro to spin it. Air is also drawn in from the air relay
(through ports D
and D' when the aircraft is level) by the suction pump,
and exhausted With the aircraft in the position as shown
at the top.
in Fig. 130, the box Is tilted and air is drawn through port I) only, as
shown in Fig. 132, port D' being closed.

Fig. 133.
— " Nerve. " With the airplane level as in Fig. 129, the "nerve system " is neutral
and no corrective action takes place.

The "nerve system," consisting of the air relay B and the balanced
oil is shown in Fig. 133.
valve G, E is the diaphragm, and F and A' are
two inlet ports that are smaller than the exhaust openings to the air pick
offs at the bottom of the relay.
G is the balanced oil valve, which is connected to the air relay by
the piston rod W. In Fig. 133 the system is neutral, the aircraft being
level as in Fig. 129. Air is being drawn equally from the exhaust ports
and, entering through ports F and K, maintains e(iual suction on both
sides of the diaphragm. Therefore, there is no deflection of the dia-
phragm E, the oil valve piston is in the position shown, and no oil is per-

mitted to flow to the servo cylinder.

If the aircraft changes attitude laterally, one of the ports (DD') of

the air i)ick off is o])ened fully and the other closed. This causes one
side of the (liai)hragm in the air relay to receive increased suction while
the suction on the other side falls off. Figure 134 shows the oj^eration
of (h(^ nerve system when thei-e is suction atD\ The action of the
diai)hragm E moves the balanced oil valve to the left, permitting oil to
flow to the servo unit through ])ipe 2. Oil from the other side of the
piston retiuns tliiough i)ii)e 3 and flows back to the sumj) through pipe 4,
 INSTRUMENT FLYING 183

The ''muscular system" consists of three hydraulic servo cylinders,

one of which is shown in Fig. 135. Oil enters one end of the cylinder
and moves the piston, an equal amount of oil being exhausted from the

Fig. 134. — When the plane changes attitude laterally, the "nerve system" is energized,
permitting oil to flow to the servo unit.

Fig. 135.
— "Muscle." The oil moves the servo-unit piston, which is connected to one of
the three control cables.

\ Fig. 136. — For take-offs and landings, the by-pass valve R is

to circulate around the piston in either direction.
opened, permitting the oil

other side of the piston and returned to the sump. The piston rod (T"T^')
isconnected to one set of the control cables of the aircraft.
When the human pilot is flying the plane manualh^, the valve B,
(Fig. 136) is opened, oil flows through the by-pass tube, and the controls
can be moved freely.
The three systems having been explained separately, Fig. 137 shows
them combined. is a suction regulator that keeps the vacuum at

4 in. of mercury regardless of the speed of the suction pump, which

184 Mli A.l Via AT I OS

\aii(>s witli \\\v speed of tlic motor. 'V\\v oil sump N C'ai-ri(>s the reserve
oil. Q is a \al\-e that le^uiates the oil pressure from llie pump and per-
mits it to circulate^ tlir()U<i;li \\\v sumj) \vhene\'(M- the halanced oil valve

Fill. 137. — The coinplctc gyropilot syst(Mii .shown (liairraimnaticiilly.

(ut> off circulation to the serxo unit. The serxo rc^lief vahe.-^ one of
which is shown at l\ |)(Minit tlu^ human i)ilot to ()vei-i)o\ver the gyropilot
when the syst(Mn is in ojXMation. The si)eed-cont rol valv(\^. one of which
is >liown at Z, rejrulate the sp(M>d of oil fh)\v to th(> scmao jMstons, and.
thci-cfoi-e. cont rol \\\v si)(m>(1 wit h w Inch th(> iiyroj)ilot op(M-ates the cont lols.
 INSTRUMENT FLYING 185

The final part of the "nerve system" has been added in Fig. 137 — the
follow-up system. It must be remembered in controlling a plane that

it is necessary not only to apply control to bring the plane back to level
when it has been disturbed but also to begin to remove the applied contiol

as the plane is returning to level so that the control surface will be back
in neutralwhen the disturbance has been fully corrected. A further
requirement is that the amount of control applied be in proportion to the
displacement of the plane. All this is necessary to both manual and
automatic control and in the latter is handled by the follow-up. The air
pick offs XX' are not fixed rigidly to the gyro box and the plane, but
instead, can be moved in relation to them by the follow-up mechanism.
A cable is connected to the servo piston rod at U and runs to the follow-up
pulley S on the gyro box. The pulley controls a gear T, which is con-
nected to a gear on the air pick offs XX' which are commonly connected.
,

When the piston VV moves to the left, the follow-up cable at U moves
likewise, and gear T, through the action of pulley S, moves X down and
X' up. When they reach a neutral position (both half open), the aii-
lelay and oil valve are centered and servo piston movement away from
neutral is stopped. Now consider that the control-surface movement,
which the servo has been producing, has been bringing the aircraft back
to level flight. As the plane continues in toward level, the air pick offs
that have been driven ahead of the gyro box pass beyond the neutral
point and begin to cause servo movement in the opposite direction.
This is not opposite control but is the removal of the control originally
applied. The mechanism and its ratios are so arranged that the correct
amount of control will be applied and also removed at the proper rate
as the aircraft returns to level.
The Directional -gyro Control Unit —This unit contains the direc-
tional gyro, which is the directional reference for both manual and auto-
matic steering control. It also contains a ballbank indicator, as shown
in Fig. 138, the air pick offs and follow-up mechanism for directional
control, and a means for setting the gyropilot to steer any selected head-
ing. The directional-gyro control unit, together with the bank-and-
climb-gyro control unit, is carried in the mounting unit and the whole is

installed as a part of the instrument panel.

For military aircraft and others that require additional facilities for
maneuvering, a turn control is supplied, which can be placed adjacent
to the gyropilot, or wherever most convenient. The turn-control valve
is a manually operated valve that controls the flow of air to a small air

motor in the directional-gyro control unit. The motor moves the dii-ec-
tion setting continuously, thus causing a tiu-n. The control ma^^ be set
for no turn or for a turn in either direction.
The Bank-and -climb -gyro Control Unit. —
This unit contains tlic
bank-and-climb gyro, which is used for lateral and longitudinal indication
ISC) AIR NAVIGATION

and conliol. It also contains the air i)ick olTs for tliose two controls,
to^ctluM- with the means for making manual adjustments. The aileron
knoi) permits one set of air pick offs to he adjusted for the desired lateral
attitude, and the elevator knob controls the setting of the (jther j^ick offs

AILERON KNOB

RUDDER KNOB

DIAL BANK SCALE

ILLUMINATING-
LAMP SUCTION GAUGE

HORIZON QIAL

RUDDER
FOLLOW-UP
CARD

DIRECTIONAL
GYRO CARD

MINIATURE
AIRPLANE
ADJUSTING
KNOB

CAGING KNOe
AND POINTER

directional gyro BANK AND CLIMB GYRO

Fig. 138. -Gyro control units, front.

FOLLOW-UP
PULLEYS
AIR
INTAKE

REAR
Fig. 139. — Gyro control units, rear, showing eonnortions wliich engage with those on the
mounting unit.

for longitudinal control. Follow-uj) indexc^s show the lateral and longi-

tudinal settings that are made. The "l(^\(^r' knol) {)ermits the gyro-
pilot to be set to fly the aircraft at any d(>sir(>d altitude. When adjusted
to hold level flight, this control mak(>s small shifts in longitudinal control
to comjiensate for altitude changers causcMl by change of trim or by air

currents. The bank-and-climb-g^io control unit is carried next to the

directional-gyro control unit in tlu^ mounting unit.
 INSTRUMENT FLYING '
187

—
The Mounting Unit. The ease of maintenance of the gyropilot has
been carefully planned. Tracks on the mounting unit permit the control
units to be slid into place, where they are secured by four attaching bolts.
Air, follow-up, and lighting connections are established automatically
when the and disengaged when the control units are
bolts are tightened,
withdrawn. Either of the two control units can thus be replaced in a
few minutes. Figure 139 shows the rear of the control units with the
connections that engage with those on the mounting unit (Fig. 140),

LIGHTING CIRCUIT CONTACTS LIGHTING CIRCUIT CONTACTS

(OTHER CONTACTS
FOR ELECTRICAL j^&k,
REMOTE CONTROL) FOLLOW-UP
PULLEY
SPRINGS

FOLLOW-UP
AIR RELAYS PULLEY CLUTCH
DISCS
AIR OUTLET
AIR INTAKE

AIR OUTLET

AIR RELAY
CONNECTIONS
FOR ELEVATOR
CONTROL CONTROL
UNIT
ATTACHING
BOLTS SHOCK MOUNTS

/AIR RELAY CONNECTIONS RELAY CONNECTIONS

AIF^
FOR RUDDER CONTROL FOR AILERON CONTROL
FRONT
Fig. 140. — The mounting unit, supported on shock mountings at the back of the instrument
panel and provided with tracks upon which the control units slide into place.

Other component parts that are carried on the mounting unit, such
as the balanced oil valves, the air relays,and the follow-up pulleys, are
easily adjusted in place orcan be removed for inspection and servicing
without having to disturb the rest of the equipment in any way. Stand-
ardized parts and the accessibility of the various units help to keep
maintenance costs to a minimum.
—
Speed Valves. The speed valves serve to distribute the main oil
supply under pressure, through the balanced oil valves, to the three
controls and permit setting the rate of flow of oil individually so that
each control may be adjusted to operate to the best advantage. The
speed valves may be mounted with the control units or placed wherever
most convenient.
—
Servo Unit. The servo unit consists of three cylinders cast en bloc,
with pistons that are approximately to the center when the aircraft
control surfaces are centered. The servo pistons are connected directly
to the main control cables of the aircraft. They are also connected,
188 AIH NAVIGATION

through the toHow-uj:) caliles, to the control 'units, so that corrective

control will he removed at the proper rate, as previously explained.
A manually ojxM-at od "on-off" valve, connected to a lever accessible
to the human i)il()t, l)y-i)asses the servo oil from one side of the pistons
to the othei- when manual control is desired. Sjirinj^-loaded servo
relief valves are also built into the servo unit so that the human j)il()t.

by apjilyinp; additional power manually to the controls, can blow the

valves and thus fly the aircraft manually even while the gyropilot is
engaged.
Motoi-driven and oil ))umps supply the power for the gyros and
air
their air and foi- the servo-unit pistons.
i)i('k olTs

—
How the Gyropilot Is Used. As soon as the aircraft is clear of the
airport and on its course, the human pilot rotates the adjusting knobs
on the gyropilot control unit so that the three follow-up indicators match
the gyi-o indications for direction, bank, and climb. Then he moves the
engaging lever "on" and takes his hands and feet from the controls.
The climb knob is adjusted to obtain the desired rate of climb. Once
this is set, the aircraft continues climbing steadily until the cruising
altitude is reached, at which time another slight turn of the climb knob
puts the plane in level flight.

For large turns the desired angle of bank

and the turn knob
is set in,
rotated so as to turn the aircraft at the desired rate. a small change of If
coiu'se is desired, it is only necessary to rotate the turn knob slowly to

the right or left. When flying on the radio beam the j^recision with
which these small changes in heading can be made while the g>Topilot
is in operation is an important factor in keeping the })lane on course.

On long flights a glide is often started as much as 100 miles from

the airport. A slight turn of the knob for glide is all that is necessary
in order to obtain the desired gliding angle, and the gyropilot thereafter
maintains a steady rate of descent until the human pilot is read}- to take
over the controls and make his landing.
To disengage the gyro])ilot, the himian pilot takes over the controls
and moves the engaging lever ''off." If necessary, he can overpower the
gyropilot while it is in operation.
Training. — As weather conditions are not always appro])riate for
this training, insti'uctional airci-aft ai"e usually fitted with a transluccMit
hood, which d(^pri\(^s tlu^ i)ilot of external \'iew. The insti'uctoi-. vS
course, ()('('upi(\s an opvn cocki)it. In addition to the normal flying
and navigational insti-uments the dashboards carry a tui'n-and-bank
indicator and a pitch indicator. Thes(^ are the only inst i'iun(Mits ium'cs-
sary for basic training.
As successful blind flying {l(^j)ends to an appi-eciable (^xtent on tlu^ self-

confidence of \\\v pilot, grc^at vavv must b(^ tak(Mi not to undcMininc^ this by
 INSTRUMENT FLYING 189

forcing the issue in early stages. For this reason it is customary to make
training flights of short duration and to master each control separately
before any attempt to combine them is made. The pupil may begin
with the rudder and should concentrate on keeping the aircraft straight
and making gentle turns on to compass courses.
At this stage the vagaries of the compass should be fully explained.
He will then pass on to the lateral control of the aircraft, and after
flying the machine level, should manipulate this control while the instruc-
tor performs turns by means of the rudder. A similar process should
apply to the elevator controls; then a gradual approach should be

Fig. 141. —Link- trainer ensemble showing the radio control table.

made to combining any two and finally all three. It is here

controls,
that particular care ison the part of the instructor, because
essential
the degree of unaccustomed concentration is a severe strain on the pupil,
and an unsympathetic instructor can easily shatter the self-confidence
of a promising pupil.
For example, it is not improbable that the pupil will maneuver the
an attitude from which he cannot extricate it; in this event
aircraft into
the instructor should take control before the situation is apparent to
the pupil. In the circumstances, his tendency isnormal
to revert to
methods of flight by obeying his own reactions in preference to the
information conveyed by the instruments. The conflict between what
he sees and what he feels is perhaps the greatest psychological problem
in the whole of his training, but he cannot hope for success until he is
able to convince himself that, although his senses may play him false, the
instruments will not mislead him.
190 \IN XAViaATIOiV

Experience has shown that the averjigo \m\)\\ makes vei y lit le progress
t

in handhng aircraft in all tliree dimensions (hiring the first 3 or 4 hr. of

liis instruction in the aii- and, unless he rccei\x\s i)ro])er encouragement,

he is incUned to admit defeat. This frame of mind must be axoided if

possible, because, although lie will not believe it, he has reached the
darkest hour before the dawn, and henceforth his progress should be
considerably easier.
Throughout hLs training the pupil will be taught to make all control
movements as gently as possible and to avoid either strenuous oj- .ieik\'

-Head-
phones

Fig. 142. — Cockpit of Link trainer.

movements of controls. These matters are important in defeating the
condition of vertigo that occurs when the hiunan body is depri\'ed
of sight and su])jected to changing positions or velocities. One example
will serve to illustrate this point. During the course of training the
])upil is taught the various methods of extricating the machine from any

attitude into which it may be put, but the most difficult maneuver to
recover from is the spinning nose dive. While the spin is in process, the
pupil is conscious of a velocity in a given direction, but as soon as the
si)in is stoj^ped, and before the aircraft is out of the resultant dive,
the change of direction has such a marked effect upon the pupil that he
is convinced that he is spinning in the opj^osite direction. System-
atic training will, however, soon defeat this bugbear, and there is
 INSTRUMENT FLYING 191

nothing like spinning to convince the pupil that he must believe his
instruments.
Training Devices.— With a view to reducing the cost of training,
many attempts have been made from time to time to provide devices
for use on the ground that would reproduce the same instrument indica-
tions as occurs in flight.An example of these is the Link trainer, which
consists of a small model aircraft, the fuselage containing the pilot's
seat, and standard stick and rudder, hood for blind flying, instruments,
and wireless (see Figs. 141 and 142). An electric motor operates a
vacuum turbine actuating a series of bellows. The air to these bellows
is by the stick and rudder, through a system of valves, in
controlled
such a manner that the trainer banks, turns, climbs, and dives in response
to the controls in the same manner as an airplane.
The instruments in the trainer consist of
1. Bank-and-turn indicator.
2. Air-speed meter.
3. Sensitive altimeter.
4. Rate-of-climb indicator.
5. Magnetic compass.
6. Directional gyro.
7. Artificial horizon.
8. Radio compass.
9. Marker beacon.
10. Two-way wireless, both voice and key.

The track the aircraft is flying is recorded and plotted by a relay

system on a chart on the wireless desk so that a pilot may see the exact
course he has been making good.
The sensitive altimeter shows changes of altitude when the trainer is
in climbing, diving, or cruising attitude, exactly the same as in an aircraft.
This permits problems to be flown at predetermined altitudes and makes
it possible to practice landings and climbs by instruments. The altim-
eter, in conjunction with the radio compass, marker beacon, gyro com-
pass, and horizon, used for blind landings and instrument-approach
is

practices. The an automatic spinning device, which

trainer also has
causes it to go into a spin when stalled. The apparatus is not intended to
replace air training completely, but there is no doubt that it ver}^ greatly
facilitates it.

Although the foregoing is not intended to be a complete survey of

the problems appertaining to controlling an aircraft under blind condi-
tions, it will serve to give a general idea of the difficulties involved. It
was mentioned earlier in this chapter that the normal flying instruments, a
turn-and-bank indicator, and some form of pitch indicator were the only
192 AIR NAVIGATION

iiistruiiHMits nocossaiy foi" basic traiiiiiip;. It is po.s.sil)lo for a pilot who

lias i(h(m\(m1 |)1()|)(m- training with this combination to fly for several
hours, bill a ^icat stiain is iini)os('(l upon him, and for this reason com-
mercial aircraft are fitted with additional aids that not only reduce the
mental strain of blind flying but also make for greater accuracy in
navigation. P^or this i-eason it is essential to provide basic training

on a turn-and-bauk indicator, which cannot be rendered useless by

any maneu\er of the aircraft, and to include this instrument on the
dashboard of commercial aircraft. A point to note when using the
artificial horizon is that the level-flight position of the miniature air-
plane in relation to the horizontal bar will dei)end to a small extent upon
the loading of the aircraft. For example, a heavily loaded aircraft will
fly tail down, and the instrument will indicate a slight climb; a lightly

loaded aircraft will give the opposite indication. For this reason occa-
sional i-eference should be made to the altimeter or rate of climb and
descent instrument.
Navigation. —
It is obvious that when the sky and eai-th are obscured

from the view there is no opportunity to adopt normal methods of

pilot's
navigation. The pilot therefore has to rely upon dead reckoning or
radio position finding in one form or another. It would be folly to rely
exclusively on radio for the purpose of navigation, particularly- when
flying through fog, and it is therefore always wise to keep a continuous
record of times and positions, so that up-to-the-minute data are available
in case of necessity. A continuous plot of the dead-reckoning point of
departure, the heading, and air speed, together with an allowance for
the estimated wind, should also be kept.
The use of radio for navigational purposes is described in Chap. V.
—
Blind Landing. The all-important operation of landing when visi-
bility is nil has been taxing the minds of experts for many years. The
Lorenz system has already been described in Chap. V. The conditions
of visibility under which a pilot can land safely will depend to a large
extent upon the expeiience of the pilot himself, l:)ut much ti'aining is

necessary- to make the fullest use of the system.

It will be clear from the foregoing that the ability to reach a desiied
destination dej^ends first upon the knowledge necessary to control the

aircraft, and secondl}^ upon making intelligent use of the navigational

aids available.
()n{'(^ the plane has become enshrouded in fog. it is too late to i-ecord
the last known i)()int of departure accurately, and, without this knowl-
edge, th(» i(M'()rd of (lead rtM'koning is broken. The rules for safety in
na\'igating (lurin<>; blind flying are:
1. Keep a continous I'CM-ord of times and positions of the plane so
that the latest data will be a\ailable in case of necessity,
 1

INSTRUMENT FLYING 193

2. Keep a continuous plot of the dead-reckoning point of departure,

heading, and air speed, together with allowance for the estimated wind.
3. Be prepared to check the dead reckoning by any of the three
methods available, viz., piloting, radio position finding, or celestial
navigation.
4. Be prepared by adequate training to land by radio landing beam
when necessary.
 CHAPTER X
OUTLINE OF METEOROLOGY
By Dr. Sverrc Pcttcrsscn

Introduction. — The navigator of a seasoing vessel is generally con-

cerned with the tides, the currents, and the dangers to navigation of the
ocean upon which he sails. The navigator of an aircraft is even more
\' it ally concerned with the currents and the dangers to navigation in the

broader ocean of the air in which he flies. The currents of the air are
far greater in velocity, and both their direction and velocity are subject
to far greater variation.
Moreover, the seagoing navigator who is confronted with a thick fog
as he approaches his destination can slow" down or come to a full stop
and anchor. The pilot, however, who approaches a landing field with
his fuel nearly gone, has no alternative but to land or to seek a near-by
field w^here the fog may not be so thick, so that he can find his way down
to a safe landing. A pilot who understands the behavior of the winds
may be able to choose his altitude and route so as to have a 20-mile wind
behind him, instead of a 20-mile wind against him.
The meteorological services of the various countries give the pilots
information as to the direction and velocity" of the wind, the weather, the
visibility and be encountered, and the dangers to aii-
ceiling likely to
navigation such as fog, thunderstorms, snowstorms, and icing. Proper
use of this information adds so much to the safety of flight that every pilot
should have a knowledge of the fundamentals of meteorology.
The ])urpose of this chapter is to make the pilot acquainted with the
tciniinology and the fundamental principles of meteorologA' to such an
extent that he will be able to interj^ret and make adequate use of the
weather charts, the airway forecasts, the airway reports, and other infor-
mation fiu'uished bv the meteorologists, and also to understand the
weatlicr ])]ienomena encountered en route. The terms and processes
of direct inq^ortance for air navigation are explained fully in the text,
and a selection of terms used fre(iuently in meteorology is given in a
glossary at the end of this chapter.

THE ATMOSPHERE
The atmosphere, which c()mj)letely envelops the earth, may be
regarded as a fluid sea at the bottom of which we live. The air, or
the material of which the atmosphere Ls composed, is perfectly elastic and
194
 OUTLINE OF METEOROLOGY 19;

highly compressible. Although extremely light, it has a definite weight.

At ordinary pressure and temperature the weight of a sample of air is

3^^ 70 of the weight of an equal volume of water. Thus 1 cu. ft. of air
weighs 1.22 oz. or, in metric units, 1 cu. meter of air weighs 1.3 kg.
In consequence of this weight, the air exerts a certain pressure upon
the surface of the earth, amounting on the average to about 15 lb. per
square inch. A column of air from the surface of the earth to the top
of the atmosphere exerts a pressure on the surface that is approximately
equal to the weight of a column of water 33 ft. (or 10 meters) high. This
is equivalent to the weight of a column of mercury 30 in. (or 76 cm.) high.
For this reason mercurial barometers are used to measure the pressure
of the atmosphere.
Pressure in m'lllibars Denslfy in qrcinns per cubic meter
200 400 600 800 (000 1200
nr
IS ^:
1

V N

\ ^ ^^
1

1
V
" oummer
\

\\
^ ^ s V
Winter
^ ^ s<
\ k\ -
y t s \
^ v^ s H ^
s. [nN
>

\ s
^^ ^
'

\ ^^ ^^
\
\ ^ <>
if^
\
^ 'V "^
^
-60 -40
-20
\

k ;i ^ ^ *:s^
20
Degrees C.
Fig. 143. — Showing the normal variation in temperature, pressure, and density with
height.

The atmospheric pressure decreases with altitude. The difference in

pressure between two points, one above the other, simply equal to the is

weight of the air column between the two points. By measuring the
temperature and pressure at two or more points in the same vertical line,
it is possible to compute the difference in altitude between the points.

Assuming normal distribution of temperature, pressure becomes a simple

function of altitude, and special barometers {altimeters) have been con-
structed to record altitude instead of pressure.
Since the atmospheric pressure is equal to the weight of the air column,
it follows that the pressure must decrease graduall}^ and approach zero
ii. with increasing altitude. The same also applies to the density of the
air. There is, therefore, no distinct upper limit to the atmosphere;
itmerges gradually into empty space. Figure 143 shows how pressure,
density, and temperature normally vary with altitude in the lower 15 km.
196 AIR NAVIGATION

Even though the atmosphere reaches to great altitudes, it is only

the lower jmrt of it that importance for the weather. The highest
is of
clouds (cirrus) are seldom more than 10 km. (33,000 ft.) above the earth's
surface, while 50 per cent of the total weight of air and 90 per cent of the
total moisture content are within about 5 km. (16,000 ft.) of the earth's
surface.
—
Composition of the Atmosphere. Air is a mechanical mixture of
gases. A sample of diy and pure air contains about 78 per cent nitrogen,
21 per cent oxygen, and almost 1 per cent argon. There are also traces
of other gases, but they occur in such minute cjuantities that they are of no
practical impoi-tancc in the study of the weather processes.
The air also contains a variable amount of water vapor. In many
respects water vapor is the most important constituent of the atmosphere.
The maximum amount of water vapor that the air can absorb without
being saturated depends entirely on the temperature of the air; the higher
the temperature of the air, the more water vapor it can hold. The
air is saturated with moisture when this maximum amount is reached.
When air is cooled below the saturation temperature, condensation takes
place, the water vapor being condensed to water droplets or ice crystals.
Small water drops and ice crystals are kept afloat in the air by the ascend-
ing currents. Under special conditions, which we shall describe later,
these minute drops or ice crystals join and form large drops or snowflaka^,
which are precipitated from the clouds when they become too large to be
kept afloat by the ascending air currents.
Apart from the above-mentioned constituents, the air contains a
variable amount of impurities such as dust particles from the continents
and salt particles from the oceans. These particles are so small that
they cannot be seen individually by the naked eye, but their effect on
\'isibility and on coloring of distant o])jects is easily observed. Through
haze, distant objects are seen as if through a thin veil of pale blue if the
object is dark, but the veil appears yellow if the object is white. At a
certain distance, dejicnding on the density of the haze, all details dis-
appear, and the objects stand out like a silhouette against the sky. The
denser the haze, the shorter is the distance at which the details disappear.
The presence of dust in the air is not only imi)()rtant because of
its influence on visibility. If the air were i:)erfectly i)ure, there would be

IK) ai)prc('iab]o condensation of water vai)or, because condensation takes

place on certain nuclei. When air becomes saturated, condensation

takas place on the active (hygroscopic) dust particles that form the
nuclei of condensation. Not all dust particles are active as nuclei.
Salt from the oceans are i')articularly active as condensation
i)articles
luiclei; obseivations show that such particles are present in the air in

abundant (juantities.
 .

OUTLINE OF METEOROLOGY 197

THE METEOROLOGICAL ELEMENTS

The meteorological elements observed at ordinary land stations are

1. Pressure. 7. Ceiling.
2. Pressure changes (barometric 8. Weather.
tendency). 9. Visibility.
3. Temperature. 10. Precipitations.
4. Wind direction and velocity 11. State of ground (field condi-
5. Cloud forms. tions).
6. Cloudiness.

Certain selected stations report wind velocity and direction in various

levelsabove the ground; other selected stations report pressure, tem-
perature,and humidity in the free air. We shall consider the most
important of these elements briefly. The reader who desires fuller
information is referred to instructions issued by the U. S. Weather

Bureau, Washington, D. C.
Pressure. — The pressure is usually observed by means of a mercurial
barometer. The direct reading of the barometer gives the length of the
column of mercury whose weight balances the weight of the air column
above the barometer. The length of the column of mercury depends
on the temperature of the barometer. In order to render the observa-
tions of the various stations comparable, the readings are corrected for
the thermal expansion of the metal tube and the mercury in the barom-
eter, using 32°F. (or 0°C.) as the standard temperature. The weight of
the air column depends also on the local gravity. A second correction
is applied in order to obtain the pressure that would be observed at the

station level if the local gravity were equal to the normal gravity at Lat.
45°N. The pressure thus obtained is the correct air pressure at the level
of the barometer cistern. Since pressure varies with height, it is neces-
sary to add a third correction in order to obtain the pressure that would
occur if the barometer were placed at mean sea level. Hence the pres-
sures given in meterorological reports are those which a correct barometer
would show if it were mounted at sea level, if its temperature were 32°F.
and if the local gravity were equal to the normal gravit}^ at Lat. 45°N.
Up to about 1914, pressure was reported in units of length, either
in inches of mercury or millimeters of mercury. In later ^^ears a new
unit, called the millibar (mb.), has come into general use in all European
countries, and is coming into use in this country. Normal pressure at
sea level is roughly 30 in. or 762 mm., to which correspond 1,016 millibars.
Temperature.— The temperature of the air is measured by means
of a mercurial thermometer. On land stations the instrument is hiuig
in a louvered wooden screen in order to provide effective ventilation,
and to protect the instrument from the influences of radiation and
precipitation.
198 AIR NAVIGATION

The tluM-inoinctci's are usually graduated eithoi- on the centigiade (C\)

or the Falirenheit (F.) scale. On tlie Fahrenheit scale the freezing

l)oint of i)ure water is 32° and the boiling point 212°. On the centigrade
scale the frcn^zing j)oint is at 0° and the boiling point at 100°. To convert
FahrcMiheit (h^grees to centigrade degrees, subtract 32 and multii)ly
by ^(j. To c()n\ert centigrade degrees to Fahrenheit degrees multipl\-
by ^ and add 32.
Humidity.— The moisture content of the air can be expressed in teiins

of relative humidity, specific humidity, or dew-point temperature.

The relative hinnidity is the ratio (expressed as a percentage) of the
moisture content of the air to the amount of moisture the air could
contain if it were saturated at the same temperature.
The specific humidity is the number of grams of water vapor contained
in one kilogram of air.
The is the temperature to which the air must
dew-point temperature
be cooled in oider to become satui-ated. The closer the dew-point
temperature is to the actual temperature of the air, the greater is the
likelihood of formation of fog or clouds.
The moisture content of the air is obtained either from a hair hygrom-
eter or from the readings of the ''dry-bulb" and ''wet -bulb" ther-
mometers. The length of a hair varies with the humidity of the air.
The hair hygrometer is an instrument for measuring variations in the
length of a hair, or a bundle of hairs it is graduated to indicate humidity
;

instead of the length of the hair.

A w^et-bulb thermometer is an ordinary thermometer whose bull:>

iskept wet by a piece of muslin and a wick that dips into a ^'essel con-
taining pure w^ater. If the air is not saturated with moisture, water will

evaporate from the bulb of the wet thermometer. The evaporation

cools the thermometer so that it shows a lower temperature than that
of the dry thermometer. From the readings of the two thermometers
the moisture content is readily obtained by means of humidity tables.
It is worthy of note that the specific humidity remains constant as

long as no watei* vapor is added to or removed from the air, whereas

the relative humidity varies with change of temperature.
Wind Direction and Velocity. — The wind direction is the direction
from which the wind blows, a north wind being a wind blowing from
\v\w north. The direction of the wind is reported on a scale ranging
from 00 to 32, where 08 = east, 16 = south, 24 = west, 32 = north
(00 = calm).
The wind direction and si:)eed are obtained from an instrument
(anemometer or anemograph), and the speed is expressed in meters
per s(M'ond, kilometeis ))er hour, or miles \)vv hour. The relations between
thes(> units are

1 meter per second = 3.() km. per hoiu' = 2.24 m.p.h.

 OUTLINE OF METEOROLOGY 199

It is also possible to estimate the wind speed without the use of any
instrument. The skilled observer will be able to estimate the forre of

Beaufort Miles per Map

Name symbol
Description
number hour

Calm Less than 1 Calm; smoke rises vertically

Light 1- 3 Direction of wind shown by smoke but

not by wind vanes

Light 4- 7 Wind felt on face; leaves rustle; ordi-

nary vane moved by wind

Gentle 8-12 Leaves and small twigs in constant

motion; wind extends light flag

Moderate 13-18 Raises dust and loose paper; small

branches are moved

Fresh 19-24 Small trees in leaf begin to sway;

crested wavelets form on inland waters

Strong 25-31 Large branches in motion; telegraph

wires whistle; umbrellas used with
difficulty

Strong 32-38 Whole trees in motion; inconvenience

felt in walking against wind

Gale 39-46 Breaks twigs off trees; generally im-

pedes progress

Gale 47-54 Slight structural damage occurs chim-

;

ney pots and slate removed

10 Whole gale 55-63 Trees uprooted; considerable struc-

tural damage occurs

11 Whole gale 64-75 Very rarely experienced; accompanied

by widespread damages

12 Hurricane Above 75 Devastation occurs

Fig. 144. — Beaufort scale.

the wind from the action that it has on certain objects. When this is

done, the wind speed is what is called the Beaufort scale.

referred to
This scale, which was introduced by Admiral Beaufort in 1806, is still
in international use, and wind velocities that are measured by instru-
200 Mli X.WIGATIOX

men is are converted to Beaufort numbeis in f)i(l(M- to \va\v a uniform

standard throughout \\\v network of stations.
Tlu* wind \ari(*s with the distance abovc^ tlie ^lound, and the varia-
tion is i)articuhnl.v ra|)i(l ch)se to the ground. Figure 144 gives the Beau-
fort scale of wind foice, with the velocity equivalents at alxjut G meteis
(20 ft.) a])ove level ground.
The wind is not a steady current. The velocity varies in a succession
of gusts and lulls of variable direction. These variations of short peiiod
are primarily caused b}' the friction along the surface of the earth, which
creates eddies that travel with the general current, superimposed on it.

Large irregularities in the wind are caused by convectional cuncnts in

unstable air. We shall discuss them in a later paragraph.

The turbulence of the wind is an important agent in cai-rying water
vapoi", heat, dust, etc., up to high levels.
Classification of Clouds. — Even though the number of forms that
clouds may take is almost unlimited, it is a fact of experience that the
number of types of clouds is rather limited. The intei-national classifica-
tion of clouds consists of 10 main types, which for con\'enience are
arranged according to height above the ground in the following manner:

Cirrus (Ci)
^
Cirro-stratus (Cs) /High clouds
Cirro-cumulus (Cc) *

Alto-stratus (As)
.,^ , ,/.
Kr
>Medmm i- i ^
clouds
Alto-cumulus (Ac) )

Strato-cumulus (Sc)
Nimbo-stratus (Ns)
Cumulus (Cu) )Low clouds
Cumulo-nimbus (Cn)
Stratus (St)

Cirrus (Ci) is the highest of It has a typical fibrous

all clouds.
(threadlike) structure and a delicate
appearance (Fig. 145). Cirrus
silky
clouds are sometimes arranged irregularly in the sky as detached clouds
without connection with cirro-stratus or alto-stratus. They are then
called fair-weather cirrus. If the cirrus clouds are arranged in bands,
or connected with cirro-stratus or alto-stratus, or otherwise systematically
arranged, they aie usually the forerunners of bad weather. In thundeiy
or squally weather a special kind of cirrus (cirrus dcnsus) is freciuently
ob.served, which oiiginates from the anvils of cumulo-nimbus. These
clouds are often called false cirrus, because they are denser and usually
lower than the real cii-rus.
Cirro-stratus (Cs) is a thin whitish sheet of cloud, sometimes like a
veil cox'ciing th(> whole sky and mer(4y gi\'ing it a milky appearance,
 OUTLINE OF METEOROLOGY 201

at other times showing signs of a jQbrous structure like a tangled web.

Cirro-stratus often produces halo around the sun or moon. It is often

Fig. 145. — Cirrus, tufted form. {International Atlas of Clouds. Photograph, by Fundacio
Concevcio Rabell.)

Fig. 146.—Cirro-stratus with halo. (Below, tops of cumulus.) {International Atlas of

Clouds. Photograph by G. A. Clarke.)

a sign of approaching bad weather. A typical example is shown in Fig.

146.
202 AIR NAVIGATION

Cirro-cinnidus {Cv) is usually small white flakes of clouds without

shadow, airaii^cd in a ic^ulai- i)atteiii. Cirro-cumulus d('\-olops from

Fk;. 147. -Cirro-cumulus. {International Atlas of Clouds. Photograph by M. Loisel.)

Vn 118. Alto-.stialu.s (thin) with fi acto-stratus viiuliMUoatli. {I nUrriadonal Atlaa of

Clouds. Photograph by G. A. Clarke.)

cirro-stratus. The i)atterii is due to a single or a double undulation of

the cloud sheet (Fig. 117).
.Mto-slratus (.Vs) is a dense sheet of gray or bluish color, often showing
a fibrous st?uctuie (Fig. 1 18). It often merges gradually into cirro-
 OUTLINE OF METEOROLOGY 203

stratus. Increasing alto-stratus is usually followed by precipitation of

a continuous and lasting type.

Fig. 149. — Alto-cumulus. {International Atlas of Clouds. Photograph by G. A. Clarke.)

Fig. 150. — Strato-cumulus (thin, with breaks). (International Atlas of Clouds. Photo-
graph by G. A. Clarke.)

Alto-cumulus (Ac) differs from cirro-cumulus in consisting of larger

'

globules, often with shadows, w^hereas cirro-cumulus clouds show onl\'

indications of shadows, or none at all (Fig. 149). Alto-cumulus often
develops from dissolving alto-stratus. An important variety of alto-
204 AIR NAVIGATION

cuinulus is called alto-cumulus castellatus. In "appearance it resembles

ordinary Ac, hut in places turrctcd tops develop which look like miniature
cumulus. Alto-cumulus castellatus usually indicates a change to a
chaotic thundery sky.
Ls a cloud layer consisting of large lumpy masses
Strnto-cuniulus (Sc)
or gray color with hrightej- inteistices (Fig. 150).
rolls of dull The masses
are often arranged in a I'c^gular way i-esembling alto-cumulus.
Ni mho-,stratus (Xs) is a dense shapeless and rather ragged layer of low
cloudy from which steady precipitation usually falls. It is usually con-

FiG. 151. — Cunmhis humilis, or fair-woather ciinuilus (very flat). {Internationnl Atlas
of Clouds. Photograph by Meteor. Magn. Obscrvatorium, Potsdam.)

nected with alto-stratus, which is present above the nimbus. Fragments

of nimbus that drift under the rain clouds are caWed fracto-nimbus or scud.
Cumulus (Cu) is a thick cloud whose uj^per surface is dome-shai)ed.
often of a cauliflower structure, while the base Is usually horizontal.
Cumulus clouds may be divided into two classes. Flat cumulus clouds
without towers or protul^erances are called cumulus hu7?ulis or fair-
w(»ather cumulus (Fig. 151). Towering cumulus clouds with typical
cauliflower stiucture showing internal motion and turbulence are called
cuinulus congrstus (Fig. 152). These latter cumuli may develop into
cumulo-nimbus.
Cumulo-nimbus (C'n) tliundcM' clouds or shower clouds are great
masses of cloud rising like mountains, towers, or anvils, and having a
base that looks lik(^ a ragged mass of nimbo-stratus. Tlu^ tops are often
an\il-sha|)(Ml or sui'i-ounded by false cirrus. Figure 153 shows a cumulo-
 OUTLINE OF METEOROLOGY 205

nimbus without anvil, and Fig. 154 sliows one with anvil. The cumulo-
nimbus clouds are accompanied by showers, squalls, or thunderstorms

Fig. 152. — Cumulus congestus. {International Atlas of Clouds. Photograph by Meteor.

Magn. Ohservatorium, Potsdam.)

Fig. 153. — Cumulo-nimbus calvus. {International Atlas of Clouds. Photograph hi/

C. J. P. Cave.)

and sometimes hail. The line-squall cloud is a variety of cumulo-

nimbus that extends like a long line or arch across the sky (Fig. 155).
206 Ml! \ A VKiATlOX

Strains (St) is a uiiiloiin la>(M- of low cloud lik(^ fo^, hut not lyin^ on
the «z;r()uncl (Fig. 15()).
The hoi^lits of tlu* various typos of clouds vary within wide limits.
T\w hi^h clouds ai'c usually ahove 20,000 ft. and helow 30,000 ft. Tho
medium clouds ai-c most frequently between 8,000 and 20,000 ft., and
the low clouds helow 8,000 ft. The tops of cumulus clouds, notably
those of cumulo-nimbus, may reach to great heights, while their base on
the average is about 3,000 ft. above the ground.
The preceding classification of clouds is based on their appearance

rather than on tlic nature of the processes that form them. In order

Fig. 154. — Cumulo-nimbus with anvil. (International Atlas of Clouds. Photograph by

Fundacio Concepcio Rabell.)

to make full use of cloud observations it is necessary to discuss the

processes leading to their formation. We shall, therefore, return to this
discussion in later sections.
Fog. — Fog is formed when the air near the earth's surface is cooled
below its dew point. Fog is, therefore, nothing but a cloud that touches
the ground. By international agreement such a cloud Ls called fog
w^hen the visibility than 1 km. if the visibility is greater than this,
is less ;

it is called mist. However, in the United States the word mist is com-
monly used to designate the falling from clouds of fine water droplets.
Thus, the American word mist designates about the same phenomenon
as the English word drizzle. In order to avoid confusion, we shall hei-e
use the phrase thin fog instead of the English word mist.
The following scale may be used to indicate the intensity of the fog:
Doscription Visihility, Motors or 'Sards
IVnso foR Loss than 50
Thick foK 50-200
lM>tJ; 200-500
Modcrato fojr .500-1 ,000
I'liin ton Groator than 1,000

I'\)g \\\[\\ be formed when the air travels over a surface that is colder
than tli(^ air its(>lf. This (yp(^ of fog. which is called advection fog, is
 ^
OUTLINE OF METEOROLOGY 20'

prominent at sea in spring and summer, when warm air from the con-
tinents streams over cold water. In winter, advection fog is most fre-
quent inland when warm and moist air from the oceans invades cold
continents. Advection fog is a frequent phenomenon throughout the

Fig. 155. — Cumulo-nimbus arcus (line-squall cloud). {International Atlas of Clot/ds

Photograph by Fundacio Concepcio Rabell.)

year over cold ocean currents (for example, the Labrador Current) when
the air comes from warmer regions.
Fog may also form in stagnant air after clear weather when the
ground is cooled by outgoing radiation to such an extent that it cools the
air below its dew point. This t>^pe of fog, which is called radiation fog,
is most frequent in winter over level country. It lias a niaiked diurnal
variation with a maximum about sunrise.
208 AIR XAVIGATION

The which the fog reaches vai-ies considerably. Radiation

licM^lil to
fog, w liicii forms calm air, is usually very shallow, but if it
oveinij:;ht in
persists foi- days, it may be very deep. Advection fog, which occurs 'u\
modei-ate or strong winds, is usually very deep.
Both kinds of fog have a tendency to lift or "burn off" during the
day because of the diurnal heating and the mixing of air. Increasing
wind \elocit>' and turbulence often dissipate the fog, or cause it to rise
and become a layer of stratus. This process will be described in a later
section when comments will be made on the stratus and fog that occur
along the coast of California.

Fic,. 15G. — Stratus. {International Atlas of Clouds. Photograph by M. Gain.)

Ground fog is a fog that is so shallow that an obser\'er on the ground

can discern the sky.
Ice fog (colloquially iQYn\ed frozen fog, frost in the air, ice needles, etc.)
consists of spicules of ice crystals which are so light that they seem to be
susj)en(led in the air. It occurs usually under conditions of clear, wind-
less weather and low temperatures. Its occurrence is confined to polar
regions and mountains. The sun Is usually visible in an ice fog, but the
liorizontal \'isi})ility may be considerably restricted.
Arctic smoke Is a kind of fog that forms when very cold winter air
streams over water, the temperature of which is considerably higher
than that of the aii-. Tlie cause of the arctic smoke is the intense evapora-
tion of'water \ai)oi'. Aictic smoke occurs most fre(iuently in the i)olai'

regions in winter.
 :

OUTLINE OF METEOROLOGY 209

—
Haze. Haze consists of exceedingly fine particles of foreign matter
from the continents, or of salt particles from the spray of the oceans.
These particles, which are very evenly distributed in the air, are too
small to be seen individually by the naked eye, but their effect on visi-
bility and on coloring of distant objects is easily observed. Through
haze, distant objects are seen as if through a thin veil of pale blue if the
object is dark, but the veil appears yellowish if the object is white (snow-
covered mountains). At a certain distance, depending on the density
of the haze, all details of the landscape and all details of color disappear,
and the objects stand out like a silhouette against the sky. The char-
acteristic distance at which the details disappear is, in fair weather with
sunshine on the object, one-third of the distance at which the contours of
a mountain can be distinguished; in dull overcast weather the distance
is only one-sixth of the total range of visibility.

—
Dust. Dust consists of finely divided earth (clay, loam, humus)
that is whirled up by the wind. It is coarser and not so evenly dis-
tributed in the air as are the particles of haze. It imparts a tannish
or grayish hue to distant objects. The sun's disk is pale and colorless
or perhaps of a yellowish tinge. The dust is usually of local origin; in
strong wind blown about in clouds or sheets (blowing dust).
it is

—
Sandstorm. A strong wind carrying heavy particles such as coarse
sand, usually mixed with dust and extending over a considerable area,
is called a sandstorm. Owing to the coarseness of most of the material,
it is seldom carried more than 100 to 200 ft. into the air, although the

fine particles may be carried to great heights. The blowing sand is

not carried to any appreciable distance from its source. A severe sand-
storm may cause considerable damage to aircraft and motors, and radio
operation is exceedingly difficult on account of static. Conditions favor-
able for the formation of sandstorms are extreme dryness of the ground,
strong winds, and steep lapse rate of temperature. Severe sandstorms
may occur in connection with cold fronts, like a line squall, associated
with thundery conditions.
Smoke. —Smoke consists of a suspension in the air of particles of
foreign matter resulting from combustion. It is a frequent obstruction
to vision in industrial regions and where there or has been brush or
is

forest fire. In light amounts it maybe confused with haze or dust;

and at a distance it may be confused with a fog, but usually it can be
differentiated from these by
its odor. At sunrise and sunset, the sun's
disk very red; during the daytime, it has a reddish tinge.
is

—
Hydrometeors.: Hydrometeors are bodies of solid or liquid water
falling through the air. The following distinctions should be noted
1. Rain is liquid precipitation of large drops or small drops that are
not numerous.
210 A/li' \ A \ KIATIOX

2. Freezing rain is rain that instant 1\' iVcczcs'to ohjccts it st rikcs in the
open (ghi'Avd frost).
3. Mist^ (in the Tnitcd States nicaiiin^) dcuotc^s the falling from
clouds of fine water droplets that individually do not make wet spots
()\'er '
I,; in. in diametei- on j)avements, l)oards, etc. It often resembles
f()<;- hut is identified hy the occurrence of (h-0})s of a size api)recial)le to
the face or hands.
1. Freezing mid is mist (United States nu^anin^) that instantly freezes
to ol)jects it strikes in the open.
5. Drizzle consists of small licjuid droi)lets that are so numerous
they seem to fill the air. Drizzle originates in fog or stratus. Thus
mist (in the United States weather code) and drizzle (in tlie international
weather code) are essentially the same.
6. Snow is precipitation in the form of ice crystals, usuall}^ of hex-

agonal or star structure. The crystals may fall singh', or a large number
may be matted together in large flakes.
7. Granular snow is precipitation of opaque small gi-ains (dianietej-
] mm. or less) falling from stratus (frozen drizzle).
8. (United States meaning) is precipitation consisting of cleai-
Sleet
ice pellets, formed by the freezing of rain ch'ops that fall from warm air
aloft into a layer of cold air near the ground (dangerous icing conditions).
To the English the word sleet denotes precipitation consisting of
melting snow or a' mixture of snow and rain. In this meaning the woid
used in the international weather code.
sleet is

It is worthy of note that granular snow and ordinary diy snow do not
form appreciable deposits on aircraft, while sleet, wet snow, and sub-
cooled water drops may form heavy deposits.
9. Soft hail opaque grains (diameter 1 to 5 mm.).
is precipitation of
They are crisp and bounce off the gi-ound and disintegrate easily. They
sometimes consist of a core of snow surrounded by a (wet) crust of opaque
ice. They often fall with rain.
10. Hail is precipitation of round or irregular lumps of solid and fairly
transparent ice. They occur almost exclusi\-ely in thinidery weather
and are rare in high latitudes.
Tlie al)ove classification is mainly Ixised on tlie ai)])earance of the
hydi()niet(H)rs. The processes leading to their formation are mainly of
thi(H^ kinds, viz.,

a. More or less continuous precipitation from continuous cloud cover

(alto-stratus and nimbo-stratus). This kind of precipitation is caused l)y

sloir upward niox-enuMit of a largi mass of air, due to convergence in \\\v

horizontal motion of the aii- (frontal pncipitation).

'To the i'.n^lish, " mist " st miuIs for a thin fog w lios(Misiliility is gn^ntcr tliaii 1 km.
 OUTLINE OF METEOROLOGY 21 1

Showers or precipitation of short duration that begins and ends

5. J

suddenly, usually with fair periods between. This kind of precipitation,

which originates in clouds of the cumulus family, is caused by the fairly
ra'pid rising of small bodies of air through the atmosphere (instability
precipitation).
c. Drizzle,^ or numerous small droplets falling from fog or stratus.
This kind of precipitation not connected with any appreciable ascen-
is

sional velocity; on the contrary, the small drops fall out of the cloud
because of the absence of any appreciable upward movement.
We shall return to the discussion of precipitation in later sections on
air masses, fronts, and cyclones.
Cloudiness. —At the hour of observation a note is made of how many
tenths of the sky are covered with clouds.
Owing to the importance of the low clouds for aviation, a special
note is made of how many tenths of the sky are covered by low clouds.
Ceiling. — The height
of the base of the low cloud above the ground
is an important element for aviation. It is usually estimated by the
observers. Some stations measure the heights by means of clinometeis
or by small free balloons of known ascensional velocity.
Visibility. — The term
used to describe the horizontal
visibility is

transparency of the air. In some countries the visibility has been

defined as the distance at which the outline of objects seen against the
sky disappears. In other countries it has been the distance at which
objects seen against a background of the surface of the earth become
indistinguishable. In other countries again it has been the distance at
which an object such as, for example, a tree or a house can be recognized
as such. The International Meteorological Organization has recently
agreed that the last definition of visibility should be adopted for future
use. The discrepancies between the various definitions are of slight
consequence when the visibility is bad, but they appreciably affect the
measurements when the distance to the object is large.
The preceding definition refers to the horizontal daylight visibility.
In darkness it is necessary to use lights of known candlepower to deter-
mine the horizontal visibility.
In the United States the visibility is reported in miles and/or fractions
thereof when the visibility is less than 4 miles, to the nearest whole mile
from 4 to 15 miles, inclusive, and to the nearest 5 miles when greater than
15 miles. Fractions of miles are reported as follows: yi, }/i, J^, 3^, '^'i,

1, 134, IV2, ^H, 2, 2}i, 3, 3% and 4 miles.

In the countries that use the international weather code the visi-
bilit}^ is reported on a scale ranging from to 9. The following table
gives the scale numbers and the corresponding daylight visibility,
^ I.e., mist in the United States meaning.
212 A in S.\VI(L\Tl()X

and also \\\v (•()ri('sj)()n(lin^ distance at which a' hght of 100 c.p. h(M'oines
indistiiiguisliahlc.

Tami.i; ok Visihim'iv

Night observations

Scale
Correspondinj? < laylight visibility
ij umber Distance at which a light of
Distance of object 100 c.p. becomes
indistinguishable

Less than 50 m. Le.ss than 150 ft. 50 m. 150 ft. 100 m. 330 ft.
1 50- 200 ni. 150- 700 ft. 200 m. 700 ft. 330 m. 1.000 ft.
2 200- 500 m. 700-1,600 ft. 500 m. 1,600 ft. 740 ra. 2,500 ft.
3 500-1,000 m. 1,600-3.200 ft. 1 km. 0.6 mile 1,340 m. 4.400 ft.
4 1- 2 km. 0.6- 1.2 miles 2 km. 1.2 miles 2.3 km. 1.4 miles
5 2- 4 km. 1.2- 2.4 miles 4 km. 2.4 miles 4.0 km. 2.4 miles
6 4- 10 km. 2.4-6 miles 10 km. 6 miles 7.5 km. 4.5 miles
7 10- 20 km. 6 -12 miles 20 km. 12 miles 12.0 km. 7.2 miles
8 20- 50 km. 12 -30 miles At greater distances a 100-c.p. light is not suitable.
9 Over 50 km. Over 30 miles

From this table we see that a light of 100 c.p. is visible at greater
distances than such objects as are used to determine the daylight visi-
bility when the visibility is less than 4 km. For greater visibilities tlie
reverse is true.
The visibility depends greatly on the weather. The table that appeal's
below shows the normal relation between \'isibilit>' and weather as
defined in the explanations to the international weather code.

Scali! Fog, mist Snow or

Drizzle Rain
number or haze sleet

Dense Very hea\'y

1 Thick Very heavy or)
heavy > Tropically heavy
2 Medium Heavj' )

3 Moderate Moderate Thick Very heavy

4 Mist Light Moderate Heavy
5 Slight mist or Very light Slight H(Mvy
haze
6 SHght mist or Very light SHght M()(h^rate
haze
7 Light
8 Very light
9

The foHowinp table gives a sunimarv of corresponding visibilities

and w(>;ithei- phenoinc^na in terms used in the United States weather code:
 OUTLINE OF METEOROLOGY 213

Visibility Weather
% mile or less Heavy snow, dense fog
% mile or less Heavy mist
3^-M mile Moderate snow, moderate fog
Over %mile Light mist, light snow, light fog
Less than 1 mile Thick blowing snow (blizzard), thick blow-
ing dust (duststorm), thick blowing sand
(sandstorm), thick smoke, thick haze
1-6 miles Blowing dust, blowing sand, blowing snow

The haze is often arranged in layers in the atmosphere. In such

cases the vertical visibility may
vary greatly in different directions.
A pilot flying in sunshine above a haze layer may not be able to see the
landing field, while the aircraft is perfectly visible from the ground.
This condition is due to the reflection and scattering of light from the
top of the haze layer. It is also worthy of note that the ''pilot's visi-
bility" may be considerably less than the real visibility owing to dew,
rain, or ice that gathers on the wind shield.
Use of Meteorological Observations and Frequency Tables. It —
is essential that the meteorological observations should be made simul-

taneously at all stations within large areas, so that they give an adequate
picture of the state of the atmosphere at a given moment. Such observa-
tions plotted on a map furnish the basis for the safeguarding of the
airways as well as for general weather forecasting, storm warnings, and
other forecasts. The weather maps also furnish an invaluable means for
scientific research in the causes of weather phenomena.
A series of observations covering several years may be used to evaluate
the average or normal values of certain factors. A set of such mean
values gives us what we call the climate of the station in question.
For aviation purposes the mean values are of but little interest.
For the planning of new airways, landing fields, and airports, it is of
but little use to know, for example, the mean visibility. It is far more
important to have tables showing the frequencies of the various values of
visibility, cloud heights, cloudiness, wind forces and directions, etc.
The International Commission for Air Navigation has prescribed what
information should be accumulated in the form of frequency tables.
These tables of frequencies are published by the meteorological services
of the various countries.

TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS AND SOME OF THEIR PHYSICAL EFFECTS

Stability and Instability. —We say that the atmosphere is in a sta]:>lo
state of equilibrium if an air particle that is moved a small distance
upward or downward has a tendency to return to its original level.
If such a particle, when moved a small distance and then left to itself,
214 MR XAV/GATIOX

has a toiuloncy to moxe farther away from its original le\'el, the atmos-
phere is ill an unstable state of (Hiuilihrium. If the particle can be
made to rest at any le\el, the atmosj)liere is in an indifTerent or neutral
state of eciuilibrium.
A locking- chair at rest Ls in a stable state of e(juilil)iium, })ecause
if it is rocked slightly it will return to its original j)ositi()n. A i)encil
balanced on its point is unstable, l)ecause a slight moxement will cause
the pcMicil to move awa\^ from its original position. A perfectly lound
ball on a highly i)()lished and perfectly horizontal slate is in an indifferent
state of e(iuilibiium.
Since any minute disturbance will upset the unstable systems and
bring them to a stable state, it follows that only stable or indifferent
conditions can exist for any appreciable length of time. The transition
from unstable to stable states of equilibrium involves a reduction of the
])otential energy, and all systems left to themselves will try to avoid
instability and ol^tain a minimum of potential energy.
The principles of stability and instability also govern the stratification
of the atmosphere, but the conditions are here more complicated owing
to the fact that the density of the air depends on both the temperature
and the pressiu-e. A second complication arises when the air becomes
saturated with moisture. The latent heat of vaporization is then made
a\'ailable to increase thetemperature of the air.
Let us imagine a volume of non-saturated air, say 1 cu. meter, rising
through the air without heat being supplied to or withdrawn from it
from the surroimdings. As it rises it comes under lower pressure, and
it expands. The work done against the external pressure during the
expansion must be compensated by a loss of internal energy, or, in other
words, the temperature of the rising air will decrease. Taking the
physical constants involved into consideration, we find that the rising
air must cool 1°F. per 180 ft. (TC. per 100 meters) of elevation. The
process described is called an adiabatic process, the qualifying adjective
"adiabatic" indicating that no heat Is supplied from without. When
a body of air moves dow^n through the atmosj)here it comes under highei-
l)ressure and Ls compressed. The temperature of the descending aii-
then increases at the rate of 1°F. per 180 ft. (TC. per 100 meters) of
descent. A lapse rate of 1°C. in 100 meters is called the dry-adiabatic
lapse rate.
The above deductions hold for non-saturated air only. If the air
cools to its saturation temperature, condensation takes place, and the
lieat eiieigw which once was used to eva])orate the water, is made free.
This heat is called tlie hitctit h((i( of vaporization. For each gram of
watci that is condensed, a certain amount of heat is made free, and tliis
licat i< used to increase the t(Mnperature of the air. ^
 OUTLINE OF METKOR()L(X)Y 21

If saturated air rises, it will cool because of the expansion and will
simultaneously be heated because of the condensation. The balancf^
between these two processes comes out in the negative, with the result
that the rising air cools about half as quickly as it would if it were non-
saturated. The amount that saturated air cools per 100 meters of

1800

1600 \

1400
\ ,<^ \l
1200
% \ Q.

T
1000 \
\
800
\ \
&
500 \ ca

400 V. \
\
\
\
200
\ \
^\
Z 4 6 8 10 IZ 14 16 18
Degrees, C.
Fig. 157. — Illustrating stability.

'0246 8
Degrees, C.
10 12 14 16 18

Fig. 158. — Illustrating instability.

ascent is called the moist-adiahatic lapse rate, and the process of cooling
is called moist adiahatic.
With the above principles in mind, we shall tuin to the abo^•e
graphs in order to demonstrate in greater detail the conditions of stabilit>'
and instability.
Stability. —Figure 157 shows a hypothetical distribution of tempera-
ture as a function of height. Let us consider the air particle at the surface
of the earth whose temperature is, say, 16°C. Let us, to have a concrete
216 AIH NAVIGATION

cxiiinplc, say that its moisture content is sucli that the air becomes
saturated at 10°C. If this partich' is hfted through the atmosphere, it

will cool dry adiabatically till its temperatui-e falls to 10°C., and, if it is

lifted fartluM-, it will cool moist adiabatically. In the diagram the

broken line repiesents the dry-adiabatic cooling, and the dotted line the
moist-adiabatic cooling.
From this diagram we see that, if the said particle were lifted through
the atmosi)here, it would arrive at every level with a temperatui-e lower

than tliat of the surrounding air. The particle would, therefore, also
have a density greater than that of the surrounding air. Hence it would
resist the lifting, and, if left to itself, would sink to its original level.
In this case we say that the atmosphere is totally stable.
Instability. — Let us next consider Fig. 158. The full line is the
tem|)eratuie-height curve; it shows that the temperature decreases
1800
\

1600
^
\
N
1400 X * *^

\ i

1200
^rt>s^ H
1000 \
s "^^ 1

k
(V
800

^ 600 Con iensanon level "h

400
\ '%,
200
r\
2 4 6 8 to 12 14 16 18
Degrees C.

Fi( 159. —Illustrating conditional instability.

rapidly with luught. If the surface particle were lifted, it would follow

the dry-adiabatic (broken) line to its saturation temi)erature, and thence

follow the moist-adiabatic. It would then arrive at every level with a
temi)erature higher than that of the surrounding air. It would, there-
fore, also be less dense than the surrounding air, and so would move
faithcr away from its original position. In this case we say that the
atmosphere is totally uustablc.
—
Conditional Instability. There is a characteristic state of (Miuilil)i ium
between the two cases just discussed, in which the tempeiatur(> la})se
i-ate is less than the dry-adiabatic and greater than the moist-adiabatic.

We consider the temi)erature-height curve in Fig. 159. If we now lift

the sin-face particl(\ dry adiabatically to its saturation tem-

it will cool

l)erature (10°C.) and then cool moist adiabatically while it rises farther.
At a certain height (// in Fig. 159) the tem{)erature of the ascending
 OUTLINE OF METEOROLOGY 217

particle is just equal to that of the surrounding air. If the particle

risesbeyond this point, it becomes warmer and lighter than the air
around it, and it will be accelerated upward if it is left to itself.

We thus see that, if the particle is lifted, it will first resist lifting,
but, if it is a certain height, it will move farther by itself. In
lifted to
such cases we say that the atmosphere is conditionally unstable.
In the above examples we have discussed only the behavior of the
air at the surface of the earth. The same principles hold for any particle,
and all characteristic points of the temperature-height curve should be
considered to make sure how deep the stable or unstable layers are.
Heating and Cooling of the Atmosphere. The direct radiation of—
the sun is absorbed to only a slight extent in the atmosphere, because
the air is almost transparent to high-temperature radiation (short waves).
The radiation emitted from the sun is partly scattered in the atmosphere
and partly reflected from clouds and the surface of the earth, but a
considerable portion is absorbed by the earth's surface. The latter
emits low-temperature radiation (long waves) toward the atmosphere,
and a portion of this radiation is absorbed by the water vapor in the air
or by the water of the clouds.
The atmosphere thus acts as the glass in a greenhouse. It lets
through practically all incoming short-wave radiation from the sun,
and it prevents the outgoing long-wave radiation from the earth from
getting back to the universe. The difference between incoming and
outgoing radiation goes to heat the earth's surface and the air that comes
into contact with it.
In the lower layers of the atmosphere the greater part of the heating
comes from direct contact with the earth. In the higher atmosphere
the influence of the earth's surface decreases with elevation; above a
certain height, the heating and cooling of the air are completely controlled
by radiation.
The heating of the lower atmosphere is different over land and over sea.
We shall, therefore, in due course discuss the following cases separately
the heating of the air over land, the heating of the air over sea, and the
heating of the upper atmosphere.
Heating and Cooling of Air over Land. —The absorption of heat by
the earth, after sunrise, increases the temperature of the earth's surface.
This heat is accumulated in the upper few inches of the earth, o^^'ing to
the very slow conduction of heat in the earth. The air that comes
into contact with the earth becomes heated, and the lapse rate of tem-
perature in the very lowest layer of air increases rapidly. When the
lapse rate has reached or surpassed the drj^-adiabatic rate, the layer
becomes unstable, and vertical currents set in, carrying heat and moisture,
picked up from the surface, to higher levels. As the sun gets higher in
218 A Hi .\A VIGATIOS

the sky. the heating increase's, and tlic iinstahio layer of air increases in
thickness, the heat o})taine(l from the surface being transported to highei*
and highei- hn-els. The diurnal heating of the earth's surface results
in a steep lai)se rate and stirring of the lower atmosphere.
As the temperature of the earth's surface increases, the outgoing
1 some 2 hr. after the culmination of the sun.
acliation incr(vis(\s too, and,
there is balance between the loss and the gain of heat. The temperature
of the earth reaches its maximum and begins to decrease. The cooling
of the earth affects the aii- temperature, and, as before, the infhiencf* is

gi*eatestnear the surface, with the result that the air cools moic (nii(kl\-
along tlu^ earth tlian al)()\(\ The tem])erature lapse rate deci-eases.
and the air becomes stable again. Figure
160 shows three typical temperature-height
curves, illustrating the diurnal \aiiation of
temperature in the lower atmosi)here.
The annual temperature variations are
similar to the diurnal ones, only on a largei-
scale. The result is stirring of the lowei-
atmosphere and maintenance of a steej)
lapse rate of temperature which favois
convectional currents.
Temperature
Fig. 160. —
Temperature- Heating and Cooling of Air over
height curves
ilhistrating the
diurnal variation in temperature
Oceans. It— is im])ortant to note that the
over land. A = early morning; absorption of solar radiation by the sea
B = midday; C = evening; surface does not appreciably affect its
broken line = dry-adiabatic.
tempei-ature. This condition is due to a
variety of causes. If the sun is not overhead, or nearly so, the greater part
of the incoming radiation is reflected from the surface of the sea, and is lost

as far as heating of the sea or the lower atmosphei-e is concerned. If

•the s\m is near the zenith, the amount reflected by the sea Ls small. ))ur
in this cas(^ tlie radiation penetrates to a considerable depth befoie it is

completely absorbed. Since the specific heat of sea water is very laige.
the effect of radiation on the tem])ei-atin-e will be small, the heating
being spread ()\'er a deep laycM- of water. Other effects help to reduce
the (liui'ual temi)erature change in the sea. Part of the heat gained by
the sea is used to (^'aporate water. Through eva])()i-ation the salinit\-
of \\\v surface lay(M- increas(^s; it becomes denser than th(^ ^^•atel under-
n(\itli and sinks to be i(^i)lace{l by colder water from beneath.
The outgoing radiation at nighttime cools the sea surface. But
wlicn tlie toj) la>er cools, becomes denser and sinks, to be leplaced ))>•
it

waiinei- and lighter water from underneath. Thus both at day and
night the sea surface keeps a fairly constant t(MniKMature. The air
that is in contact with thes(^a will also lia\(^ a fairly constant t(MHpeiature.
 OUTLINE OF METEOROLOGY 219

Observations show that the diurnal range of temperature at the sea

surface is less than 1°F.
The regulating influence of the sea surface on the air temperature
decreases with elevation. A
few hundred meters above the sea surface
the temperature variation controlled by radiation, and the air has a
is

diurnal variation in temperature greater than the variation at the

surface of the sea. At still greater altitudes the effect of radiation
decreases,and the temperature remains fairly constant day and night.
Figure 161 shows two characteristic temperature-height curves
over sea. It is readily seen that the lower part of the atmosphere has a
tendency to be stable in the daytime and unstable at nighttime. At
greater heights the reverse is true.
The diurnal variation of stability in the lower
atmosphere over oceans is in sharp contrast to
the conditions prevailing over land, and this has
a marked influence on the weather.
Heating and Cooling of Traveling Air
Masses. —An mass that is colder than the
air
surface over which it travels is called a cold air
mass. It will be heated from below and, by
continued traveling over a warmer surface, Temperoifure

instability will develop in the lower layers and Fig. 161.— Tempera-
ture-height curves illustra-
gradually spread upward. The vertical currents ting the diurnal variation
in temperature over oceans.
resulting from carry heat and
instability will
A = night; B = midday.
moisture to and higher levels. The
higher
changes in such an air mass are completely analogous to those in air over
land that is heated by sunshine on the earth's surface, which we have
described in a previous section.
If such an mass travels over land, it will have the effect of the
air
diurnal temperature changes superimposed on the effect originating
from its traveling toward warmer regions. The instability of the air
will then vary during the day, having a maximum in the earl}^ afternoon
and a minimum in the early morning. If the difference in temperature
between the surface and the air is large, the air will remain unstable
day and night. If the difference is small, the air may become stable
in the night.
An air mass thatwarmer than the surface over which it tra^'els
is

is called a warm Through continued traveling toAvard colder

air mass.
regions it will be cooled from below and will acquire pronounced stability
in the lower layers. The stability hinders vertical currents, and the
cooling will be limited to the lower layer. If such an air mass tra\'els

over land, it willhave the diurnal variation in stability superimposed

on the effect originating from its traveling toward colder regions. If

J
220 Mli AM VKIATIOX

llie t(Mnj)('i;iturc' (lilTer(Mi('c between the surlace and the air is hirge, it
will remain stable day and night. If the difference is small, it will be
.stable at ni^ht and unstable by day.
()\(M- oceans the conditions are different, inasmuch as the diurnal

variation of stability is small. Over oceans, therefore, stability and

instability ai-e determined mainly })y the travel of the air masses, and
there is but sli<2;ht diurnal variation. This is particularly true in high
and intermediate latitudes. In the e(iuatorial oceanic regions the sea-
surface temperatuie is fairl}^ constant over large areas. The travel
of the air masses in tiopical oceanic regions has, therefore, less influ-
ence on stability and instability than have the diurnal heating and
cooling.
Convection. — A\'e have seen in the foregoing paragraphs that insta-
l)ility is created in the lower layer of the atmosphere either through the
diurnal heating of the earth's surface by the sun, or through heating of
the air when toward warmer regions. A number of phenomena,
it travels
such as gustiness, turbulence, cumulus clouds, showers, and thunder-
storms, are directly caused by instability. We shall, therefore, discuss
the consequences of instability in greater detail.
As soon as the temperature lapse rate near the earth exceeds the
dry-adiabatic rate, the slightest disturbance will upset the stratification.
Air from the earth's surface rises, and air from higher levels sinks to
rei)lace the ascending air. This process of turning over unstable air is

called convection.
The ascending currents reach only to the top of the unstable layer,
or slightly beyond it. The height to which the air must ascend in order
to be cooled to its saturation temperature is called the condensation
level. The weather phenomena that convection wdll produce depend
on the de])th of the unsta])le layer, the height of the condensation level,
and the distribution of temperature above. We shall discuss the follow-
ing typical cases separately
1 The condensation level of the unstable air is essentially above
\\\v top of the unstable layei-.

2. The condensation lc\el of the unstable aii" is lower than the toji

of the unstable layer, and the air above the unstable layer is completely
stable.
3. Th(^ air is unstable^ uj) to the condeiisation level and conditionally
unstable abo\e.
I. The conditions ai-(^ tlu^ same as nuMitioned under 3, and the con-
vective cuirc^nts nweh to l(*\els wheie the temperature is below the
frec^zing ])()int .

CV/.sT 1 . Since tlic condciisat ion \v\v\ is well above tlie viiistahle layer, it is obvious
iliat convection will not produce clouds. This case is typieal of the conditions in the
 OUTLINE OF METEOROLOGY 221

early morning after clear nights. By continued heating from below, the depth of the
unstable layer will grow, and when it passes the condensation level condensation will
take place and cumulus clouds will begin to form. The type of cumulus clouds and
the weather that will develop depend entirely on the temperature conditions above
the condensation level.
—
Case 2. We consider Fig. 162. The rising air from the earth's surface will cool
dry adiabatically to its condensation level C, and thence moist adiabatically. It is
seen from the figure that the ascending air, when it passes the level //, will be colder
than the surrounding air. The ascending currents, when they pass this level, will be
retarded, and they cannot penetrate to greater heights. The base of the clouds will
be at the level C, and the top will be slightly above H.
Owing to the pronounced stability above the level H, the cumulus clouds will be
flat, and they will show no tendency to produce towers or protuberances that grow

\ \

\ \

X
\
\
Temperotfure Temperature
Fig. 162. Fig. 163.
—
Fig. 162. Temperature conditions in shallow convective layer with cumulus humilis.
Full line = temperature-height curve broken line = dry-adiabatic rate; dotted line = moist-
;

adiabatic rate; C == condensation level;H = top of convective layer.

—
Fig. 163. Temperature conditions in deep convective layer with cumulus congestus, or
cumulo-nimbus. (Symbols as in Fig. 162.)

upward. The type of cumulus that forms under these conditions is the fair-weather
cumulus (cumulus humilis. Fig. 151).
—
Case 3. We consider Fig. 163. The ascending air cools dry adiabatically to its
condensation level C and then moist adiabatically. Owing to the conditional instabil-
ity above the condensation level, the cumulus clouds that form will grow upward.
Such clouds will have towering heads and protuberances showing internal motion
(see Fig. 152). These clouds are called cumulus congestus. Neither the cumulus
humilis nor the cumulus congestus produces precipitation, but the latter may develop
into cumulo-nimbus.
—
Case 4. This case differs from case 3 only in that the convective clouds have
reached to levels where the temperature is below 0°C. The water droplets in the top
of the cloud begin to freeze. This is an important change in the cloud, because the
water in the cloud will gather on the ice crystals, which then become so large and
heavy that they usually cannot be kept afloat by the ascending currents in the cloud.
The presence of ice crystals in the top of the clouds releases the precipitation, and the
cumulus congestus changes rapidly into a cumulo-nimbus.
Figures 164 to 169 illustrate the characteristic features of the convective clouds.
The cumulus humilis (Fig. 164) are rather flat and well separated from one another.
The base is well defined, and there are no towering heads or protuberances from the
upper part of the clouds.
222 MH \ A VICATIOX

I'ltiurc 1()") shows the cliaractcristic- features of a cui'iiulus conKcstus. Towers of

typical cauliflower structure fj;row up from the main clouci, wliose base is \isuall\' well
(h'fiued. Internal motion and turbulcnco are noticeable in cumulus conKcstus: the
cumulus huiuilis has a rather "dead" appearance. ]ioth theso types of cumulus
consist of water droplets without admixture of wxt crystals in their tops.
Figure Hid shows a towering cumulus with a fine; silky veil around its top. The
veil sometimes consists such a cloud develops further, it changes
of ice crystals. If

into a cuinulo-iuinbus. Figure 167 shows a cumulo-nimbus that has developed from
such clouds as are shown in Figs. 165 and 166. The top of this cloud consists of a
mixture of ice crystals and wat(^r droplets. The valleys and crevices in the towering
parts are disappearing and the cloud is about to lose its cauliflower structure. This
type of cloud is called cumulo-nimbus cnlvus. (See also Fig. 153.
Figure 168 shows a cumulo-nimbus with anvil. (See also Fig. 154.) Ice crystals
are present in abundant (juantities in the top part of the cloud and therefore give
heavy precipitation and fre(iuently also thunderstorms.

It is possible with i^ractice to forecast the weather for a few hours

ahead by h)oking at the cumulus clouds and observing their development.
It is then most important to observe the changes in the upper part of

the clouds. If there are no towers (as in Fig. 104), there is no chance of

j)recipitation. If there are towers (as in Fig. 165), it is possible that

precipitation may develop. If some of the clouds show signs of presence
of ice cr^^stals, the precipitation is sure to be released soon. Figure 1()()

often occurs as a transition from Fig. 105 to Fig. 167, but Fig. 167 ma}'
also develop directly from Fig. 165.
The cumulus clouds sometimes dissolve b}^ general shrinking and
disappear graduall3^ This usually' occurs when a sheet of high clouds
develops above them. In dissolving in this way, they pass through the
state of fail-weather cumulus (Fig. 164). Most frequently the cumulus
clouds flatten out into rolls or bulging layers; this development is shown

in Fig. 169. This often occurs in the evening when the atmosphere is
settling down after the diurnal heating. In any case, the dissolution
of cumuli shows that the atmosphere is developing toward a stable
stratification.
If the convection is caused by diurnal heating over land, it has a
pronoimced diui-nal i)eriod with a maximiun of cumulus clouds in the
afternoon and clearing in the evening. Over oceans the diurnal con-
\-(H'ti()n is only slight (except in tropical regions), and the maximum of

cloudiness has a tc^ndency to occur in the night.

If is caused by the travel of air towards warmer
the convection
regions, tluM-e but slight diurnal variation, and cumulus and cumulo-
is

nimbus may develop both day and night.

The i)r(M'ipit;iti()u cnusiMl by conxcH'tion is always of a showery
character; it begins and (muIs suddenly owing to the rai)id transition from
as('(Mi(ling to d{\sc(Muling ciu'rents. The sky is variable with frec^uent
changes fi-om a dark and t hi(\it(Miing ai)i)earanc(^ to chairing.
 OUTLINE OF METEOROLOGY 223

Fig. 168. Fig. 169.

Figs. 164-169. —Various types of cumulus clouds.
224 A Hi NAVIGATION

Thunderstorms. 'riiuiKUMslonns (levcloj) from clouds of tlie cumulo-

uinihus \\\)v in excessively unstable Jiir. 'V\\i\ inechaiiisni of their
formation may i)e described bi'iefly as follows:
'V\w falling velocity of raindrops depends on their size. If the drops
grow larger than }^ in. (4 mm.) in diameter, they will fall with a velocity
exceeding 24 ft. (8 By such high falling velocity, the
meters) per second.
drops brcNd-cs \\\) which then fall less rapidly.
into smaller drops,
If the ascending currents in the cumulo-nimbus exceed 8 meters

per second, the largest raindrops will be split up into smaller drops, and
will be carried upward. The ascending current in a cumulo-nimbus
is not steady; it consists of a succession of gusts and lulls, so that the

drops may rise and fall, grow and break up repeatedly.

Ivich time a di-op breaks up into smaller drops, the negative and
the ))()sitive electricity will be separated, the air taking up a negative
charge and the drops a positive charge. By repeated splitting up of
drops, enormous electric charges are made available for the thimder-
storms. Since the air ascends much more rapidly than the drops that
break up, it follow\s that the positive charge is accumulated in the part
of the cloud where the ascending current is strongest, while the rest of
the cloud becomes negative or neutral. The lightning discharge starts
from the positive part of the cloud toward the negative part, or toward
the negative part of some neighboring cloud; or it starts from the ground
toward the negatively charged portion of the cloud.
Severe thimderstorms are often accompanied by hail. The structure
of the hailstones shows conclusively the existence of large ascensional
velocities in the thunderstorms. The hailstones often consist of con-
and snow, which shows that the hail must ha\'e
centric shells of clear ice
been moved repeatedly from the liquid to the snow part of the cloud.
A fully developed thunderstorm is accompanied by heavy rain or
hail, lightning, and thunder. The wind freshens during the approach
of the storm, blowing at first toward the advancing storm. As the
thundercloud arrives overhead, the wind changes in direction, blowing
out from the storm in a forward direction. The barometer falls while
the storm approaches, but w^hen the wind changes a brisk rise amounting
to a few millibars occurs.The precipitation, which began as a sudden
heavy downi)our, changes into a more continuous rain, which gradually
(le('i-(^ases in intensity.
'V\\v passage of a thunderstorm is frequently accomi)anied by strong

gusts that may cause complete loss of control of an aircraft.

Mixing of Air. — The wind is never a steady current; it consists of a
succession of gusts and lulls of short period. This condition is mainly
due to friction along tlu^ surface of the earth, which creates eddies that
WW forced up to higluM' IcNcls ])y the irregular motion. If the air is
 OUTLINE OF METEOROLOGY 225

in a stable .state, the turbulence will be damped; in unstable air the;

eddies may travel to considerable heights. What we are here concerned
to emphasize is the effect of turbulence on the distribution of temperature
and humidity along the vertical.
We consider first a vessel partly filled with cold salt water and with
warm fresh water on top. The cold and salt water is heavier than the
warm and fresh water, and the stratification is a stable one. If turbulent
motion is created and maintained in the vessel, the two layers will mix
into ahomogeneous liquid showing constant temperature and constant
salinity.
In the air the conditions are somewhat different owing to the fact
that air is compressible. The ascending air will cool adiabatically,

Fig. 170. — Showing the effect of turbulent mixing. S = specific humidity; T = tem-
perature; R = relative humidity. Subscripts 1 denote the conditions before the mixing
commenced, and subscripts 2 the conditions after complete stirring.

and the descending be heated adiabatically. The result of tur-

air will
bulent mixing in the air is an adiabatic lapse rate of temperature.
to create
The specific humidity of the air, being independent of the adiabatic
processes, will mix, and the final result of the stirring of the air will be a
distribution of specific humidity that is constant with height.
We consider next a stable layer of air along the surface of the earth
in which the specific humidity decreases with elevation. (This case
occurs frequently in nature.) We suppose that the wind velocity, for
some reason or other, increases so that the layer becomes mixed by
turbulence. Figure 170 shows the changes that occur in the vertical
distribution of temperature, specific humidity, and relative humidity.
The relative humidity will increase rapidly with height because of
the cooling and increasing of specific humidity in the upper part of the
stirred layer. It needs no further explanation that this process of stirring
often leads to condensation of the water vapor in the top part of the
stirred layer. The clouds that form under such conditions are of the
stratus type.
Inversions. —The air temperature normally decreases with height.
Under special conditions a reversal of the lapse rate may develop, showing
226 WA' .\A\i(;.\r/()\

a layci- of air inwhich tlic tciaix'rat uic iiici-eases witli height. This is

caHcd an iniursion.
Inversions deveU))) easily near the earth's surface during calm and
clear nights, or wIhmi warm air travels over a cold surface. They may
ground at the top of the layer which Ls stirred by
also de\'elop al)o\-e the
turbulence. Inversions may also develop in the free atmosphere as a
lesult of descending air s])rea(hng out laterally.
The essential feature of an inversion is the pronounced stability
of the air in the layer that has increasing temperature. A well-developed
imersion acts as a lid tlu'ough which no convection or mixing can take
place, the ascending currents being repulsedby the excessively stable layer.
The higher the inversion is above the ground, the deeper is the layer
that can be stirred by convection and turl)ulcnce. The height of the
inversion above the ground has a marked influence on the diurnal range
of temperature. The higher the inversion, the deeper the layer to be
lieated, and the diurnal range of temperature at all levels under the inver-
sion will be correspondingly smaller. A low inversion favors a large
diurnal range of temperature. Observations from San Diego, Calif., show
this very distinctly. The following table gives in the left-hand column the
observed heights of the base of the inversion above the ground, and in
the light-hand column the corresponding average diurnal ranges of tem-
perature, in degrees Fahrenheit.

II(Mf>;lit of niuriial
Inversion, Ft. Range, °F.
0- 150 23
150- 300 17
300- 600 14
600- 900 10
900-1.200 9
1.200-1.500 7

Low inversions ar(^ easily destroyed by diurnal heating and mixing

of the air, while a high in\(Msi()n usually ])ersists day and night. Dust
and smoke from the earth gather under the inversion, forming a distinct
layer of haze whose top coincides with the base of the inversion.
—
Formation of Stratus. We have ^ecn in previous paiagia])hs that
air cooled to its dew i)()int along the surface of the earth will produce fog.
This cooling along the surface of the earth is counteracted by the eff"ect
of the turbulent mixing, which causes heating of the surface layer of air
and cooling of tlu^ aii- at some distance above the ground. The result
is often that fog forms in stagnant aii*. wliile stratus forms in air whose

vc^locity is lai-ge (Miough to ci-eatc suflicicnt turbulence.

If air fi'om wai-m and moist i-(^gions tra\'(^ls a considci •al)h' distance
o\'ei' a colder surface, it may cool so much that the fog fills tlie whole
 OUTLINE OF METEOROLOGY 227

layer that is under the control of turbulent mixing. For this reason
fogs that occur in strong winds are usually deep fogs. Such fogs often
occur in the warm sectors of depressions that travel from lower to higher
latitudes.
Shallow fogs have a marked tendency to "burn off" after sunrise.
Through the combined effect of diurnal heating and turbulent mixing,
such a fog may dissolve and reappear as a stratus, or fragments of stratus.
Deeper fogs often do not dissipate after sunrise but, through the com-
bined effect of diurnal heating and turbulent mixing, may rise and become
a layer of stratus.

Fig. 171. — Surges on a layer of stratus (or fog) indicating the topography beneath.

Low morning often dissolve or break during

layers of stratus in the
the day owing to the diurnal heating, but high layers may persist day
and night. This condition is due to the fact that a low layer of stratus
ismore easily affected by the diurnal heating and the turbulent mixing
than is a high layer.
The show surges like a large swell on an ocean of
stratus layers often
cloud. These surges often indicate the topography of the terrain (see
Fig. 171).
Fog and stratus are limited to the lower layer of the atmosphere.
They are both water clouds without admixture of ice crystals. The
precipitation that may fall from these clouds is of the drizzle type.
Stratus often develops into strato-cumulus. This happens when
a single or a double undulation breaks up the stratus layer into lumps or
rolls.

The California Fog. — In previous sections we have seen that fog

forms either through advection of warm air to colder regions, or through
outgoing radiation that cools the air below its dew point. On the other
hand, stratus is mostly formed through mixing of air whose temperature
228 MR \.\\i(;.\T/()\

is suiricicnlly close to the dew i)oint . All these ])r()ee.sses f'om})inc to make
the so-called ( 'aliloiiiia fo^.

Air from \\\v l\icific Ocean is, during the summer and autumn months,
cooled o\(M- the cold ii])\\ clling water along the coast, whereby the air
temj)eratui-e brought close to its dew point. The diurnal variation
is

in radiation causes the air temperature to fluctuate around the dew point
with the result that fog forms in the evening and dissolves in the morning,
l^sually thei-e is sufficient tur})ulent mixing to change the fog into a
low stratus whose upper limit coincides with the base of the strong quasi-
permanent temperature inversion between 500 to 2,000 ft. above the sea.
If the base of the inversion is close to the ground, the cloud layei-

is shallow and the fog (or stratus) burns off early in the morning; but,

if the inversion is high above the ground, the fog or stratus layer is

deej) and bui-ns off later. In pronounced cases the fog (or stratus) persists
throughout the day.
—
Troposphere and Stratosphere. We have seen in the previous para-
graphs that the temperature changes in the lower atmosphere are due
mainly to influences from the surface of the earth, the conduction of heat
to higher levels being effected by turbulence and convection.
The influence from the earth's surface decreases with elevation and
vanishes at a certain height above the ground. Above this level the
temperature distribution is completely controlled by the balance betw^een
incoming and outgoing radiation. The effect of radiation is to smooth out
temperature differences. The result of this process is that a constant
temperature is maintained.
The lower part of the atmosphere, in which convection is a prominent
feature, is called the troposphere. The upper atmosphere, in which the
temperature remains constant with height, is excessively stable and has
no convective currents; this part of the atmosphere is called the .strato-
sphere. Owing to its stable and cloudless state, the stratosphere offers
the nearest approach to ideal flying conditions.
The base of the stratospheie is called the tropopause. Its height
above the gi'ound varies with latitude, season, and the weather situation.
It is higluM- over anticyclones than over depressions. Figure 172 shows
the average height of the troj)opause and the normal distribution of
tem]:)eratuie. It is of interest to note that the temperature of the strato-
si)her(^ d(>('i-eas(\s fi-oin the poles toward the equator.
Icing on Aircraft. Icing is one of the greatest dangers to air naviga-
tion. Ice format ion cannot as yet be forecast witli satisfactory accuracy,
owing j)artly to lack of adecjuate observations from the free atmosphere
and pai-tly to insufhcient knowledge of the physical ])rocesses involved.
Ic(^ usually forms on th(^ foi'ward (Mlges of wings and struts, or on the

j)r()l)ellei-. hut sometimes it forms also on the horizontal faces. The ice
 OUTLINE OF METEOROLOGY 229

that forms on the forward edges of the wings changes the wing profile.
Often the cross section of the ice deposit is of a mushroom shape. This
causes a general change in the streamlines around the wings, whereby
the airplane may lose so much in dynamic lift that flying becomes
disastrous.
Ice that forms on the propeller is dangerous because of the irregular
rotation that results from the asymmetrical distribution of the weight
of the ice. no force perpendicular to the axis of the propellei-
There is

in the case of perfect symmetry. But when ice gathers unevenly, or

when a lump of ice breaks off from one blade of the propeller and not
from the other, a force proportional to the asymmetry of the weight and
20 Km -70^>
-80
\~55°C. /
-80
1 5 Km
-70

y
1 d^x^ ==^ -60
:|8
d
tOKr

5 Km ^ -
^ZH^ -20
-10 Q

+ 10
+ 20
North Pole 60 30 Equator
Fig. 172. — Troposphere-stratosphere. Annual mean temperature.

to the square of the angular velocity of the propeller acts perpendicularly

to the axis of the propeller. This may cause destructive vibrations,
and the propeller shaft may break. may be dangerous to reduce the
It
speed of the propeller, because carburetor icing may then cause engine
difficulties.
Modern equipment has proved capable of overcoming icing
de-icing
of slight or moderate intensity on the propellers and on the forward
edges of the wings, but no adequate means has been invented for eliminat-
ing intense icing, or the icing that takes place on the horizontal faces.
Icing, therefore, remains a potential danger to air navigation.
It is known that icing may occur (1) outside the clouds, (2) within
the clouds, and (3) in subcooled rain that falls from warmer air aloft
into a layer of cold air.
The icing that occurs in cloudless air is caused by direct condensation
of the water vapor on the aircraft. This kind of icing is of only slight

intensity. The ice is usually crisp and breaks easily.

The icing that occurs within the clouds may be of any intensity.
On the average the accumulated ice oii the forward edge of the wing
r^

230 Alii XAVKiATIOS

aiiunints to '30 in. per minute, and tlic niaxiniuni icin^- intensity observed
within the (louds amounts to '.1 in. j)er minute. It has been observed

fre(iuently tliat no icing occurs in clouds with temperature below freezing.

No icing occurs when the drops are small and the water content low.
This is due to the fact that small drops are swept awa}^ })y the air current
aroimd the wing, while larger drops strike the wing. The observed
maximum of icing intensity is well below the theoretical maximum.
l^oth the size of the drops and the water content vary considerably
even within one cloud. It happens, therefore, quite frequently that
two airplanes flying through the same cloud experience widely different
icing intensities. When intense icing starts, it is advisable to change
altitude in order to get into regions where the cloud droi)lets may be
smaller or the water content lower.
The difficulties in the way of forecasting icing are due mainly to the
circumstance that direct observations of drop sizes and the amount of
liquid water are lacking, and that there is no outstanding correlation
between the intensity of icing and the elements usuall}^ observed. There
is, however, some evidence that icing is more intense when the lapse rate
of temperature is great. In the United States intense icing occurs most
freciuently in unstable air from the Gulf of Mexico.
The intensity of icing depends also on the speed of the aircraft.
An airship, therefore, can drift with the air current and change its
altitude in order to avoid icing.
Icing is frequently observed when subcooled rain falls from warm
air aloft into a cold layer of air. This kind of icing is particularly danger-
ous because the ice gathers also on the horizontal faces of the aircraft.
In such cases the aircraft should ascend as quickly as possible into the
warm air aloft in order to avoid a heavy load of ice.
Icing may occur in clouds whose temperature is slightly above the
freezing j)oint, especialh^ when an airplane descends, because it will
then be colder than the air, and the water droplets may freeze when the>'
strike the aircraft. But even in a level flight, ice may form on the air-
craft. This happens when the relative humidity in the cloud is less
than 100 per cent. Part of the water that is deposited on the aircraft
will then evaporate, and this may cool the remaining water sufficiently

to produce icing. It should also be mentioned that wet snow or sleet

may gather and freeze on aircraft, while dry snow is usually swept away
by tiu^ nir currc^nt.

AIR CURRENTS

The Causes of Air Currents. As fai- as motion is concerned, the

atmospheic may he regaided as an engine that creates kinetic energy
 OUTLINE OF METEOROLOGY 231

from heat energy, the difference in temperature between the poles and
the equator and between the upper and lower atmosphere being the
significant sources of energy.
The move the air particles depend mainly on the distribu-
forces that
tion of pressure. Let us consider a cube of air with horizontal and
vertical faces. Since the atmospheric pressure decreases with altitude,
it follows that the pressure on the lower face is greater than that on the

top face. This represents a force that is directed upward. This force
is counteracted by the weight of the air within the cube. Usually
there is balance between the two forces, but occasionally one exceeds
the other and vertical accelerations are created. In this way the con-
vective currents are created. The mean vertical velocity over large areas
is, however, small, and rarely amounts to more than 1 or 2 in. per second.

The large wind systems are, therefore, mainly horizontal currents.

The pressure also varies horizontally. The pressure on one of the
vertical faces of the said cube jvill, therefore, be
greater than that on the opposite face. The
difference in pressure is equivalent to a force
tending to drive the cube of air toward lower
pressure.
If the earth did not rotate, our cube of air
would move directly toward the deficit of
pressure, which would be immediately nullified.
However, since the earth rotates on its axis,
deflective forces originating from the rotation of fig. 173. — illustrating
deflective force due to
the earth will act on the moving air and tend to ^J;^
the rotation of the eartii.
balance the pressure gradient. In order to
understand the wind systems of the earth, it is necessary to understand
also the deflective force of the earth's rotation.
The Deflecting Force. —The nature of the deflecting force of the
earth's rotation maybe demonstrated in the following manner. We
consider a circular disk which rotates as indicated by the arrows in Fig.
173. A bullet is shot from the center of the disk at a target T on the
edge. At the moment the bullet is shot, the line from the center toward
the target runs through a point P which, being outside the disk, does not
take part in the rotation. The bullet will move on the straight line
OP, but in the meantime the target T will have moved toward the left.
An observer on the rotating disk, not seeing the point P, would get the
impression that the bullet curved off to the right of the target T', while
another observer outside the disk, not seeing the target T, would think
that the bullet moved on the straight line. Both observers would be
right in their statements. The one observes the relative motion, and
the other observes what we may call the absolute motion.
232 .1//.' AM VKIATIOX

'Hie nH)\onHMit ol' the hullct rclatixc to the rotating disk would be
deflected and chin cd oft to tlie li^lit of tlie target , and this deflective move-
ment can he accounted for \)y a force that j)r()(luces an acceleration ecjual
to 2Voi, V being the \el()city of the bullet and co the angulai' \elocity of the
rotating disk. The acceleration would be at right angles to the i)ath of
the bullet.
The Geostrophic Wind.-- The above example of a rotating disk illus-
trates the conditions at the north pole. A similar effect is present also
in lower latitudes. We consider next the movement of an air particle
iH^lative to the earth in latitude </>. The ac(!eleration due to the deflective
force of the earth's rotation would then be 2Fco sin w^here V is the wind <f),

\ clocity and co the angular velocity of the earth's rotation.

If an air particle, originall}^ at rest, starts to move toward lower
pressure, the deflective force of the earth's rotation will drive the particle
more and more it moves in a direction perpendicular
to the right until
to the pressuie gradient. The air partjcle will then have attained a
N-elocity that is determined by the balance of the pressure force and the
deflective force. These two forces will then act in opposite directions,
and the air particle will move in a direction perpendicular to both these
forces.
A wind velocity that corresponds to complete balance between the
pressuie gradient and the deflective force is called the geost?'ophic wind.
If T^ denotes the \'elocity of the geostrophic wind, the following foiniula
holds:

V= ^.
2 poo sin <f)

where G is the pressure gradient and p the density of the air. In the
above formula, p is almost constant in the horizontal, so that the geo-
strophic wind is directly proportional to the pressure gradient.
In the southern hemisphere the rotation of the earth is oppositt^ to
that in the northei-n hemisphere. The wind is therefore deflected to the
left of the pressure gradient.
The rotation of the earth prevents the air particles from m()\ing
directly toward the deficit of ])ressure. On a rotating earth. tluM-efore,
pressure gradients can be maintained. The actual wind obser\'ed near
the earth's surface is less than the geostrophic wind, owing to the retard-
ing influence of friction along the earth. The influence of friction
(leci-eas(»s with altitude, and the wind in the free atmosphere api)roaches
tlie geosti-ophic \alue.
The most convcMiient way to represent the distribution of i)ressure
is to di-aw lines through i)oints of (Hjual ])i-essure. Such lines, which
iwv cailcMl isolxirs, ai'e most con\'eni(Mitly drawn for each ^5 in. oi* for each
 OUTLINE OF METEOROLOGY 233

fifth millibar. A map prepared in this way will show centers of high
low pressure, or depressions; troughs
pressure, or anticyclones; centers of
of low pressure; wedges of high pressure; and cols.
The pressure gradient is everywhere inversely proportional to the
distance between the isobars. Since the geostrophic wind is directly
proportional to the pressure gradient, it follows that the wind is strongest
where the isobars are most crowded.
The geostrophic wind blows along the isobars with low pressure to
the left in the northern hemisphere, and to the right in the southern
hemisphere. We may say that the air streams between the isobars
in the same way as water streams in a river bed; the narrower the river
the greater the velocity.
The geostrophic wind is a good approximation to the actual wind
if we are concerned only with the large-scale movement of the air. In
problems dealing with the details of the wind, it is necessary to discuss
the behavior of the actual wind. We shall discuss both things briefly
in the following paragraphs.
The General Circulation. — Maps of the mean pressure for representa-
tive winter and summer months are show^n in Figs. 174 and 175 for the
northern hemisphere. Certain features of the maps are common to
both winter and summer. Around the equator there is a region of almost
uniform pressure, in which the winds are light and variable. This belt
of light and variable winds with frequent showers and thunderstorms
is called the doldrums. On the average it is slightly to the north of the
equator, and it moves northward in the northern summer, and south-
ward in the southern summer.
Farther away from the equator are belts of high pressure with easterly
winds on their equatorial sides, and westerly winds on their poleward
sides. These belts of high pressure are called the subtropical anticyclones.
The easterly winds on their equatorial sides are called the trade winds.
They have a slight component toward the equator, and converge from
both hemispheres into the doldrums. The convergence of air into the
doldrums results in ascending currents and precipitation. The belts of
high pressure are regions of divergence and descending currents with dry
weather. On the poleward side of the high-pressure belts, the ^Wnds
blow from a westerly or southwesterly direction.
In the southern hemisphere there is a pronounced belt of low pressure
on the poleward side of the subtropical high, and there is but little differ-
ence between winter and summer. In the northern hemisphere the
conditions are more complicated in high latitudes, owing to the dis-
tribution of land and sea. A mere glance at the maps will show that
there is a marked tendency for anticyclones to form over the continents
in winter and over the oceans in summer. This condition is due to the
 234 MR \A V I GAT 10 \

accuinulat ion ol cold and licax \- air owv the coldest icgions. '1
he general
circulation in these regii^ns tlieretoic shows a pronounced seasonal
\'ariati()n.

Fi(i. 175.- Moan pit^ssure in AuRUst.

The Monsoons. — Owing to the diffeience in temperature
between
contiiKMits and oceans, wind systems develo]) that blow with great
j)(M-sist(Mice from s(»a to land in sumnuM- and from land to sea in winter.
 OUTLINE OF METEOROLOGY 235

Such winds are called monsoons^ even though the word usually refers to the
monsoons in the Indian Ocean only.
The circulation in Asia affords the most striking example of monsoon
winds. In winter the subtropical anticyclone is intensified by the cold
of Central Asia. Cold offshore winds prevail over the east and south
coast of Asia, and westerly winds prevail along the coast of Russia and
Siberia. As the summer approaches, the anticyclone dies away and
is replaced by an immense low-pressure area, which covers almost the

whole of Asia and parts of Africa and Europe. The wind system is
completely reversed, the winds blowing along the isobars with a com-
ponent inward to the continental low-pressure area. The Asiatic mon-
soon system affects the wind circulation over a vast area, particularly in
summer season. During this period the doldrums and the subtropical
high of the Indian Ocean are both completely submerged.
—
Land and Sea Breezes. In addition to the seasonal contrast of
temperature and pressure over land and water there is a daily contrast
that exercises a similar but more local effect. In summer the land is
warmer than the sea by day, and colder than the sea by night. The
slight variations in pressure thus established cause a system of breezes
with a component landward during the daytime and seaward during the
night. These breezes are shallow and do not penetrate far inland. The
day breeze may attain the strength of a fresh or a strong breeze, while
the night breeze is usually gentle.
In the tropics the land and sea breezes blow with great persistence.
In higher latitudes they are often overshadowed by stronger winds of
more general character.
—
The Circulation of the Free Atmosphere. The wind velocity increases
rapidly with height in the immediate vicinity of the earth and then
increases slowly so as to approach the geostrophic wind about 1,500 to
3,000 ft. above the ground.
The pressure distribution itself varies with height, and above 3,000
meters the distribution of land and sea has practically no influence
on the general circulation, except in India, where the monsoon dis-
turbance is still noticeable.
The general circulation in the free atmosphere is controlled by an
immense low-pressure area centered over the poles, a belt of high pressure
in the subtropics, and auniform pressure around the equator.
belt of
As a mean wind in the free atmos-
result of this pressure distribution, the
phere is westerly everywhere on the poleward sides of the subtropical
high-pressure belts. The westerly winds increase mth altitude and
attain their maximum velocity at the tropopause. On the equatorial
sides of the subtropical high-pressure belts the mean wind blows from
an easterly direction.
236 A Hi \ A via AT I ox

Tlic xaiioiis circuhitions dcscrilxHl ul)()\e represent the mean state

ofmotion of the atmosphere. On this mean state of motion are super-
imposed many disturbances that account for the \'ari;d)ility of the
weather.
Turbulence. — The main source of turbulence in the atmosphere is the
friction along the surface of the earth. The roughness of the surface
creates eddies or whirls of air which are forced up to higher levels.
Records of the details of the wind structure show that the turbulent
flow consists of a succession of gusts and lulls, the period of which is
irregular and of the length of a few seconds. The strength of the gusts
is somewhat proportional to the roughness of the ground and the \elocity
of the wind.
Turbulence caused by friction along a rough surface is calknl mechani-
cal turbulence. It is usually limited to a la\^er of air of a few hundred
meters in thickness. This turbulent layer along the earth's surface
may be visualized from Fig. 176a, which show\s eddies along the surface
of the earth and a fairly steady flow above.
Another soiu'ce of turbulence in the atmosphere is the irregular
distribution of temperature. The warmer lumps of air will rise and
the colder will sink, thus leading to irregular flow. This kind of tur-
bulence may be called thermal turbulence. The mechanical and the
thermal turbulence combine to produce the resultant turbulence.
The thickness of the turbulent layer along the earth's surface dei:)ends
mainly on the stability of the air. The mechanical turbulence is damped
in stable air and intensified in unstable air. The thickness of the tur-
bulent layer is, therefore, greater in unstable air than in stable air.
In unstable air the convectional currents are sui^erimposed on the
general flow. They cause fluctuations in the wind similar to those char-
acteristic of pure turbulence, but with pei'iods ranging from a few minutes
to an hour or more. Such wind variations are called wind squalls if
they are strong. The wind squalls are usually connected with con-
vective clouds, and the approach of a towering cumulus or a cumulo-
nimbus may be taken as a warning of the arrival of a wind sciuall.
Although the pure turbulence is most pronounced near the surface of
the eartii, \\\v vertical wind squalls are strongest in the free atmosphere,
notably- in th(> c()n\ective clouds and in their immediate vicinity. A
skilled pilot w ill be able to estimate th(^ chances of severe gusts and scjualls
from the appc^arance of the convective clouds.
The int(Misity of the thermal tui-bulence and the convectional gusts
and s(iualls (l(>p(>n(ls larg(>ly on tlu^ nature of the surface. The amount
of h(vit al)s()ri)ed by the earth's surface depends to a large extent on its
moisture^ contcMit and on its color. The midday temperature on sunny
suninuM- days is liit2;liej- (>\(M' macadam and sandy fields than over grass-
 OUTLINE OF METEOROLOGY 237

lands, and lower over wet ground and woods, and still lower over water.
is

These differencesin temperature give impulses of considerable intensity to

local convectional currents. Local currents of this kind are the main
cause of the bumpiness experienced above level country on warm days.
The convective currents also form easily on the sunward slopes of hills
and mountains. In hilly country, therefore, turbulence, local eddies,
and convection combine to make the air very bumpy.
—
Turbulence and Obstacles. Figure 176a illustrates the formation
of eddies in the air flow above level ground. If such a current meets

an obstacle, the distribution of the turbulence is greatly modified, the

Ce)
Fig. 176.— Eddies.

resulting turbulence depending on the dimensions and shape of the

obstacle, the speed of the current, and the stability of the air. We
can here discuss only a few types of obstacles and their influence on the
air current.
Figure 1766 shows the type of eddies that form when an air current
passes a ridge of rectangular cross section. A stationary eddy forms
on the windward side of the ridge. Smaller irregular traveling eddies
develop above the roof of the obstacle, re-forming continuously along
the windward edge. On the lee side of the ridge, eddies form and travel
downwind. The lee eddy is usually stationary while it develops; when
it has attained a certain intensity, it leaves the obstacle and travels

with the wind while it dissipates gradually.

If the horizontal dimensions of the obstacle are small, the air current
has a tendency to stream around it. In this case eddies with vertical
238 .1//.' X.WIGATION

axes form at tin* (mIj^cs, as sliowii in l""i^. 17(W. \\ hellier the air will
siroam around \\\v it depends mainly on the length of
ohslaclo or across
tlu^ obstacle^ and the stability of the air. The resulting turbulence caused
by large buikhngs, hangars, etc., is usually a combination of horizontal
and vertical eddies. If the aii- is unstable and the wind speed high,
landing should not be attemi)ted too close to a hangar. The eddies
on the lee side may cause a complete reversal of the wind direction
and make landing unsafe. The eddy on the windward side is less
dangerous IxM-ausc^ it is stationary and does not extend far into the
wind.
Figure IVOc shows the eddies that develop when the current crosses
a small ridge. If the incline on the windward side is not too steep,
the stationary eddy disappears and thei-e aie only the usual eddies caused
by the roughness of the surface. On the lee side there are usually largei-

eddies that form on the slope and ti-avel downwind. Again, if the wind
is strong and the air unstable, landing may be unpleasant or e\'en unsafe
on the lee side close to the ridge.
The Influence of —
Mountain Ranges. The influence of mountain
ranges on air curi-ents is, in general, the same as the influence exercised

by the obstacles discussed in the previous paragraph. Figure 176c shows

a cross section through a mountain range. The most striking feature is
the well-developed eddy on the lee side of the mountain. On the wind-
ward side there may be a stationary eddy or not, according to whether the
incline is stec)) or not.
The eddies that form on the lee side are often dangerous to air naviga-
tion. A wind may, if he does not keep sufli.cient
pilot flying against the
altitude^ he forced downmountain side, or he may lose control of
into the
the plane in the eddy. A pilot flying with the wind will usually gain
altitude while he approaches the mountain range. If the mountain is

\'ery steep, there may be a stationary eddy on the windward side, which
may cause difficulties. Under these conditions, the ])ilot must caiefully
consider the effect of ascending and descending air ciu"rents in making
turns or banks with a lieavy load.
The eddies around niountain i-anges reach uj) to some altitude* aboxe
th(> i-ange, causing int(Mise mixing of the air. With a faxorabh* dis-
tribution of humidity and tcMupei-ature, this mixing will lead to formation
of clouds (sti-atus) around and ab()\-e the mountain i-ange. The })roce.ss
of formation of stratus has \)vvn dcsvv\\)vd m a ])i-e\-i()us j)aragraph.
What we ai-e luM-e conccM-ned to emphasize is that stratus has a tendency
1o form in mountainous count ly owing to the increased turbulence. A
general lay(M- of sti-atus will be Iowcm- on tin* mountain si(l(\^ than in the
free air. Oftentimes stratus forms only on the mountain sides and not
in the free air.
 OUTLINE OF METEOROLOGY 239

Apart from forming eddies and local clouds, the mountain ranges
affect the streamlines of the general flow on a large scale. At some
considerable altitude the streamlines are unaffected by the mountain
range, and the current is mainly horizontal. It follows then that the
cross section of the current is diminished by the range. The speed of
the current will, therefore, and attain a maximum
increase in proportion
velocity above the range. The general flow has an upward component
on the windward side and a downward component on the lee side. This
large-scale influence on the main current is noticeable at great distances.
The downward component of the general flow dissolves clouds, and this
effect often reaches 150 miles or more to the lee. The ascending current
is a frequent cause of general cloudiness and precipitation on the wind-

ward slope. If the air is stable, it flows more smoothly and has a tendency
to stream around mountain ranges. Unstable air, on the other hand,
streams easily across, and the upward movement favors the formation of
convective clouds and showers.
—
Bumpiness. Most frequently bumpiness is caused by upward or
downward currents in the air. These currents may be caused by tur-
bulence, convective currents, or eddies caused by obstacles. The
bump is felt when the aircraft flies into or out of a rising or descending
current.
Another cause of bumpiness is sudden horizontal variations in the
Avind. If the aircraft flies with the wind, a sudden lull will cause a
sudden increase in dynamic lift, which is felt as an upward bump. Like-
wise, a sudden horizontal gust will cause a sudden decrease in dynamic
lift, which is felt as a downward bump. If the aircraft flies against the
wind, a lull would give a downward jolt, and a gust an upward jolt.
Bumpiness is also experienced when the aircraft passes a temperature
inversion. Temperature inversions are usually wind discontinuities, and
both the velocity and the direction of the wind are different above and
below the inversion. The following example suffices to demonstrate the
cause of this kind of bumpiness: An aircraft flies under the inversion
with the wind. Its air speed is v, and its ground speed is F, V being
greater than v. If the air above the inversion is calm, the aircraft will
arrive there with an air speed equal to V. This sudden increase in the air
speed gives increasing dynamic lift, w^hich is felt like an upward bump.
If the aircraft flies under the inversion against the wind and passes
through the inversion into calm air above, it will experience a sudden
loss in dynamic lift and drop down again under the inversion. Under
the control of the elevator the plane may rise, only to receive another
downward bump, or a series of bumps. If the aircraft changes its
direction sufficiently, it may pass thi'ough the inversion with hai-dly
any bumping.
240 AIR NAVIGATION

It iiapix'iis soiiu^tiines that ripples or billows develop along the

iincrsion. The aircraft, flying horizontally close to the inversion, may
then exposed to a series of bumps in a regular period. These can
l)e

be avoided by a slight change in altitude.

Temperature inversions have a very ])ronounced effect on lighter-
thnii-air craft flying through them. An airshi]) flying in the air above
lh(> inxersion will have accjuired a temperature close to that of the sur-

rounding air. When di\nng down through the inversion it moves into
colder air. The superheat of the ship may then be sufficient to over-
compensate the rudder control, and the ship rises above the inversion.
Likewise, if an airship flies in the cold air under the inversion and attempts
to rise through it, it will receive a downw^ard jolt, because the gas of the
ship Is colder than the warm air above. In Southern California, where a
strong inversion is present most of the year, it is known that airships
have experienced serious difficulties in attempting to pass through the
inversion. The difficulties are particularly great if the inversion is

close to the ground because the dow^nward jolt received by the ship
when entering the inversion may be sufficient to bump the ship against
the ground.

AIR MASSES

Life History of Air —

Masses. The ideas underlying the principles
of air-mass analysis are based on the fact that the general circulation
of the atmosphere has a tendency to produce vast masses of air whose
])hysical properties are more or less homogeneous within large areas, the
transition from one such mass to another being rather abrupt. The
region where an air mass is formed is called its source.
When a mass of air leaves its source, it begins to change its physical
properties, and the w^eather phenomena that develop within the mass
depend entirely on its life history. In studying the life history of an air
mass, the following factors should be considered: (1) the source whence
the air mass obtained its fundamental properties, (2) the path it has
traveled, and (3) the time it has spent on its journey.
1. Source. —
Tlie air mass absorbs the properties of the source (as
determined by the temj^erature of the siu'face and the radiation char-
net (M-istic of tlu^ latitude) if it remains at rest or moves for a considerable
time nvvv regions of quasi-homogeneous soiu-ce pi'operties. Examples
of such sources are the subtropical anticyclones, and the polar or con-
tinental anticychmes over snow-covered regions. In these anticyclones
the air mo\'(Mnent is slight or modei-ate, and the air masses, therefore,
get time to accjuire the typical pr()i)erties. Therefore, stationary or
(iuasi-sta!i()nar\' auticyclones ar(^ usuall\- effect i\-e aii"-inass sources.
 OUTLINE OF METEOROLOGY . 241

Traveling depressions rarely produce air masses, because the air is moved
so quickly that it keeps changing its characteristics.

2. Path. — The second important feature to consider is the path

that the air mass has traveled since it left its source. The air mass
will change its properties and its structure en route from the source to
the destination according to whether it travels toward colder or warmer,
moist er or drier regions.
3. Age. —
The third important feature to consider is the time the air
mass has spent on its journey from its source, or, in other words, the
age of the air mass. The amount of change in the air-mass properties
depends largely on the nature of the surface over which it travels and
on how long it has been in contact with the surface. The absorption
of properties proceeds from the surface upward. The maximum of
modifying influence is, therefore, always near the earth's surface when
the air mass is young. How far upward the influence penetrates depends
entirely on the nature of the influence and the age of the mass.
The transition from one air mass to another is usually rather abrupt.
It is along the border between adjacent air masses that the greatest
contrasts in energy are found, and it is there that the traveling depres-
sions develop. These phenomena will be discussed in a later section.
What we are here concerned with are the weather phenomena that develop
within the air masses. It is then useful to classify air masses according
to types of life history.
—
Masses. Air masses may be classified according
Classification of Air
to the sourcewhence they acquired their fundamental properties. There
are only four main sources, viz., the doldrums, the subtropical anti-
cyclones, anticyclones in high latitudes, and the regions occupied by
arctic (or antarctic) snow and ice. Accordingly, we may distinguish
between the following types of air masses:

1. Equatorial air (air from the doldrums).

2. Tropical air (air from the subtropical anticyclones).
3. Polar air (air from anticyclones in high latitudes).
4. Arctic air (air from the arctic fields of snow and ice).

The difference between equatorial air and tropical air is not con-
siderable; the same is true of the difference between polar air and arctic
air. Disregarding these minor differences, we may consider onh^ two
outstanding types of air mass, namely, polar air masses and tropical air
masses.
The above
classification is based on the nature of the source of the
airmass without regard to the influences sustained on the journey.
These influences depend on whether the air has traveled toward colder
or warmer regions. Accordingly, we distinguish between a cold air
242 AIR NAVIGATION

mass and a warm air mass. A coM air mass is 'one that is colder than the
surface ()\ei- which it travels, and waini air mass is warmer than the
;i

surface over which it travels. In this classification it is indifferent

whether the air temperature is high oi low, or whether the one mass is
colder or warmer than the other. The classification is based on the
difference between the temperature of the air near the surface of the
earth and that of the surface itself.
The amount of heat that the air absorbs depends on the difference
in temperature between the air and the surface over which it travels.
The amount of moisture that it picks up depends on the aridity of the
surface. It is, therefore, convenient to supplement the abo\'e classi-
fications by the qualifications maritime and continental.
The classifications described above supplement one another. Thus,
the term "a, cold mass of maritime polar air" indicates a vast body of
air of polar origin which is traveling o\^er an ocean that is warmer than
the air itself. Taking into consideration the season and the time that
this air mass has been under maritime influence, the above term is
descriptive of a definite type of w-eather phenomena characteristic of
the mass as a whole.
—
The Properties of a Cold Mass. The source of the cold masses is
normally in the subpolar or arctic regions, but, in winter, masses of cold
air may develoj) over continents dow^n to Lat. 25° or 30°N. \\ liilc in

their sources, these masses are cooled from ])el()w and are characterized
by:

1. Stable stratification, notably in the lower layers.

2. Low specific humidity.
3. Low temperature.

When such a mass, for some reason or othei", moves toward warmer
legions, it will arrive there with a temperature lower than that of the

surface o^^er which it travels. The mass will be heated from below, and
thermal instability will soon develo]) in the lower layers and gradually
spread upwaid. If the air originally contained inversions, these will

be destroyed by continued heating from below with the result that a

iniiform steep laj)se rate de^'elops thi'oughout the mass; this lesults in
con\'ective currents.
If the cold mass tra^•els ovvv watei', it will pick up in()istui(\ which
is brought uj) to higher and higher levels by the c()n\ecti\e currents.
('()n\-(H'ti\e clouds form and soon develop into cumulo-nimbus. If the
cold mass tra\-els ()^•er land, it will l)e heatcnl from Ix^low, but it will not
absoi'b much moistuie. In this case, tlieix^foi-e. convective clouds do
not easil>' form until tlu^ instability has rcvicluMl up to very great altitudes.
Continental cold masses ar(\ therefoi'(\ ()ft(Mi cloudless.
 OUTLINE OF METEOROLOGY 243

The following examples will show the outstanding difference between

a cold continental and a cold maritime mass: (1) Summer air from, say,
Saskatchewan streams southward toward Texas. In spite of being
heated 30°F. or more, it remains clear or perhaps produces a few scattered
cumuli, because it does not absorb much moisture while it is heated.
(2) Cold and dry winter air from, say, Texas streams across the coast
toward the Gulf whereby it may be heated 15°F. At a distance of about
100 miles off the coast, towering cumulus and cumulo-nimbus develop,
because the air has been heated and has absorbed moisture from below.
A typical maritime cold mass is recognized by the presence of several
or all of the following characteristics
1. Increasing temperature and humidity.
2. Steep lapse rate, and instability.
3. Turbulence, gusts, and squalls.
4. Cumulus and cumulo-nimbus.
5. Variable sky, changing from dark and threatening to bright or
clearing.
6. Showery precipitation that begins and ceases abruptly.
7. A slight diurnal variation in cloudiness and precipitation with
maximum in the early morning.
8. The between the showers is good because marine polar
visibility
air is fairly pure in its source and has not picked up dust on its journey.
9. The height of the base of the clouds is moderate and rarely less

than 1,000 ft. This condition is due to the heating of the air from below
whereby the condensation level is kept at some distance above the ground.
A typical continental cold mass is recognized by the presence of
several or all of the following characteristics:
1. Increasing temperature and fairly constant humidity.
2. Steep lapse rate and instability.
3. Scattered cumulus clouds and occasionally cumulo-nimbus.
4. Pronounced diurnal period in cloudiness with a maximum in the
afternoon.
5. If precipitation occurs, it is of a showery character with consider-
able bright intervals, and it occurs generally in the afternoon.
6. The visibility is variable but on the whole good, except when the

air has traveled a considerable time over dusty land or industrial regions.
7. The height of the base of the clouds is considerable and rarely

less than 2,000 ft.

Whena maritime cold mass invades a continent in summer, the
instability is intensified; the showers increase in both frequency and
intensity. When a maritime cold mass invades a continent in ^^inter,
the instability decreases and the showers decrease in intensity, and the
cumulus clouds begin to flatten out into bulging layers resembling stratus,
244 A in SAVIGATIOS

sti-ato-cuinuliis. or iiiinl)()-st lat us. This infiricncc is felt fii'st in tlic

l()\\(M- and ^ladually spicads

l:i\(Ms U|)\\ai'(l.

\\ lien a cold continental mass invades an ocean in summer, it develops

into a stable stale. When a cold continental mass invades an ocean

in wintei', its instability increases and th(^ showers increase rapidly in
intensity and in frecjuency.
The shower activity in cold air masses counteracts the instability
that is caused by the heating from l)elow. This condition is due to the
libeiation of the hitent heat of vaporization above* the condensation
lev{»l. TluM-efoie, old cold masses gradually develop toward a stable
state of equilibrium. It hapi)ens, thei-efore, cjuite freciuently that a cold
mass that has traveled from the United States across the Atlantic Ocean
arrives in western Europe in a fairly stable state. The maximum insta-
bility occurs in air masses that have moved rapidly directly from the
jwlar i-egions.
The Properties of a Warm Mass. —
By far the most important sources
of warm masses are the subtropical anticyclones in oceanic regions.
air
In summer, w^arm masses may also develop over southern continents,
notably in anticyclonic situations.
The air in the maritime subtropical anticyclones is warm and fairly
stable, and the moisture content is high, particularly in the lower layei-s.
When such a mass travels toward colder regions, it arrives there with a
temperature higher than that of the sui-face over which it tra\'els. The
air becomes cooled from below, and the lower layer of air becomes
increasingly stable. The pronounced stability that develops in this way
hinders turbulence and completely prevents convectional currents. The
result of this process is that the cooling is mainly limited to the lower
layer of the air mass. The cooling from below results in a cooled surface
layer of air, while the air above the in\'ersion is mainly unaffected, except
for the slow cooling caused by outgoing radiation.
By continued cooling from below, the air along the surface of the
earth may ])e cooled below its dew point, in which case fog forms. If

the wind velocity is high, there may be sufficient mechanical turbulence

to stir the air under the iuA'ci-sion, in which case stiatus, and not fog,
would d(n'(»lop, as has been exj)lained in a i)i-e\'i()us section.
A t>'))ical maritime warm mass is recognized by the ))resence of several
or all of th(> following characteristics:

1. Stai)le lapse* rate* and imcM'sions in the lower layer.

2. Slight tin-l)ulenc(\ Steady wind.
3. Pool- \isibility.
I. High relati\e humidity.
5. Stratus, mist or fog, and haze.
f). Drizzle.
 OUTLINE OF METEOROLOGY 245

Air from the doldrums, or from the western part of subtropical

anticyclones, and warm air that develops over continents in summei-
are usually conditionally unstable. When such air moves toward colder
regions it will be stable in the lower layer but will remain conditionally
unstable at greater altitudes. have properties char-
It will, therefore,
acteristic of a warm mass near the earth's surface, but cold-air-mass
properties above. This is typical of the tropical air that invades the
United States from the Gulf of Mexico.
When a warm air mass invades a warm continent in summer, insta-
bility develops rapidly, whereas the air changes from a warm mass to a
cold mass. In winter, on the other hand, the stability is increased and
deep layers of fog (advection fog) may cover large areas.

TRAVELING DISTURBANCES
Wehave already discussed the types of weather that develop within
the air masses, andwe have seen that the physical causes of these weather
phenomena can be ascribed to the heating and cooling of the air that is
in contact with the earth's surface. The aim of this section will be to
discuss the weather phenomena that develop along the border between
two adjacent air masses of different temperature, as well as other phe-
nomena that can be classed as traveling disturbances.
The motion of the air is mainly controlled by the pressure distribution.
It is, therefore, convenient to discuss separately the following types of
pressure distribution:cols, depressions (or cyclones), and anticyclones.

—
The Col. A col is the saddle-backed region between two anticyclones
and two depressions arranged as shown in Fig. 177. Since the air streams
mainly along the isobars, from the diagrams that, in the region
it follows
of a col, there are two main currents
of air which blow against one another
and deviate sideways. In the regions of a col, therefore, air masses
from widely different regions may be brought toward one another.
If the isotherms are more or less parallel to the broken line through

the col {i.e., the axis of outflow), the isotherms will sooner or later be
concentrated in the vicinity of this line, and great temperature contrasts
and energy contrasts will be created. Ifthe isotherms are more or less
parallel to the dotted line (the axis of inflow), it is easily seen that the
isotherms will move away from one another, the air in the region of the
col becoming more and more homogeneous.
Let us now imagine that the axis of outflow runs east and west, and
that the air to the south is warm and the air to the north cold. The
air movement around the col would then bring warm and cold air into
juxtaposition. In this case a marked discontinuity in temperature would
develop, and it would move toward the axis of outflow. The process
of creating such a discontinuity is called frontogencsis, and the dis-
continuity ci-eated is called a front.
246 AIR NAVIGATION

L('t us next imagine that the anticyclone to the northwest of the

col is a cold i)()lar anticyclone, and tliat the one to the southeast is a
warm suht i()j)ical anticyclone. 'I1ic ciiculation in the region of the col
would then bring troi)ical air and polar air into juxtaiK)sition and create
a front between the two masses. The front that separates the polar
air fioni the tropical air is called the polar fro7it. As we shall see later,
the i)olar front has a far-reaching influence on the weather in intermediate
and high latitudes.
The i)receding does not fully explain the intricacies of the process
that leads to the formation of fronts. Frontogenesis may also take
place in other wind systems, nota})ly in troughs of low pressure. Ikit

a b c
Fig. 177. — Types of cols.

the most active frontogenesis occurs in the vicinity of cols, and the fronts
have a tendency to be parallel to, and not very far from, the axis of
outflow.
Wliether a front develops or not depends entirely on tlie distribution
of temperature, and often, when the isotherms are unfavorably arranged,
the cols destroy temperature contrasts instead of creating them.
The cols are very perfidious systems, and almost anything may happen
in them. In summer, afternoon showers and thunderstorms develop
frequently in the cols over warm continents. In winter, fog is a frequent
occurrence. In each particular case we must turn to the weather map
to see what surprises the col As a general rule we may
may bring.
say that the type of col shown in Fig. 1776 gives fair and settled weather,
while the type shown in Fig. 177c usually gives a rapid development
toward worse weather.
Frontal Zones. —
We have seen previously that the general circulation
of the atmosphei-e has a tendency to produce huge air masses of more or
less homogeneous properties. The general circulation also tends to
l)r()duce frontal zones between the A'arious air masses. Such frontal
zones, oi- fronts, are maintained when the air currents converge toward
a line. On the whole there are three main frontal zones.
The equatorial frontal zone is situated in the doldrums and separates
the (Mjuatorial aii- of the winter hemisi)hei-e from that of the summer
h(Mnisi)li(M'(\ Since th(^ t(Mnp(M-atur(^ diffei-ence b(M w(hmi the two equa-
toiial ail' masses is but slight, this fiontal zone" is not a i)r()n()unc(Ml one.
 OUTLINE OF METEOROLOGY 247

The most important frontal zone is the polar front, which separates
the tropical air from the polar air. In the Atlantic area this frontal
zone extends generally from the United States toward Norway; it moves
northward in summer and southward in winter. In the same way a
prominent polar front extends generally from the east coast of China
toward the west coast of the United States; this zone, too, moves north-
ward in summer and southward in winter.
Often a third principal frontal zone develops between the maritime
polar air and the arctic air farther north. This frontal zone is called
the arctic front.
These are the main frontal zones of the world. Fronts of less extent,
may form within the air masses, notably between
persistence, or intensity
old and young maritime polar masses. Such fronts are called secondary
fronts.
The importance is most easily understood when we con-
of the fronts
sider the energy of storms. Along the fronts tremendous amounts of
energy (temperature differences) are concentrated and used by the air
to create kinetic energy. This explains, as we shall see presently, how
the traveling depressions (or cyclones) develop along the fronts and feed
on the heat energy that is there accumulated.
The Traveling Depression. —A depression is an area where the pressure
is low relative to that of its surroundings. The pressure is lowest in
the center of the depression, where the winds usually are light and vari-
able. The winds blow around the depression in a counterclockwise
and in a clockwise direction in
direction in the northern hemisphere,
the southern hemisphere. The wind also has a drift across the isobars
toward the center of the depression.
Through studies of a number of weather charts, J. Bjerknes was
led to the conclusion that the traveling depressions often consisted of a
sector of warm air surrounded by colder air, the two air masses being
separated from each other by a front. Figure 178 shows the structure
of such a depression, or the so-called cyclone model. The sector of warm
air extends to the center of the depression, which moves in the direction
of the current in the warm sector. The part of the front where warm air
replaces cold air is called the warm front. In the rear, cold air replaces
warm air along the cold front.
The lower part of the diagram shows a cross section through the
depression to the sovith of the center.The warm air overruns the wedge
of cold air thatforms the warm-front surface, and the cold air behind the
cold front cuts under the warm air in advance of it.
The inclination of the warm-front surface is on the average .^ioo.
and the inclination of the cold front is usually greater than Jfoo. i^i^tl
varies with the speed of the front and the difference in temperature.
248 MR SAVIGATJON

It important to note that the warm air is lighter than the cold
is

air; it above the cold air along the frontal surfaces.

will, therefore, rise

The air in the warm sector blows up the slope of the warm-front surface,
whereby it comes undei- hnxcr pressure and expands and cools. At a
certain distance above the ground, depending on the moisture content,
the warm air has cooled so much that it l)ecomes saturated with moisture.
Al)()\e this level a huge cloud system develops in the warm air above the
sl{)i)ing wai-m-front surface.

Warm air
As Cs CI
Ns .
,

Cold air
M ri-n'
Cold air
v////////^/y///yyy/^yy^y//yyyy/yy//////y'^yy^^^^/^^yy^///^/^/

ca. 300 km. ca. 500 Km.

Fig. 178. — The cyclone (depression) model.

At the highest part of the sloping surface, cirrus and cirro-stratus

develop. The type of cirrus that occurs in connection with fionts

consists ofbands and threads indicating a definite direction from which

they are moving. They often merge into cirro-stratus or alto-stratus.
(This distinguishes the frontal cirrus from the fair-weather cirrus, which
show no systematic aiTangement, and no connection with cirro-stratus.)
The cino-stratus again merges gradually into alto-stratus, which
gradually becomes lower and denser, and eventually changes into nimbo-
stratus. The top part of the warm frontal cloud system consists of ice
 OUTLINE OF METEOROLOGY 249

crystals, whereas the lower part of it usually consists of water droplets.

In the zone of transition the water will gather on the ice crystals,
which then grow and become so heavy that they fall out of the cloud as
precipitation.
Seen from below, the cloud system has an even appearance that is
distinctly differentfrom that of convectional clouds. The precipitation
that falls from the frontal cloud system is usuaUy continuous without
much variation in intensity. At weak fronts the precipitation may be
intermittent, but the variations are not so rapid as in the case of showery
precipitation.
The cold air in the rear of the cold front cuts under the warm air
and lifts it. Condensation of water vapor and precipitation occur in
the same way as along the warm front, but, owing to the current above
the cold-front wedge, the cold-front cloud system gets a forward tilt,
and the upper part of the cold-front surface remains cloudless. The
rain area behind the cold front is fairly narrow, and it often extends
in a forward direction into the warm sector.
The upper part of the diagram (Fig. 178) shows a section through the
depression north of the center. The cold air forms a valley that is
partly filled with clouds.
The above diagram represents the ''ideal" or ''model" depression.
In nature many complications that are not contained in the diagram
may occur. Moreover, the diagram represents only a single stage in
the development of a depression.
—
The Development of Depressions. Further investigations have
shown that a depression originates as a slight wave on the front, and
that the wave moves along the front, steadily growing in amplitude.
After some time the wave has reached the stage represented by Fig. 178.
During the further development, the cold front overtakes the warm
front, and the warm air is squeezed between the two cold wedges and
disappears aloft.
During development the depression grows in intensity, and
this
the wind around increases.
it Some time after the cold front has reached
the warm front, the depression begins to decrease in intensity and
gradually dies away as a frontless vortex of air. This development is
shown in Fig. 179. In Fig. 179a the front is a straight line, and the
frontal surface slopes up from the warm side toward the cold side, having
an inclination of about 1 in 100. The warm air blows from a westerly
direction and the cold air from an easterly direction. An aircraft that
ascends through the frontal surface will experience a sudden wind shift
from an easterly to a westerly direction. The sheering motion along
the frontal surface is comparable with a strong wind that blows along
250 AIR .\ A VIC AT ION

llif surt'iicc* of the sea ami creates waves. The waves that form on the
suiface between cold (heavy) air and warm (Hght) air are huge waves
the length of which may he 1,000 miles or more.
The wa\'es that foini on the surface of the sea are usually stahlc
waves, i.e., waves that tra\'el with a fairly constant amplitude. A

(a)
(b)
K

(c)

co/c/ TTTGf M h";; Co/c/esf

(h)
Fto. 179. — Showing the (leveh)pin(Mit of a (h^prossioii. (Full linos = isobars.)

typicalexample of stable waves is the swell on the oi)en ocean. How-

ever,when the swell approaches a beach, the amplitudes begin to grow;
the wave becomes tall and slim, and sliaij) crests are formed. This
development indicates that the swell is changing from a stable to an
luistablc state. The waves that form on the frontal surfaces are usually
 OUTLINE OF METEOROLOGY 251

unstable waves. Their amplitudes grow, and simultaneously the cold

front overtakes the warm front. This process is called the occlusion
of the depression, and the front that results when the cold front has
reached the warmis called an occluded front.
front
The development described above is illustrated in the diagrams of
Figs. 179a to 179/. Figure 1795 shows the beginning of a wave, Fig.
179c a young wave. Fig. IIM a wave that is nearly occluded. Fig. 179e a
newly occluded depression, and Fig. 179/ an old occlusion.
If the cold air in the rear of the cold front iscolder than the air in
advance of the warm front, the rear air will cut under the warm front
as shown by the cross section in Fig. 179gr. If the air in advance of the
warm front is colder than the air in the rear of the cold front, the latter
will climb up the warm-front surface as shown by the cross section in
Fig. 179/i. Thus an occluded front may act either as a cold front or as a
warm front. An occlusion that approaches a warm continent will

change into a cold-front type, an occlusion that approaches a cold

continent will change into a warm-front type.
Some Further Remarks on Fronts and Depressions. The frontal —
cloud system shown in Fig. 178 illustrates the conditions when the air
of the warm sector is stable. Warm air that originates from the dol-
drums or from the western extremities of the subtropical anticyclones,
for example, the Gulf of Mexico, or from warm continents may be in a
conditionally unstable state. When such air is lifted along the frontal
surfaces it becomes unstable. In such cases turreted tops like cumulus
congestus or cumulo-nimbus grow up from the alto-stratus layer, and
showers or even thunderstorms may be superimposed on the warm-front
area of precipitation. This is quite a frequent occurrence in the eastern
part of the United States, because the warm
from the Gulf of Mexico
air
is usually conditionally unstable. The warm
from the Atlantic sub-air
tropical anticyclone arrives in Europe in a stable state, but, in summer,
tropical air that develops over northern Africa or southern Europe is
sometimes conditionally unstable.
If the warm-sector air is stable, fog, stratus, or strato-cumulus are
the characteristic clouds in the warm sector. If the air is unstable or

conditionally unstable, convective clouds may develop in the warm

sector. This happens quite frequently in the United States in summer.
If the warm-sector air is unstable or conditionally unstable, the cold-
front cloud system breaks up into convective clouds with showers and
thunderstorms. This, too, happens frequently in the United States in
summer.
Usually there is a slight descending motion (subsidence) in the cold
air some distance ahead of the warm front. This descending motion
262 MR X.WIGATION

is apt to (lissoho clouds in the cold air under the cirro-stratus and
i\\v

alto-stratus layer. (Ximulus clouds in the cold air will therefore shrink
and disappear when the warm-front cloud system approaches. Like-
wise, there is often a descending current immediately after the cold
fiont. Therefore the passage of a cold front is often followed by a
dealing of brief duration, after which follow the weather phenomena
characteristic of the cold-air mass.
A trough of low pressure is an elongated area of relatively low pressure
that extends from the center of a depression. The trough may ha\'e
either U-shaped or V-shaped isobars. The U-shaped troughs have no
fronts in them, and the meteorological elements vary continuously
while the trough passes. Even though there is no front in such a trough,

the weather is usually unsettled or bad. Moreover, secondary fronts

may form in the U-shaped troughs.
The V-shaped troughs are always connected with fronts. The
V points away from the center of the depression, and the front runs
through the angles of the V-shaped isobars. When such a trough passes
a station, the meteorological elements vary abruptly.
—
Wind Variations and Fronts. It is of interest to note that a front
is a wind-shift line. When a front passes a station, the \Wnd direction
changes more or less abruptly in a clockwise sense (for example, from
south to southwest, or from southwest to northwest). This applies to all
fronts, whether warm, cold, or occluded.
If an aircraft rises through a warm-front surface, it will experience

a sudden clockwise shift in wind. If the aircraft ascends through a

cold-front surface, it will experience a sudden counterclockwise wind
shift (for example, from northwest to west, or from west to southwest).
If it rises through the frontal surface north of the center of the depression,
it will experience a shift from an easterly to a westerly direction. To the
south of the center the westerly winds reach up to great heights; to the
north of the center there is usually a westerly current above the easterly.
These features are easily deduced from the diagram shown in Fig. 178.
The center of the depression, being at the peak of the warm sector, will
have a more northerly position in the upper atmosphere than near the
earth's surface.
The wind shift is usually more pronounced along cold fronts than
along warm fronts. The passage of a cold front is often accompanied
by al)ru|)t wind direction through more than 90° in a clockwise
changes in
diiHM'tion. and violent turbulence may
Sinuiltaneously, wind squalls
occui-. This happens particularly at quickly moving cold fronts of
considerable^ intensity. The air along the surface of the earth is retarded
by friction, while the air above moves with a velocity corresponding
 OUTLINE OF METEOROLOGY 253

with the pressure gradient. This allows the cold front to become veiy
steep, or even overhanging like a wedge with its point at some distance
above the ground. Thus, in extreme cases, the cold air behind the cold
front may overrun the warmer air in advance of it. In this way great
instability is created in the lower layer, and strong convectional currents
and squalls result. The convectional cloud that develops in this way
is the well-known line-squall cloud (see Fig. 155). The line squall is
accompanied by heavy rains, hail, and thunderstorms, and the tur-
bulence and the wind squalls that accompany it may be of destructive
intensity, particularly to lighter-than-air craft. In extreme cases,
tornadoes or waterspouts may occur along the squall line.

Airships and Fronts. —Pronounced fronts are

importance in airship
of
operations because of (1) the forces that a sudden wind shift imposes
on the side of the ship and (2) the sudden change in air density, which
may cause the ship to change its altitude in an undesirable way.
The ship is designed to withstand large forces from dead ahead.
When the wind shift occurs in a period too brief for the ship to turn
against the newly arrived wind, the forces on the sides of the ship may
damage the and the structure. Wind shifts are of equal impor-
fabric
tance for ships in the air and for moored ships.
A second danger to airship operation is the sudden change in air
density that occurs along pronounced fronts. An airship that flies
through a front from the cold toward the warm side will arrive in the
warm air with a negative superheat. The ship is then too heavy for the
warm air, and so sinks along the frontal surface, where it is exposed to
the effects of the wind shift along the front. The change in air density
along pronounced fronts may be sufficient to drop the ship 1,000 ft. or
more. A strong front should, therefore, not he crossed too close to the earth's
surface.
An airship that flies through a front from the warm to the cold side
will arrive in the cold air with a positive superheat. The ship will
ascend along the frontal surface and be under the influence of the undesir-
able effects of the wind shift along the front.
The difference in density along weak fronts is usually so small that
the ascent or descent of the ship can be checked but at strong fronts the
;

changes may be too rapid to allow adequate precautions.

The Tropical Cyclone. — The tropical cyclones are small cyclonic
depressions, having nearly circular isobars and very strong winds cir-
culating in a counterclockwise direction in the northern hemisphere
and in a clockwise direction in the southern hemisphere. The tropical
cyclones are called cyclones in India, hurricanes in the West Indies, and
typhoons in China. They originate in the doldrums over the oceans
254 Mli \.\VI(}ATI()\

hetween Lats. G^X. and 20°N., or (3°S. and 20°S:, and they travel in the
diiection of the trade wind along the isobars on the eciuatorial side of the
sul)tro])ical anticyclones. At the western end of the subtropical anti-
cyclones they recurx'c poleward.
The wind is light and variable in the center (the ''ej^e") of the tropical
cyclone around which there is a whirl of hurricane winds and torrential
rainfall. The horizontal diameter of the cyclone varies from a few^
miles up to several hundred miles. The diameter increases when the
cyclone recurves ])oleward. The wind velocity often exceeds 100 m.p.h.
The cyclone travels with a moderate sj^eed of about 10 to 20 m.p.h.
Theie is some evidence that the ti-o))ical cyclones in the Atlantic
and Pacific Oceans originate along the ecpiatoiial front as a disturbance
like the depressions along the polar front. The cyclones in the Indian
Ocean, however, do not form along any such front, and it is plausible
that thermal instabilit}^ plays an important part in the formation of all
tropical cyclones.
—
Tornadoes and Waterspouts. A tornado is a circular whirl of great
intensity and small horizontal extent, in which the wind velocity is
usually of superhurricane force. The horizontal diameter of the tornado
varies from a up
few^ feet to 1 The wind velocities sometimes
mile.
exceed 200 m.p.h. The pressure in the center of the tornado is much
lower than in the immediate suiTOundings, and this, together with the
high winds, produces destructive effects. The air in the center is rising
rapidly, and the whirl is accompanied by heavy rain or hail, thunder,
and lightning. The decrease in pressure in the center of the tornado
cools the air below^ its dew^ point, and, as a result, a funnel-shaped cloud
marks the core of the w^hirl.
The tornadoes are short-lived and usually do not last more than an
hour or two. They usually occur in connection with a strong cold front
of the type that gives line squalls. They often form in series and travel
in almost parallel paths following the squall line. Tornadoes occur quite
fi'equently in the Mississippi Valley. In Europe they are rather rare
and not so violent as those that occur in the United States.
Waterspouts are tornadoes that form at sea.
The Anticyclone.— An anticyclone is an area of high pressure sur-
rounded by closed isobars. The wind blows around the anticyclone in a
clockwise direction in the northern hemisphere and in a counterclockwise
direction in the southern hemis])here. In the center the winds are
light and variable. On the whole the wind velocity
is moderate in

anticyclones. outward drift from the central part

'V\w wind has an
of the anticycl()n(\ which usually is compensated by descending air in
high(M- l(^\(>ls. The descending motion dissolves the high and medium
 OUTLINE OF METEOROLOGY 255

clouds. The anticyclone

is therefore often a region of stable and fair

weather. In winter, radiation fog frequently forms over land in the

stagnant parts of the anticyclones.
The anticyclones do not always give fair weather. Fronts may
often penetrate far into the anticyclonic region, and, over oceans and
warm continents, convection may give showers. The weather is usually
fair in anticyclones with increasing pressure, while the dissipating anti-
cyclones may have unsettled or bad weather in places.
A wedge is a region of relatively high pressure that extends from the
center of the anticyclone toward the col. The traveling wedges usually
bring clearing weather, except in the vicinity of the col, where the weather
may be very variable, as has been explained in an earlier paragraph.

WEATHER REPORTS
Most countries of the world have adopted the international code
for meteorological reports, which is a numeral code consisting of several
groups, each containing five numerals that give the meteorological
observations in a definite order. These reports are collected in great
distributing centers and transmitted by radio according to an inter-
national timetable. We shall describe the salient features of the inter-
national system in a later section.
In the United States, the weather reports are distributed over the
teletype and radio circuits of the Bureau of Commerce. In order to
shorten the transmission as much as possible, a system of symbols and
abbreviations is used, which in several respects differ from the inter-
national system.
Form of the U. S. Weather Reports. — The report from each station
has the following form:

STATION DESIGNATOR, One Space; CEILING, SKY, VISIBILITY, WEATHER,

OBSTRUCTIONS TO VISION, One space; temperature, dew point, wind,
one space; barometric pressure, one space; field conditions, one
space; remarks.

FigurQ 180 is a condensed explanation of symbol weather reports.

The United States Symbols. — The following sj^mbols are used in the
United States for drawing manuscript charts:

Sky Covering (Symbols inside the Station Circle)

Clear . O Broken clouds 9

Scattered clouds O Overcast, cloudy •
Partly cloudy 3 Sky obscured by obstruction
256 AIR NAVIGATION

Win,!

Symbols for w ind direction and force are as in the international system.
^tate of Weather {Symbols outside the Station Circle)
Rain moderate, or heavy)
(light, • * :

Shower moderate, or heavj')

(lif2;ht,
"^* ^' ^:
Mist (light, heavy) ' ]

Hail (light, moderate, or heavy) -*

i i
Snow (light, moderate, or heavjO " * I
Snow showers (light, moderate, or heavy) v* ^t -^ *

Sleet (light, moderate, or heavy) "^ a t

Fog (light, moderate, or dense) = = =
Ground fog (light, moderate, or heavy) =
Haze (light, thick) "^ 22

Thunderstorm (mild, moderate, or severe) f^ [} W

Thunderstorm in progress at time of observ^ation (O
Thunderstorm in progress at time of previous observation Oj
Thunderstorm in progress at previous observation, and another at
current observation [Oj
Thunderstorm in progress at previous observation, another (others)
later, but none at time of current observation _Q1
Thunderstorm (s) between observation O.
(Entry of time of occurrence of a thunderstorm is optional)
Distant lightning I

Squalls or squally weather /\

Heavy (or severe) squall (s) '^
Sign that tropical storm forming
is §
Signs that tropical storm has formed f
Blowing snow^ (light, thick) BS BS
Blowing sand (hght, thick) BSA BSA
Blowing dust (light, thick) BD BD
Smoke (light, thick) K K
Dust (light, thick) D d
Line squall in plain language

Surface Condition
Light frost Light
Heavy frost Heavy
Light or moderate freezing rain (glaze) <^
Heavy freezing rain (heavy glaze) i^

Pressure Changes
Symbols are the same as in the international system, except that the amount of
changes is indicated in hundredths of inch; for example, 4 equals 0.04 in.

A ir-mass Abbreviations
Syni])()ls for fronts as in the international system. Abbreviations for air masses of
polar origin, for example, Pc = Polar continental: Npp =
Transitional polar pacific,
etc., are indicated in blue pencil, and air masses of tropical origin are indicated in red
pencil, for example, Tg = Tropical air from tlie Gulf: Ntp = transitional tropical air
from the Pacific.
Clouds
Cloud forms are entenMl in al)l)reviations as shown on page 200. The direction
of tlie movement of the clouds is indicat(Ml bv an arrow.
 OUTLINE OF METEOROLOGY 257

Weather Analysis. —When the observations have been entered on the

chart, the analysis of the weather situation begins. The theory and
the principles of weather analysis and forecasting form one of the most
intricate branches of meteorology and are far beyond the purview of
this brief outline. We can here indicate only roughly how the analysis
is performed.
It should be emphasized at the outset that a satisfactory analysis
can be based only on a succession of charts, and not on a single one.
Only a succession of charts will show the life history of the air masses
and the life history of the traveling fronts and depressions, etc.
The first step in the analysis is to sketch in the isobars, or the lines
in order to obtain an idea of the positions
through points of equal pressure,
of anticyclonesand depressions, and also the main air currents. It is
most convenient to draw isobars for each 0.1 in. or for each fifth millibar.
The exact position of the isobars should be interpolated between the
stations. In doing this we should also take into consideration the
direction and the velocity
of the wind. The wind should blow along
the isobars but with a slight drift toward lower pressure. The stronger
the wind, the more crowded are the isobars. This is important to
note, particularlywhere the distance between the stations is large.
Having sketched the isobars lightly, the next step is to examine the
cloud systems and the weather phenomena in order to find the fronts
and the air masses, using the characteristics described in previous
sections. When the fronts have been drawn, the isobars should be
adjusted and drawn as heavy lines. It is particularly important to
draw the isobars accurately in the vicinity of the fronts, because the
velocity of the front may be obtained from the distance between the
isobars crossing the front.
Next, areas of fog and precipitation should be indicated, and visibility
and cloud heights should be studied. Finally, lines should be drawn
through the points of equal barometric tendency, in order to find the
areas of rising and falling barometer. These lines will indicate in which
way the pressure distribution is going to change. The chart thus
analyzed must agree with the previous chart in such a way that the
fronts and air masses have moved with a velocity that corresponds
with that of the air current.
Figure 181 shows a section of a simplified weather chart for the
United States, Jan. 8, 1937, at 8 a.m. The Bermuda High in conjunction
with the frontal trough of low pressure along the INlississippi A^illey
causes a flow of tropical air from the Gulf of INIexico {Tg) toward the
north and northeast. This air arrives in the United States with a tem-
perature that is considerably higher than that of the surface over which
it travels. It is essentially a warm air mass. In Florida and tlie AVest
Indies the sky is partly clouded. When the air moves northward, it
258 AIR NAVl(l.\TI()S

Fig. 180. IiIxplanation of Symbol

To illustrate the method used in transmission and deciphering of symbol
element of the report appears directly above a description of all symbols
Elements of observations are always transmitted in the same order; therefore,
WA N SPL 102JE F,30 01.SO 2V

Clas,sifiration
Sution Typo of report Time of report Coiling Sky Vuribility
of report

Li^ls of station The symbols C, SPI/, meaning Time groups are The absence of a "ceil- The absence of a symbol for The absence of a
I

names and thoir N.orX are used "special report,' in figures ba.sed ing" group indicates sky indicates thatprecipita- figure for visibil-
rc-prc'sontativp immediately fol- appears when on the 24-hr an "unlimited" ceiling tion or oljslmctioas to vision ity indicates that
rail letters are lowinR, after one cnicial changes clock with fol- (above 9,7.50 ft) are present and reduce the the visibility is
posted on Wea- space, the sta- have occurred in lowing letters ceiling to icro and/or the 10 miles or more
ther Bureau air- tion letters to weather condi- showing the Figures representing visibility to mile or less H
port station bul- classify weather tioas since the standard of time the numlH'r of hun- and make the sky unob- The value of the
letin hoards for conditions at last report used, <•.(?., I-I4()£: dreds of feet that apply servablc visibility below
the information airports specifi- means 2:40 P.M. are used to indicate 10 miles is indi-
of all concerned cally desiRnated The absence of Eastern Stand- the height of the ceil- Thesky condition Is indicated cated by figures
as controlled air- the obser\'at ion- ard Time; 0030C ing between 51 and by the following symbols un- representing the
ports type letter group means 12:30 9,750 ft above the sta- less the condition given number of miles
SPL indicates an P.M., Central tion, e.g., 35 indicates above is present: and/or fractions
If no classification observation Standard Time; 3,r>(X) ft, 3 indicates Clear O of miles
letter is used, the where no crucial 235!) .M means 3(K) ft, etc. ® Scattered clouds
station is not changes have oc- 11:59 P.M., (!) Broken clouds The letter V is
located at a con- Mountain The figure naught (0) e Overcast used immedi-
trolled airport last transmitted Standard Time; is used when the ceil- ®/ High scattered ately following
observation 2015P means ing is zero (below 51 CD/ High broken the figure for
C:satisfactoryfor 8:15 P.M., P.V ft) e/ High overcast visibility if the
contact flight LCL, meaning cific Standard ©CD Overcast, lower bioken visibility is fluc-
"local extra ob- Time. etc. \Yhcn the height is esti- ©d) Overcast, lower scat- tuating rapidly
N requiring ob- servation," ap- mated the letter E tered and is 2 miles or
servance of in- pears only on re- SPL reports precedes the ceiling (D (J Broken, lower broken less
strument-flight ports sent over that are sent figures. (D® Broken, lower scat-
rules alone, and all tered
Such reports are LCL reports bear A plus sign (-f-) is used (D® Scattered, lower
X take-off and made every 15 the time of ob- preceding the ceiling broken
landing sus- minutes during servation imme- figures to indicate the 0(D Scattered, lower scat-
pended periods of low diately follow- ceiling balloon was tered
ceiling and/or ing, after one blown from sight at ©/® High overcast, lower
visibility space, the ob- the height represented broken
servation-type by the figures and be- ffi/® High overcast, lower
letter group SPL fore reaching the scattered
or LCL cloudij (t/OD High broken, lower
broken
SPL reports ap- The letter V is used, <D/® High broken, lower
pearing in .se- immediately following scattered
quences do not the figures for ceiling, ©/® High scattered, lower
show the time- if the height of the broken
S
of-report groun ceiling is changeable (D/(D High scattered, lower
and the time of and below 2,000 ft scattered
observation is
considered as the The plus (-I-) or minus (-)
time of all other sign preceding the cloudiness
reports in the symbol indicates "dark"
sequence as in- and "thin," resixx-tively.
dicated in the se-
quence heading Height of lower scattered
clouds is indicated by the
cntri- ofa figure represents
ing the hundreds of feet
applying, immediately pre-
ceding the scattered -cloud
sjTnbol

* Source: U.S. Department of Commerce Weather Bureau; based

amendments thereto.
t The report given above would be deciphered as follows: Washington
Standard Time; ceiling estimated at 3,000 ft; overcavst, lower scattered
rain; light blowing dust l)arometric pressure, 1015.2 millibars; temperature,
;

wind shift from the south at 4: 18 p.m.. Eastern Standard Time: altimeter
 OUTLINE OF METEOROLOGY 259

Weather Reports*
weather reports, an example of such a report is given above the boxheads. Each
and conditions that might be used in that particular phase of the report,
all symbol weather reports may be deciphered by reference to this chart.
T-R- M8— 1618E + ©NW T

Barometric Altimeter
Obstructions to vision
pressure
Temperature Dew point
setting

The "weather" ele- The "obstructions to The baro- Temperature Dew point is The wind direction is Indicated by RfTnarks are
ment of the report is vision " element of the metric pres- is indicated indicated by indicated by arrows, a group of transmitted
indicated, when ap- report is indicated, sure is indi- by figures figures giving as follows: three figures in authorized
fjropriate, by the fol- when appropriate, by cated by a giving its its value to 1 North representing English ab-
owing symbols. by the following sym- gr o u p of value to the the nearest J, i/ North-northeast the inch and breviations
R— Light rain bols: three figures; nearest de- degree Fahr- ^ Northeast hundredths and teletype
R Moderate rain F— — Damp haze tens, units, gree Fahren- enheit. *—i/ East-northeast of an inch of symbols
R+ Heavy rain F- Light fog and tenths of heit. «- East pressure in- Lists of the
S- Light snow F Moderate fog millibars in- Values below — \ East-southeast V o v e d
1 . abbrevia-
S Moderate snow F-»- Thick fog V o I V e d Values below
. °F are indi- \ Southeast Thus, 30.00 tions are
S+ Heavy snow FF Dense fog Thus, a pres 0°F are indi- cated by the t \ South-southeast would be available for
ZR- Light freezing GF— Light ground sure of 1015.2 cated by the entry of a T South written as iaspection at
rain fog millibars entry of a minus sign T / South-southwest 000; 29.98 as all Weather
ZR Moderate freez- GF Moderate would be minus sign (
— ) immedi- /" Southwest 998, etc. Sent Bureau air-
ing rain ground fog written as (
— ) immedi- ately preced- —/• West-southwest only by des- port stations.
ZR+ Heavy freezing GF-t- Thick ground 152; 999.9 as ately preced- ing the fig- — West ignated sta- The teletype
rain fog 999; 1,025.7 ing "the fig- ures for dew —»\ West-northwest tions equip- symbols used
L- Light drizzle OFF Dense ground as 257; etc. ures for tem- point N Northwest ped wit b are shown on
L Moderate driz- fog Sent only by perature. I \ North-northwest me rcurial this chart
zle IF- Light ice fog stations Zero is enter- barometers
L+ Heavy drizzle IF Moderate ice eq u pped
i ed as The velocity is indicated
ZL- Light freezing fog with mercu- by figures representing
drizzle IF4- Thick ice fog rial barom- its value in miles per Special data
ZL Moderate freez- IFF Dense ice fog eters hour, calm being indi-
ing drizzle H Hazy cated by the letter C.
ZL-J- Heavy freezing K— Light smoke If estimated, this is
Special data comprising pres-
drizzle K Moderate indicated by the entry
sure change and characteris-
E- Light sleet smoke of the letter E imme-
tic, 5,000-ft pressure at se-
E Moderate sleet K-f- Thick smoke diately following the lected stations, doud, thun-
E-l- Heavy sleet D- Light dust velocity figures derstorm, and snow depth
A- Light hail D Moderate data, Great Lakes water
A Moderate hail dust The character of the temperature, data from
etc.,
A -I- Heavy hail D-1- Thick dust wind is indicated, selected etc., are
stations,
AP- Light small hail BS- Light blow- when appropriate, by entered in code at certain
AP Moderate small ing snow entry, immediately times by the stations desig-
hail BS Moderate following the velocity,
nated to do this, as .separate
A'P+ Heavy small blowing of a minus sign ( — groups, immediately follow,
hail snow for "fresh gusts" and ing the report proper.
0P~ Light snow pel- BS+ Thick blow- a plus sign (-|-) for These data are intended pri-
lets ing snow "strong gusts." No
marily for the proparatior*
OP Moderate snow GS- Light drifting indication of character
of maps for forecasting
pellets snow means the wind is
0P+ Heavy snow GS Moderate steady
pellets drifting
Missing data
SQ- Mild snow snow Wind shifts that have
squall GS+ Thick drift- occurred at the report-
SQ Moderate snow ing snow ing station are indi-
squall BD- Light blow- cated, immediately Elements normally sent, but
SQ-f Severe snow ing dust following the other for some reason missing from
squall BD Moderate wind data, by an ar- the transmission, will be
RQ-Mild rain squall blowing row, showing the di- indicated by the letter M,
RQ Moderate rain dust rection (to eight points entered in the report in
squall BD-f- Thick blow- only) from which the place of the missing data
RQ-i- Severe rain ing dust wind was blowing
squall BN- Light blow- prior to the shift, fol-
T- Mild thunder^ ing sand lowed by the local
storm BNT M,oderate time, on the 24-hr
T Moderate thun- blowing clock, at which the
derstorm sand shift occurred, with
T+ Severe thunder- BN-h Thick blow- following letter show-
storm ing sand ing the standard of
SW- Light snow time used. The in-
showers tensity of the shift is
SW Moderate snow indicated by the minus
showers sign ( — ) for "mild,"
SW-»- Heavy snow the absence of a sign
showers for "moderate," and
RW - Li g h I ram the plus sign (-I-) for
showers "severe," the signs
RW Moderate ram being entered imme-
showers diately following the
RW-t- Heavy ram standard-of-time letter
showers
TORNADO (always
written out in full)

on instructions contained in Weather Bureau Circular Nj 1939, and

—satisfactory for instrument flight only special report at 4 24 p.m., Eastern ; :

clouds at 1,500 ft; visibility, 2 miles, variable; mild thunderstorm; light

68°F; dew point, 60°F; wind west-northwest 18 mph., fresh gusts ; moderate
setting 29.96 in. ; dark to the northwest.
260 Mli XAVIdATlOX

cools from below, and a inoi-e or less coutiiiiious layer of sti-atus and fo^
develops. Note that fog forms i)referal)ly where the wind speed is
slight, whereas stratus or strato-eumulus forms where the wind is strong
enoiigli to i)r()(lii('e sufficient mixing. It is of interest to note that the
fog and stratus ai'e of the axlvcction type, and, since they occur togetliei-
with api)recial)le wind forces, it is likely that the cloud layer in the tiopical
ail- is \'ery deep.
The j)olar front separates the tropical air from the polar air to the
noith and northwest. The source of the polar continental air {Pc) is
the anticyclonic region over Canada. In its source the air is cold and
specifically dry. When streaming southward to the west of the center
of LOW it is heated from below, whereby
it develops toward instabilitJ^

It is essentially a cold air mass.However, since not much moisture is

supplied to the air from the surface of the earth, showers are not numerous.
Along the warm front, the warm air oveiTuns the cold air, and a
continuous cloud system develops along the front from which continuous
precipitation falls.

To the southwest of the center of LOW the cold air cuts under the
waiin air. The Gulf air, being conditionally unstable, is here lifted so
much that the instability and thunderstorms form.
is i-eleased
Thiee wave cj^clones ha\'e formed along the polar front. The
first wave is situated somewhei-e to the south of Newfoundland. The
second one, which is only slight, is situated to the east of Toronto.
The third wave is situated to the southwest of Chicago. The center (L)
will move parallel to the direction of the warm sector isobars {i.e.,

toward the northeast). The barometric tendencies in the warm sector

are negative, \vhich indicate that the wave is unstable, i.e., it will deepen
and develop into a cyclone while it occludes.
The center of HIGH between
Bismarck and Sioux Lookout is moving
rapidly southward; this is evident from the fact that the barometric
tendency south of the HIGH is plus and north of HIGH is minus. The
HIGH near Moosonee will move toward the southeast with considerable
speed; this also follows from the distribution of the bai'ometric tendencies.
Thus at God's Lake the barometer is falling 0.10 in. in 3 hr.. while at
Father Point it is rising 0.18 in 3 hr.
It is readily understood that a center of HIGH must mo\e in the
du-ection from the maximum of falling toward the maximum of lising
barometer; in the same manner, a center of LOW niust mo\'e in the direc-
tion from the maximum of rising toward the maximum of falling bai'ometer.
Figure 182 shows the weather chart 12 hr. after the ]:)re\ious one.
The reader is advised to try to analyze it in order to gain exj^erience
in intci-preting the observations. The analysis of this chart should be
l)as(Ml on that of the i)revious one, and th(^ ])i-iu('ipal fionts. aii- masses,
260 MR .V.I VKIATIOX

cools from Ix'low, and a nioi-c oi- less coiit iuuou's \\\\qv of sti'jitus and fo^
dexelops. Note that fog foinis prefciahly where the wind speed is
sHght, whereas stratus or strato-ciimuhis forms where the wind is strong
enough to prochice sufficient mixing. It is of interest to note that the
fog and stratus are of the advcction type, and, since they occur togethei-
witli ai)|)i-ecial)le wind forces, it is likel}^ that the cloud layer in the ti()i)ical
air is \erv deej).
The i)olar fi'ont separates the tropical air from the polar air to the
north and northwest. The source of the polar continental air {Pc) is

the anticyclonic region over Canada. In its source the air ls cold and
specifically dry. When streaming southward to the west of the center
of LOW heated from below, whereby it develops toward instability.
it is

It is essentially a cold air mass. How'ever, since not much moisture is

su])i)li(Ml to the air from the surface of the earth, showers are not numerous.

Along the w-arm front, the warm air oveiTuns the cold air, and a
continuous cloud system develops along the front from which continuous
precipitation falls.

To the southwest of the center of LOW the cold air cuts under the
warm air. The Gulf air, being conditionally unstable, is here lifted so
nuich that the instability and thunderstorms foi-m.
is released
Thiee wave cyclones have formed along the polar front. The
first wave is situated somewhere to the south of Newfoundland. The
second one, which is only slight, is situated to the east of Toronto.
The third wave is situated to the southwest of Chicago. The center (L)
will move parallel to the direction of the warm sector isobars {i.e.,

toward the northeast). The barometric tendencies in the wai-m sector

are negative, which indicate that the wave is unstable, i.e., it will deepen
and develop into a cyclone while it occludes.
The center of HIGH between Rismaick and Sioux Lookout is moving
i-apidly southward; this is evident from the fact that the barometric
tendency south of the HIGH is plus and north of HIGH is minus. The
HIGH near Moosonee will move toward the southeast with considerable
speed; this also follows fi'om the distiibution of the barometi'ic tendencies.
Thus at God's Lake the barometer is falling 0.10 in. in 3 hr., while at
Father Point it is rising 0.18 in 3 hr.
It is readily understood that a center of HIGH must move in the
du'ection fi-om the maximum (^f falling toward the maximum of lising
barometei-; in the same manner, a c(Mitei- of LOW must m()\-e in the direc-
tion from the maximum of rising toward the maximum of falling barometer.
Figure 182 shows the weatluM- chart 12 hr. after the ])re\i()us one.
The reader is a(hised to try to analyze it in ordei- to gain exj^erience
in intei))reting tlu^ obsei'vations. The analysis of this chart should be
based on that of the j)i(ni()us one, and tlu^ ])rin('ipal fionts, air masses,
Flu. lh.1.— The WLathu i]ij,p Jan. S, 1J37, 8 a.m. Linc-s n]tli filk-d oeiiiiriiiUt indiiato n .ii m fionts, Imib mth filled tiiangks mdicatt cold fionts, hatilad .iicab mdiiate
•5^
Fig 18 —Tic ai Ja S, 1 37, i p.m., TVitl iboba ;
OUTLINE OF METEOROLOGY 261

c -

^53 .

c 2

:s§J

c3 - :: :;:

. ic ——
§ = i X

x'l^^

oc ^ _= -E
262 AIR NAVIGATION

etc., should l)e identified. The weather conditions in the trojiieal air
mass have improved on the whole during the day on account of the diurnal
heating, which has a tendency to dissolve fog and stratus.
Figure 183 shows a small section of a weather chart plotted according
to the U. S. Weather Bureau regulations. In it all elements have been
plotted. The reader is advised to use the list of symbols in order to
interpret the observations. Only those who are thoroughly familiar
with the symbols will be a})le to make adequate use of the weather charts
that are prepared at most principal airports.
In some aviation weather services, cross sections are prepared in
order to facilitate the interpretation of the upper air data. Figure 184

Oc-tober 25, 1935

Pembina Omahd Dallas

Fig. 184. — Cross section through ;ui occluclod front.

shows such a cross section through an occluded front. The full lines arc
isotherms (centigrade) the values of relative humidity are plotted for sig-
;

nificant iK)ints along the vertical; the direction of the wind arrows refers
to the direction diagram above; the broken lines represent the intersection
between the frontal surfaces and the cross section.
The cross-section diagram furnishes the best l^asis for choosing the
most convenient flight altitude. The position of the freezing-point
isotherm is of imi)()rtance for the estimation of the possibilities for icing.
Forecasting. -The analysis of the weather situation shows (in a
rough wax) i1i(^ state of the atm()s|)here at a given moment. The
weather that will occui- in a certain locality witliiu tlie foiccasting period
will then (lejx'iul mainly on the following factors;
 OUTLINE OF METEOROLOGY 263

1. The travel of the air masses, fronts, etc., across the chart.
2. The changes that will occur within the air masses and in the
structure of the fronts and depressions, etc., while they travel across the
chart.
In order to be able to forecast the weather with reasonable accuracy,
it is necessary to have a thorough knowledge of the physics of the atmos-
and also a thorough
phere, several years' experience in general forecasting,
knowledge of the numerous local influences due to the terrain.
The problem of forecasting becomes most intricate when the fore-
casting period is large. For forecasts of short period (6 hr. or so) it
usually suffices to extrapolate the positions of the depressions, fronts,
and anticyclones by means of their previous displacements, assuming
that they will continue to move with the speed they had during the last
6 hr. Two or more consecutive charts at 3- or 6-hr. intervals will then
furnish the basis for the forecasting of the displacements of the pressure
systems. (The movement of the pressure systems can also be computed
from the distribution of pressure and pressure changes but the procedure ;

is too elaborate to be described in this brief outline.) The movement

of the air masses during 6 can be obtained from the geostrophic wind
hr.
(see table below). The movement of the fronts can also be obtained
with fair accuracy from the geostrophic wind, using the following rules
a. A warm front (or a warm-front-type occlusion) moves in the

direction of the warm-sector isobars (or the isobars in the warmer air)
with a velocity of about 60 to 85 per cent of the geostrophic wind in the
rear of the front.
h. A cold front (or a cold-front-type occlusion) moves with a velocit\^

of about 80 to 100 per cent of the geostrophic wind in the rear of the front.
The following table gives the distance between the isobars, the cor-
responding geostrophic wind velocity, and the distance traveled in 6 hr.
The distances are given in miles, and the velocities in miles per hour.

60° N orS. 50° N or S. 40° N . or S.

Distance
between
Geo- Travel Geo- Travel Geo- Travel
0.10-in.
strophic in 6 strophic in 6 strophic in 6
isobars
wind hr. wind hr. wind hr.

25 121 728 137 821 164 983

50 61 364 68 410 82 491
75 40 242 46 274 55 328
100 30 182 34 205 41 245
125 24 146 27 164 33 199
150 20 ,
121 23 137 27 164
175 17 104 20 117 23 139
200 15 91 17 103 21 123
264 AIR NAVIGATION

When tlic distance l)et\veen the isobars is larger than 200 miles,
th(^ computed disi)lacements are inaccurate, but the disjjjacements are
then less than 125 miles in () hr. The geostrophic wind is not suitable
for extrapolation puri)oses between Lat. 35°N. and 35°S., because the
representati\'e wind in the equatorial regions may differ considerably
from the geostrophic wind.
When the approximate displacements of the pressure systems and
the fronts and air masses have been determined, the next point to con-
sider is the changes that will occur while they travel. The changes in
the air masses are, as we have seen in previous sections, mainly of tlie
following three kinds:
a. C'hanges due to the travel of the air toward warmer or colder
regions.
h. Changes due to diurnal heating and cooling.
c. Changes due to local influences of the terrain.
The changes a may be considerable during a large forecasting period
but are usually insignificant as far as aviation forecasts (for the first
6 hr. or so) are concerned. We can, therefore, assume that the air
masses will not change their properties essentially during 6 hr., except
when they travel from water to land, or from bare ground to snow-covered
groimd, or from a warm sea current to a cold one. In such cases the
changes may be considerable, and one must apply the principles of air-
mass analysis in order to determine in which direction and to what
extent the masses will change their properties in these cases. This has
been explained in the section on air masses.
The changes h depend on the season and the time of day. The
reader is referred to earlier sections where these i)henomena have been
explained.
The changes c depend mainly on whethei- the air ciu'rent blows
uphill or downhill and on whether the air is stable or not. This, too, has
been explained in earlier sections.
The forecasting procedure, therefore, is the following:
1. To find the fronts, pressure systems, and air masses, and their
pi'opei'ties.

2. To detei-mine their travel during the forecasting ])eiiod.

3. To determine what changes will occui- while they ti-a\el.
In this way it is ))()ssil)le, irith experience, to foi-ecast tlie weather
plicuonicna with fair accuracy.

Glossary

Adiabatic changos in toniponituro. — If a Ixxiy of air is movod upward or downward

in the atmosphoro and no heat is supplied to or withdrawn from it, its temperature
will change adiahatieally. This change is caused by the expansion or contraction of
the air caused by the variation in pressure. A body of non-saturated air will cool
 OUTLINE OF METEOROLOGY 265

1°C. for each 100 meters it is lifted; this temperature lapse rate is called the dry-
adiabatic lapse rate. If the air is saturated it cools less —
approximately l^'G. per
200 meters of elevation; this lapse rate is called the moist-adiabatic lapse rate.
Advection.—The process of transfer by horizontal motion.
Aerology.—The branch of meteorology that deals with the free atmosphere.
Air Pockets. — Regions of descending air, upon entering which an aircraft experi-
ences a sudden decrease in lift. Air pockets that occur in connection with irregulari-
ties inthe wind caused by obstacles may be experienced in the upper air to a height
equal to four times that of the obstacle. Most frequently air pockets occur in squally
weather, notably in connection with thunderstorms (see also Bum-piness).
Altimeter. —
An aneroid barometer graduated to show height instead of pressure.
Assuming normal distribution of temperature along the vertical, pressure becomes a
simple function of height. It is, therefore, possible to graduate the dial to show
height instead of pressure (see also Aneroid Barometer)
—
Anemograph. An instrument for recording the velocity and direction of the wind.
—
Anemometer. An instrument for measuring the velocity of the wind.
—
Aneroid Barometer. An instrument for measuring the air pressure. It consists
of a shallow airtight metal box that expands or contracts in proportion to the varia-
tions in pressure. The instrument should be compared frequently with a mercury
barometer as its zero is subject to change.
Anticyclone. —
A region in which the pressure is high relative to that in its sur-
roundings. The wind circulation in an anticyclone is clockwise, and the weather is
usually of a settled type.
—Air originating over the
Arctic Air. antarctic)
arctic (or and snow. fields of ice
—A fog that occurs, mostly
Arctic Smoke. or antarctic
in arctic when very regions,
cold streams over open water.
air
Atmosphere —The wind system the earth as a whole,
Circulation. of also called
the "general circulation."
Backing. — Counterclockwise change wind in The opposite
direction. to veering.
Barograph. — A self-recording barometer, usually the aneroid type. of
Barometer. —An instrument measuring the pressure
for the atmosphere. of
—High winds accompanied by great cold and
Blizzard. or snow.
drifting falling
Bumpiness. —A sensation usually caused by turbulence
flying the Bumpi- in air.

ness may be caused by (1) vertical currents set up as a result of irregular heating of the
earth's surface, (2) irregularities due to roughness of the ground, and (3) change in
lift when the aircraft passes a discontinuity in the wind.
Buys-Ballott's Law. —
This law states that if, in the northern hemisphere, j'ou
stand with your back to the wind, the pressure is lower on your left hand than on
your right hand. In the southern hemisphere the reverse is true.
Centigrade. —
A thermometric scale where zero is the melting point of ice, and 100^
represents the boiling point of pure water at standard atmospheric pressure. A
centigrade degree is %
of a Fahrenheit degree. To convert centigrade degrees to
Fahrenheit degrees, multiply by and add 32. %
Cloudburst. —
A sudden and heavy downpour of rain usually associated with
thunderstorms.
Col. —
The saddle-backed region between two anticyclones and two depressions.
—
Cold Front. A line on the weather chart along which cold air replaces wanner air.
—
Condensation. The process of formation of water from water vapor.
Convection. —
Vertical currents in the air caused by thermal instability.
Convectional Rain, etc. —
Rain, etc., caused by convectional currents.
Convergence. —
There is convergence into an area or a voliune if more air flows into
the area or volume than out of it. This is the opposite to divergence.
 AIR NAVIGATION

Cyclone. — All iircii of low j)n's.sur('. In middle ;iiid hi^h latitudes areas of low
pressure ar(» most frequently called depressions^ tlie word eyclonc being reserved for
tropical cyclones.
Cyclonic Rain. — Rainfall associated with (;yclones.
Density. — The mass of unit volume of a substance.
Depression.— (See Cyclone.)
Dew.— Water condensed on grass, leaves, etc.

Dew Point. —The temperature to which air can be cooled without causing con-
densation.
Divergence. —
See Convergence.
—
Doldrums. The equatorial regions of calms or light variable winds with heavy
rains, thunderstorms, and scjualls.
Drizzle. —
Precipitation of numerous and very small drops.
Dust. —
Finely divided earth whirled up by the wind (blowing dust).
—
Dynamic Cooling. The fall of temperature caused by expansion due to diminished
pressure (see Adiabatic).
—
Eddy. The deviation from steady flow in any fluid that streams past obstacles, or
in streams that flow in contact with one another.
Equatorial Air. —Air originating the doldrums. in
Fahrenheit. —A thermometric scale where the freezing point of water is 32°, and
the boiling point of water is 212°. One degree Fahrenheit is ?^ of a degree centigrade.
To convert Fahrenheit degrees to centigrade degrees, subtract 32° and multiply by 5^.
Fohn. —
A warm, dry wind that blows down the leeward slopes of mountains.
Friction Layer. —
The lower part of the atmosphere (usually 1,500 to 3,000 ft.

deep) in which the friction along the earth's surface influences the flow of air.
Gale. —
A wind of force 8 on the Beaufort scale.
Glazed Frost. —
Frozen rain forming a layer of smooth ice upon objects.
Gradient. —The decrease in an element per unit distance. The gradient of pressure
is particularly important. The horizontal pressure gradient is directly proportional
to the wind velocity. The closer the isobars are to one another the larger is the
gradient,and the stronger is the wind. The vertical pressure gradient varies only
within narrow limits, being on an average % millibar per meter near the earth's sur-
face. The vertical temperature gradient is expressive of the stability conditions in
the air. In recent years the expression lapse rate has been given to gradient in the
vertical direction.
Gradient Wind. —The wind velocity necessary to balance the pressure gradient.
The true wind above the friction layer is approximately equal to the gradient wind.
— A sudden increase the velocity the wind short duration.
Gvst. in of of
— Hard
If ail. precipitated from clouds.
pellets of ice Soft a variety that hail is is

small, white, opaque, and soft.

High. — high-pressure
.\ area.
Hoarfrost. — Deposit formed the same way as dew.
of ice in
Horse Latitudes. — Regions calms or variable winds coinciding with the
of light
subtropical belts high pressure.
of
Humidity. — (See Humidity.)
Relative
Hurricane. — Wind force 12 on the Beaufort
of The name hurricane scale. is also
given violent windstorms originating
td tropical regions. in
Hygrograph. — Self-recording hygrometer.
— An instrument determining the humidity the
II ygronivter. for of air.

I — An nu\ss unstable when, non-saturated, lapse rate exceeds

ristability. air is if its

the dry adiabatic, and, if saturated, its lapse rate exceeds the moist adiabatic. Con-
vection, cunmlus clouds, showers, squalls, thunderstorms, gustiness, etc., are phenom-
ena favored or caused by inatabilitv.
 OUTLINE OF METEOROLOGY 267

—Layer which the temperature increases with increasing altitude

Inversion. in
instead of the normal decrease.
—Lines equal barometric tendency.
Isallobars. of
—
Isobars. equal barometric pressure.
^Lines of
Isotherms. —Lines equal temperature.
of
Lapse Rate. — Vertical temperature gradient. Usually the decrease tempera- in
ture per 100 meters.
Lightning. — The an
flash of discharge between two clouds or between a
electrical
cloud and the earth.
Line Squall. — Heavy squalls occurring simultaneously along a line (cold front).
The phenomena an arch or line of low
characteristic of the passage of a line squall are
black cloud; a rapid rise in wind velocity; a sudden change in wind direction; extreme
turbulence and gusts; heavy rain or hail; thunder and lightning; a sudden drop in
temperature; a rapid rise in pressure. Line squalls occur along pronounced cold
fronts. The clouds are produced by the lifting of the warm air along the cold-front
surface, while the drop in temperature and the rise in pressure are the results of the
invading cold air. Only very strong cold fronts produce line squalls. Line squalls
are dangerous to air navigation chiefly because of the extreme turbulence and electric
discharges that accompany them. The clouds usually reach up to great altitudes,
and, since they are arranged in a continuous line (often 250 to 400 miles in length), it
is often difficult for aircraft to fly over or around them.

—
Low. A region of low pressure or a depression.
—
Mackerel Sky. A sky covered with cirro-cumulus or alto-cumulus clouds.
Meteorograph.— A self-recording instrument for recording pressure, temperature,
and humidity in the free air.
Meteorology. —The science the atmosphere.
of
Mist. —A thin fog whose greater than'
visibility is km. In the United States
1

mist means or rain

drizzle small drops.
of
Monsoon. — Winds that blow with great persistence opposite directions in at
different seasons. They are caused by the annual variation in temperature between
oceans and continents. They are analogous to land and sea breezes, but their period
isa year instead of a day, and they blow over vast regions.
Nephoscope. —An instrument for determining the direction and velocity of the
motion of clouds.
Occlusion. — A front that occurs when the cold front overtakes the warm front in a
depression.
Orographic Rain. —Rain caused by blowing up the slopes
air a mountain range. of
Ozone. — An form
allotropic oxygen. of present considerable quantities
It is in
in the upper atmosphere above 20 miles above the ground.
PilotBalloon. —A small balloon that
free to enable, through observa-
is set adrift
tion of its movements, determination of the direction and velocity of the wind
aloft.
—
Polar Air. Air originating in polar regions.
—
Polar Front. The line of separation between air of polar origin and air of tropical
origin.
Potential Temperature. —
The temperature a specimen of air would attain if it were
brought adiabatically to standard pressure (i.e., 1,000 millibars).
Precipitation. —
Deposition of solid or liquid water on the surface of the earth.
Rain. —
Precipitation of water drops.
Relative Humidity. —
The ratio (expressed as a percentage) of the actual amount of
water vapor in the air to the amount the air could hold if it were saturated at the
same temperature.
Ridge. —An area of relatively high pressure extending from an anticyclone.
268 MR .\.\ VI(!.\TI().\

Sandstorm. —A stroiij; wind caiiNinp; dust or sand.

Scud. — IlaK^cd lr:if!;iii('iits of low clouds drift iuj^ rapidly.
Seconddnj Cold Front. — .V cold front in the jjolar air, following llic priinarx' front.

Scconildri/ I)r/)r( ssion. — .\ small depression on the outskirts of a larger or i)riinar\'

dej)rcssi()n.
— Precipitation
Shower. from convcctive clouds.
fallinf^

—Rain and snow

Sleet. toKothcr, or melting snow.
falling In the United States
sleet means or frozen
ice pellets rain.
Smoke. — Particles foreign matter (resulting from combustion)
of the in air.

aSuow. — Precipitation the form of minute

in crystals usually irregular
ice falling in
masses or flakes.
Humidity. — The number
Speeijlc grams water vapor contained
of of in 1 kg. of air.
—A strong wind that
Sq^iall. suddenly and rises some minutes. Squalls lasts for
are of longer durations than gusts.
— An mass stable when
Stabilitij. air is rate than the adiabatic
its lap.se is less

rate (see [nstahility).

Storm. — A wind force of on the Beaufort
11 The word such
scale. is also u.sed in
connections as thunderstorm, snowstorm, rainstorm, dust storm, etc.
Stratosphere. —The upper layer the atmosphere which there
of no convection. in is

The height of the base of the stratosphere is about 10 miles in the tropics, and about
miles in intermediate latitudes. higher in anticyclones than in depressions.
It is
Subsidence. — Slow^ downiward motion.
— A weather chart showing the meteorological conditions over a
Synoptic Chart.
large area at a given moment.
Thermograph. — A self-recording thermometer.
Thermometer. — An instrument measuring temperature.
for
Thunder. — The noise accompanying a lightning discharge.
Tornado. — A violent counterclockwise whirl attended by a more or funnel- less
shaped cloud.
Trade Winds. — The winds that blow^ from the subtropical high-pressure belts
toward the equatorial region low pressure. of
Tropical Air. — Air originating low notably
in the regions the
latitudes, in of sul)-
tropical anticyclones.
Tropical Cyclone. — Small and violent depression originating tropical regions, in
usually destructive intensity.
of
Tropo pause. — The base the stratosphere.
of
Troposphere. — The layer of the atmosphere under the stratosphere. In the
troposphere the temperature decreases with height; in the stratosphere the tempera-
ture is sensibly constant.
Trough. —A region of relativel}' low pressure extending from the center of a
depression.
V-shaped Drpressioji. —
A trough of low* pressure bounded by V-shaped isobars.
—
Vapor Pressure. The partial pressure of the water vapor in the air.
Veering. —
Clockwise change in wind direction. The opposite to backin(j.
Visibility. —
The maximum distance at which an (object can be discerned.
—
Warm front. A line on th(> weatiuM- chart along which warnuM- air rei)lac(\s colder
air.

Warin —Th(>
Sector. jjait of a (l(>pi-essioii t hat is occupied \)y waiMu (usually tropical)
air.

ira/c/-.s7>o///.---l''unnel-shaped tornado cloud at s(>a.

Wedge. — An area of relatively high pressure^ extending from an anticyclone.
Wind. — Motion of the air.
 CHAPTER XI
CELESTIAL NAVIGATION— THEORY
The radio beam's best effort cannot, to me, compare with the stark
independence and simplicity of the star navigator's apparatus and
methods. He depends on no falHble mass of ''electrickery " and its
human crew. In "this majestical roof, fretted with golden fire"
(Shakespeare haunts this page today!) there are a million leading lamps
trimmed by a steadier than mortal hand and located in eternity with
divine exactitude.

Introductory Remarks. —
Having covered the methods of navigation
by pilotage, dead reckoning, and radio, we now arrive at that of celestial
navigation, the determination of position by means of celestial bodies.
Before we can explain the theory of the subject to the beginner in a
clear manner, we must use known terms. Like learning any strange
machine, game, or process, the beginner must first learn new definitions
and the principal ''rules of the game." Once the definitions and rules
are mastered, celestial navigation becomes easy. In Chap. I we dis-
cussed position, direction, and distance on the earth's surface. We shall
now discuss briefly the universe outside the earth.
Celestial Sphere. —
When we step off the earth into space, there is
no theoretical we ma}^
limit to this space; but for practical purposes
consider that has limits and we may indicate it in a sketch, as in
it

Fig. 185. With the earth and observers on its surface at the assumed
center of the universe, the eye of an observer projects all heavenly bodies
against the huge dome overhead which we call the celestial sphere.
A navigator in a plane flying over the earth's surface sees the various
heavenly bodies as if they were situated on the interior surface of this
enormous hollow sphere. By imagining this spherical surface to be of
infinite radius, the position of objects in the heavens can be projected
on its inner surface. With the sphere of infinite dimensions, the radius
of the earth is so small as to be negligible, so the further assumption is

made that the eye of the observer is actually at the center of the earth.
With the eye in this position, not only the heavenly bodies, but points
on the earth's surface, parallels of latitude, and meridians of longitude on
the earth may be projected on this celestial sphere.
Definitions and Abbreviations. — The zenith (Z) of an obser^-er is

the point of the celestial sphere vertically overhead.

269
270 MR AM VIGATIOX

The nadir (No) is the point of the celestial sphere directly beneath
an ol)server.
The celestial honzo/i is tlie great circle of the celestial sphere formed
l)y passing a plane through the center of the earth perpendicular to the
straight line joining the zenith and nadir. Tlie celestial horizon differs
.somewhat from the visible horizon, which is the line appearing to an
observer as marking the intersection of earth and sky. This difference
aiises from two causes:

Norfh Celesficil Pole

/Shrj?'

South Celestial Pole

Fuj. 1S5. — Earth jind oolostial spliore showing right ascension, declination, and hour angle.

1. The eye of the obsei-ver is always elevated above the sea level,
thus gi\ing him a range of vision exceeding 90° from the zenith.
2. The ()l)ser\'er's actual j)()siti()n is on the surface of the earth instead
of at its center.
These two causes ^Wv rise, i-es])ecti\'ely, to dip of the horizon and
parallax, which will !>(> cxi)Iain(Ml in Chaj). XH'.
WluMi flying horizon is of no ])ractical value for
()\er land the \'isible
navigation because of varying elevations.
its When flying over the
sea at low altitudes, the visible hoiizon mav be used for observations.
 CELESTIAL NAVIGATION— THEORY 271

An artificial horizon is the true celestial horizon determined by some

mechanical device. In air navigation the usual practice is to determine
the horizon by some optical means, such as the bubble built into the
sextant.
Vertical circles or circles of altitude are great circles of the celestial
sphere which pass through the zenith and the nadir. These circles are
perpendicular to the horizon.
The prime vertical is the vertical circle whose plane is at right angles
to the plane of the meridian and intersects the horizon at its east and
west points.
The altitude (h or alt.) of any point on the celestial sphere is its angular
distance from the horizon measured upon the vertical circle passing
through the point.
The zenith distance (z) of any point is its angular distance from the
zenith measured upon the vertical circle passing through the point.
The zenith distance of any point that is above the horizon is therefore
equal to 90° minus the altitude.
The azimuth of any point on the celestial sphere is the angle at the
zenith between the meridian of the observer and the vertical circle passing
through the point. is usually measured from north to the right from
It
0° to 360°. Also, sometimes measured from the north or south point
it is

of the horizon to the east or west through either 90° or 180° and is named
accordingly; as N. 30°E., S. 110°W.
The equinoctial or celestial equator is the great circle of the celestial
sphere formed by extending the plane of the earth's equator until it

intersects the celestial sphere. The celestial equator intersects the

horizon at its east and west points.
The celestial poles are the projections of the north and south poles
of the earth upon the celestial sphere. To an observer on the earth in
north latitude the north celestial pole is above the horizon; the south
celestial pple is below the horizon. Hence we often refer to the ''
elevated
pole," which is the pole of the same name as the observer's latitude upon
the earth.
Hour (sometimes called declination circles) are great circles
circles
of the celestial sphere passing through the poles. They are, therefore,
formed by projecting the meridians of longitude on the earth to the
celestial sphere. The hour circle containing the zenith is the celestial
meridian of the observer.
The declination (d or dec.) of am^ point on the celestial sphere is
its angular distance from the celestial equator measured on the hour

circle that passes through that point; it is designated as north or south

according to the direction of the point from the celestial equator. Xoith
declinations are regarded as positive and are written with the phis sign
272 AIR NAVIGATION

(+ ); south (IcM'linatioiis aie considered as negative and are written

with the minus sign ( — ). It should be remembered that declination

upon the celestial sphere corresponds to latitude on the eai-th.

The yoiar (/istancc (p) of any point is its angular distance from the
pole, measured on the hour circle passing through the point. It must
tluMcfore \)v ecjual to 90° minus the declination, if measured from the

Zenif-h

Fig. 180. — Earth and oolostial sphore sliowing; altitude, latitude, and the celestial triangle.

pole of the same name as the declination, or 90° plus the declination, if

measured from the pole of opposite name (see Fig. ISO).

The }\o\(r {t or HA) of any point on the celestial sphere is the
angle
angl(^ at the between the meridian of the observer and the hour
i)()le

circle passing through the point; it is measured by the arc of the celestial
equator intercepted between those circles. Hour angle is measured
toward the west as a positive direction through 24*' or 360°, or it may be
measuied fi-om O'' to 12*' or 0° to 180° east or west. It is sometimes
called local hour angle (LHA), to distinguish it from Greenwich hour angle.
The Greenwich hour angle (OHA) of a heavenly body is the angle
at the i)ole between the meridian of Greenwich and the hour circle of the

/
 CELESTIAL NAVIGATION— THmiiY '
273

body. It is measured along the celestial e(iuator from the meridian of

Greenwich to the west from 0° to 360° (see Fig. 185).
The ecliptic is the great circle representing the path on the celestial
sphere in which the sun appears to move by reason of the annual revolu-
tion of the earth. The plane of the ecliptic is inclined to the plane of the
equator at an angle of 23°273-^'.
celestial
—
The Vernal Equinox. Since there is no fixed point in the heavens
to correspond exactly with Greenwich, which is the origin of time and
longitude for the earth, a point has been chosen, called the First Point of
Aries or the vernal equinox and designated by the sign of the ram's hoi-n,
T. This point is the intersection of the ecliptic (the path of the sun)
with the celestial equator in the spring when the sun is traveling north.
The autumnal equinox is the point of intersection, as the sun passes
from north to south declination on or about September 23.
The right ascension of any point on the celestial sphere is the angle
at the pole between the hour circle passing through the point and the
hour circle passing through the vernal equinox. It is measured from
the vernal equinox positive to the eastward from to 24 or 360° (as
shown in Figs. 185 and 186). Right ascension is of great importance
to astronomers but of little interest to navigators who use hour angle
instead.
Sidereal hour angle (SHA) is 360° minus right ascension, expressed in
arc. This is an important new term for navigators. The positions of
stars are given in terms of SHA and declination. The SHA of the
observed star added to the GHAT gives the GHA
of the observed star.
See details about this in Appendix B.
Systems of Coordinates. — To define the position of a point on the
surface of a sphere, some great must be selected as the primary,
circle
and some particular point of it as the origin. Then a series of great
circles that intersect the primary at right angles are chosen as secondaries.
Then the position of the point is defined by two coordinates. First,
the distance along the primary measured from the origin to the secondary
circlepassing through the point; second, the distance along the secondary
measured from the primary to the point.
In the case of the earth, it was explained in Chap. I that the primary
selected is the equator and the origin is the point at which the meridian of
Greenwich cuts the equator. The secondary circles are the meridians
of longitude. The longitude is measured along the primary, which is
the equator from the meridian of Greenwich to the secondary passing
through the point: The latitude is then measured along the secondary-
from the equator to the point.
In the case of the celestial sphere there are two systems of coordinates
in use in air navigation for defining the position of any point, as follows:
274 Alii A. I VIGATIUX

1. Altitude and azimuth.

2. Declination and hour angle.
In the system of altitude and azimuth, the primary circle is the celestial
horizon, the secondaries to which are the vertical circles or circles of
altitude. The horizon is intersected by the celestial meridian in its

northern and southern points. One of these two points —usually that
adjacent to the elevated —
i)ole is selected as an origin for reckoning
coordinates. The azimuth indicates in which vertical circle the point
to be defined is found, *and the altitude gives the position of the point
in that circle measured from the horizon.
In the s\^stem of declination and hour angle, the primary circle is

the celestial equator, the secondaries to which are the hour circles.

The origin is that point of intersection of the celestial equator and the
observer's celestial meridian which is above the horizon. The hour angle
indicates in which hour circle the point to be defined is found, and the
declination gives the position of the point in that circle, measured from
the equator.
Geographical Position (G.P.).^The geographical position of a heav-
enly body is the point on the earth's surface that has the body in its
zenith; in other words it is the substellar, subsolar, or suhhinar point.
Its latitude is defined by the declination and its longitude by the Green-
wich hour angle (reckoned westward from 0° to 300°) of the body as
taken from the Almanac. This is an important definition, and it is
unfortunate that we do not have a less awkward name for it, although
we shall frequently refer simply to the position of the body concerned.
With the modern use of the terrestrial triangle instead of the celestial
most of the terms i>ertaining to the celestial sphere
triangle in Fig. 186,
are replaced by terms applying to the earth

Celestial Triangle Terrestrial Triangle

Celestial horizon Terrestrial horizon
Celestial equator Earth's equator
Celestial poles Terrestrial poles
Hour circles Meridians of longitude
Declination Latitude of the geograplucal position of the body
Polar distance Distance from the jioh' to the geographical position
of the body
Greenwich hour angle Longitude of the geographical position of the body
Local hour angle Difference of longitude of tlie observer and the
geograpliical jiositioii of the body

Relation of the Solar System to the Universe. 'V\\r following facts

should be kept in mind:
1. The moon is the ()nl\' hca\'cnly ))()dy near the earth (mean distance
230,000 miles).
 CELESTIAL NAVIGATION— THEORY 275

2. The entire solar system, consisting of the siin, planets, and the
moons or satellites of the planets, may be considered an infinitesimalh^
small fraction of the universe.
3. For practical purposes the earth may be considered a point at the
center of the universe.
These facts make it clear why the stars, which are nearly stationary in
the heavens relative to each other, are more convenient than bodies
of the solar system for determining position, since the latter are con-
tinually moving, thus necessitating increased tabulation and interpolation.
Causes of the Apparent Motions of the Heavenly Bodies. An —
observer on the earth's surface is constantly changing his position
relative to the heavenly bodies projected on the celestial sphere. This
gives these bodies an apparent motion, due to four causes:
1. The diurnal (daily) motion of the earth due to its rotation on its

axis.
2. The annual motion of the earth arising from its revolution about
the sun in its orbit.

3. The orbital motion of bodies in the solar system, and the actual

motion in space of the stars, known as ''proper motion,"

4. The motion of the observer on the earth's surface.

The changes in position produced by the diurnal motion are different

for observers at different points on the earth and depend on the latitude
and longitude of the observer. But the changes arising from causes 2
and 3 are independent of the observer's position and would be the same
for an observer at the center of the earth. Hence, Air Almanac tabula-
tions are for the center of the earth and are based on the gravitational
laws that have been found by long years of observation to govern the
actual and apparent motions of the various heavenly bodies.
An observer traveling over the surface of the earth at, say, 180 knots
directly toward a celestial body would superpose an increase of altitude
at the rate of 3' per minute on the changes of altitude due to other
causes.
Methods of Reckoning Time. — The instant at which any point of
the celestial sphere or any heavenly body is on the meridian of the observer
is known as the transit, culmination, or meridian 'passage of that point;
when on that half of the meridian which contains the zenith, it is desig-
nated as superior or upper transit; when on the half of the meridian con-
taining the nadir it is known as inferior or lower transit; the two parts
of the meridian are known as the upper and lower branches, respectively.
The rotation of the earth on its axis from west to east causes the
heavenly bodies to appear to revolve round the earth from east to west.
The period of this apparent revolution is conveniently measured by the
time elapsing between two successive transits of a heavenly body over
27() .l//t' A. V IdATlOX
I

\\\vsame meridian, and is called the day, deri\dng its name from tlic
l)()d\-whose api)ar(^nt rexolution is considered; thus, in the case of the
sun, it is called a aolar day, and in the case of the moon a lunar day,
and in that of a star a sidereal day.
Units of Time.^
— 'Jlie basic unit of time is the day, wliich is the period
l)et\\(HMi two succ(»ssi\-e ti-ansits of the point of reference over the same
branch of the meridian. The day is divided into 24 equal parts, called
hours; each hour is divided into (K) ecjual parts called minutes; and each
minute is di\'ided into 00 ecjual parts called seconds. These are called
units of time. Since the reference point in a day travels in a com-
plete circle from the meridian and back to it again, it follows that a
day, or 24 hr., is ecjual to 300°.It is sometimes convenient to express

time in units of arc or in degrees, minutes, and seconds.

As 24 hr. equsd 300°, it follows that 1 hr. is equal to 15°. Time may
therefore be converted into arc by multiplying hours, minutes, and seconds
of time by 15, to get degrees, minutes, and seconds of arc. Thus 8 OO^'OO"
may be written 120°00'00" and 4''15"'22"' may be written 03°50'30", oi-
better, 03°50'.5.
Civil Time. —The time which we measure b}- watches, clocks, and
chronometers, and which we use to regulate our daily lives, is tncan or civil
time. A civil day is the interval between two successive transits of the
mean sun over the lower branch of the meridian.
The real sun, as explained in the preceding chapter, appears to mo^•e
in a path known as the ecliptic, which is inclined to the ecjuinoctial at
an angle of 23°27M'- The apparent movement of the sun in the ecliptic
is because of the varying sj^eed of the earth in its orbit. This
vai'iable
variable of the sun becomes still more variable when projected
movement
on the equinoctial on which all hour angles are measured.
Since the real sun's rate of change of hour angle is not uniform,
it would not furnish a practical measure for time, since the units of
time determined by it w^ould be constantly changing in length. To
avoid this disad^^antage, time measiu-ement is based on the motion of an
imaginary sun called the mean sun, which moves to the eastward in the
equinoctial at a imiform rate equal to the average rate of the true sun
in the eclii)tic.
Sidereal Time. — Sidereal or Star time is the hour angle of the \ernal
ecjuinox. Since the position of the vei-nal ecjuinox is fixed in tlu^ celestial
sphere, except for pi'ccession (which is here disregai'ded), and does not,
like the sun, moon, and ])lanets, have actual or apparent motion, it is

siniilai' in this i-(\s])ect to the fixed stars.

A sidereal day is the interval between two succe,ssive transits of
the vernal e(iuinox across the uj^j^er bi-anch of the same meridian. There
are 366.24 sidereal davs in a vear and onlv 305.24 solar davs. Thus,
 CELESTIAL NAVIGATION— THEORY 277

since 366.24 sidereal days equal 365.24 solar days, a sidereal day of 24 hr.
is about 3 min. 56.6 sec. less than a solar day. This is due to the passage
of the earth once round the sun during the year.
—
The Time Diagram. The simplest way for a beginner to gi-asp the
definitions and problems in time and hour angle is to study a sketch called
the time diagram. If it is assumed that the observer's eye is at the south
celestial pole and that he is looking at the celestial sphere projected on
the plane of the celestial equator, the simple sketch of the actual condi-
tions which he sees constitutes the time diagram..
The polar axis of the earth appears as a point at the center of a
circle formed by the celestial equator, as shown in Fig. 187. The earth

-WEST

m
Fig. 187. — Time diagram, construction. Fig. 188. — Time
diagram showing
sun and local and Greenwich meridians.

would be seen rotating clockwise to the east, or, if the earth is con-
sidered as stationary, the sun, moon, and stars would have an apparent
movement to the westward, or counterclockwise. The meridians and
hour circles would appear as straight lines radiating from the pole as
shown in Fig. 188.
The upper vertical radius of the circle represents the meridian of
the observer as shown by PM in Fig. 188. The required angles are
set off from this line to get the position of the various other hour circles
and meridians.
The lower branch of the observer's meridian, which is located 12 hr.
from the upper branch and from which civil and apparent time are
reckoned, is shown by the dotted line Pm in Fig. 188. The Greenwich
meridian may be located by making the angle MPG equal to the longi-
tude. In the case shown in Fig. 189 the longitude is 5 hr., or 75°W.
In the same way the meridian of any other place with a known longitude
278 AiH \.\vi(;.\ri()N

nui.\' ))(' shown as a strjii^lit line. 'V\\v j)()siti()ii ol a liea\'eiily body

may 1)C shown l)v (h-awin^ its liour circle. The straight line PS repre-
sents the hour circle of the sun in V\^. 188.
In the case of the sun, we can readily find its position r('lati\'c to
any given meridian l)y reading a watch set to the time of that gi\-en
meridian. At the start of the civil day at midniglit tlie watcli will
read 12 o'clock oi- 0' and we know that the sun is on tlie lower branch
of the local meridian or at the point m. An houi- later by watch the sun
will be hi', or 15° w'est of m.
1 At it will be 90° west of m, and at
,

Fig. 189. — Time diagram showing corresponding times at London, Xew York, and San
Francisco.

12 o'clock noon
be on the upper branch of the local meridian, and
it will
at its At 8 p.m. it will be 8 hr. or 120° west of M.
highest altitude.
Time at Different Meridians. The meridian passing thiough —
Greenwich, England, has been chosen by most nations as the primv
meridian, or the origin from which to measin*e time and longitude. By
remembering that a day is 24 hr. and that in a day the three reference
l^oints for measuring time start from a gi^'en meridian, cover the complete
3()0° of longitude, and are back again on the same meridian, it is evident

that 1 lir. must be e(iual to 300 '24 = 15° of longitude. That is. in hi', 1

the sun appai'ently moves to the westward 15° of longitude. Therefore,

if the ()bser\'er is 15° in longitude froni Greenwich, there nuist \)v a dilTer-
ence of 1 hr. IxM w(mmi his local time and the Greenwich time. For
 CELESTIAL NA VIG AT ION— THEORY 279

instance, 12 o'clock noon at Greenwich and the observer is 15° west

if it is

of Greenwich, it is only 11 o'clock at the observer's meridian.

The time diagram given in Fig. 189 will make clear the different
times that would be shown at any given moment on clocks in London,
New York, and San Francisco. Suppose the moment is selected when
the sun is on the local meridian of New York, approximate Long. 75°W.
Then from the diagram it is seen that the sun has passed over 75° since
it was over Greenwich, and, since the sun travels at the rate of 15° per

hour, 5 hr. have elapsed since Greenwich noon and it must be 5 p.m.
by Greenwich civil time. San Francisco, on the other hand, is in approxi-

.^LJS: //?5'

Wesf Easf

Fig. 190. — Zone-description diagram for standard time zones.

mate Long. 120°W. Since the sun must travel at the rate of 15° per
hour to be on the meridian of San Francisco, it must be 3 hr. before
local
noon atSan Francisco, or 9 a.m., local civil time.
—
Standard and Zone Time. To avoid the inconvenience and con-
fusion of keeping either local civil time or Greenwich civil time, a system
of standard time zones has been established to cover the earth. The
surface of the earth is conceived to be divided into 24 zones, each bounded
by meridians 15° of arc or 1 hr. of time apart in longitude. The initial
zone is the one that has the meridian of Greenwich running through the
middle of it, and the meridians 7}/^° east and 1^^° west of Green^^'ich
marking its eastern and western limits. It is called the zero zone, because
the difference between the standard time of this zone and the Greenwich
civil time is zero. Each of the zones in turn is designated by a number
representing the number of hours b}^ which the standard time of the zone
differs from Greenwich civil time.
280 AIR NAVIGATION

'I'lic nuiiilxM- of a zone prefixed by the word " plus'' oj- the i)Ius sign ( +)
or by tlie word "minus" or the minus sign (— ) constitutes the zone
dcscriplion of the time of that zone. The z()ne-descri]:)tion diap^rani
for the standard time zones is given in Fig. 190.
Greenwich Date.- 'I'he elements are tabulated in the ''Nautical
Almanac" for certain inter\^als of Greenwich civil time for each day of the
year. Therefore, to use the tabulated data it is necessary to know the
Greenwich date as well as the Greenwich civil time. Since the Green-
wich civil date is not always the same as the local civil date, it becomes

meanQsun

Fig. 191. — Time and date over the world at Greenwich noon.

necessary for the navigator to know how to turn local ci\'il time and date
into Greenwich ci\'il time and date.
To avoid confusion in dates, an international date line has been estab-
lished near the middle of the Pacific Ocean near the 180th meridian, and
the date is changed 1 day when moving across this line to either the east
or west.
Since the watch is set ahead for each change of 15° of longitude to the
east, the date correction is made by setting the date back one full da>-
when crossing the date line moving to the east. In other words, going
east the wsitch ahead by the hour for each 15° change of longitude, and
is set
the date is set ])ack a day on crossing the international date line. Going
west, th(^ watch is set back by the hour for each change of 15° of longitude,
and the date is set ahead a day on crossing the international date line.
The instant of Gi(HMiwich civil noon is worth noting for it is at this
instant, and this instant only, that the same date prevails throughout
the earth. This may bc^ s(hmi by i(M erring to Fig. 191.
 CELESTIAL NAVIGATION^THEORV 281

An important use time diagram (Fig. 192) is to settle the

of the
Greenwich date. For purpose M, G, and g are drawn; now mark m
this
opposite M. Then the date changes at Greenwich as the sun S moves
from west to east through g, and it changes at the observer's locaUty
as aS passes m. Now mark off the rough position of S. Then S will
lie to one side or other of the line Gg, and it will be morning or afternoon

at Greenwich according to whether S lies to the west or east of g. Simi-

larly, it willbe morning or afternoon at according to whether S liesM
to the west or east of m.
A little thought will show that it is the same day at G and M when
S does not lieon the shorter arc between m and g.

(a) Greenwich date (b) Greenwich date (c) Greenwich date

same as locoil date one da)! rnore one day less
than local date than locoil doite
Fig. 192. — Using time diagram to deternaine Greenwich date.
If S lies between m and g, there will be one day difference in date
between M and G; if the position of S is such that it has passed g but not
reached m in its journey in the westerly direction, the Greenwich date
isone day more than the local date; if it has passed m but not reached g,
the Greenwich date is one day less. In other words, if we go around the
outer circle in a counterclockwise direction and find S on the shorter arc
between m and g, the more advanced date belongs to m or g, whichever
the sun has passed.
—
Local Hour Angle, LHA. The navigator who has to determine his
position by celestial observation is concerned primarily with, his local
hour angle, and the relationship between this, his longitude, and the
GHA is given by the equation:

LHA = GHA - Long. W.

which can be written in the alternative form:

LHA = GHA + Long. E.

282 AIR .\.\ VKI.XTIOX

The Theory of Celestial Navigation. An any i)()int on

()l)s(M\('r at

\\\v (>artli's surface, cxccj)! tlu; ])()l('s, any hcaxcnly

sees tlic altitude of
body change with time. Tlic altitude can he calculated foi- any instant
of timeby nietliods to l)e descrilx'd latei'.

'['he altitude of a liea\'enly body also changes with a change in tlui

])()siti()n of the obsei'vcM-. The amount of this change; depends on tlic

diiection in which the observer moves i-elative to the geograj)hical
position (G.P.) of the observed body. If he moves 1 mile directly toward
the observed Ixxly, the altitude is b\^ 1'; if he moves
thereby increased
away, the altitude is decreased by 1'; if he moves in any other direction,
the altitude Ls changed by a predictable amount.
The converse is also true, namely, that, if the altitude of a heavenly
body is known, the distance fi-om the geographical position of the bod}^
for the instant of observation is known. Celestial navigation is based
on the application of this principle. Therefore we may say that the
work of the navigator in celestial navigation consists in finding his
geographical coordinates of latitude and longitude by locating himself
with reference to the geographical position of one or more celestial bodies.
The exact position of a body, in terms of declination and Greenwich
hour angle, may be taken from the Almanac for any instant of time, and
this position may be plotted on a globe or chart as latitude and longitude.
A circle with this position as center, and with a radius ec^ual to the observ-
er's distance from this position as determined by the sextant {i.e.,
90° — would be the observer's circle or position; the observer
altitude),
must lie somewhere on this circle. If two bodies were observed, the
intersections of the circles of position would determine the position (or
two possible positions) of the observer.
Since the circle of position as determined above would be very lai-ge,
a small arc of the circle may be considered as a straight line, at some point
on A^'hich is the observer's position. If it were possible to lay off on a
chart with sufficient accuracy the distance of the observer from the
geographical position of the body, celestial na\dgation would be easy.
The observer w-ould doubtless use a sextant graduated to read zenith
distance (instead of altitude) in minutes, or nautical miles, and this
distance would simply be used as the radius of an arc to be laid off on
a chart from the plotted position of the body. Unfortunately, the great
—
distances up to 5,400 miles — to be })lotted make this simple and
obvious method impracticable, l)ut the desired effect is secuied by the
means about to ])e descril)ed.
The Navigation Triangle. — In Figs. 193, 194, and 195. which are rei)re-
sentations of ])art of the earth's surface, P is the elevated pole, Z the posi-
tion of the observer, and S the geographical position of a star. These
three points form the vertices of a spherical triangle ZPS, which is known
 CELESTIAL NAVIGATION— THEORY 283

as the astronomical or navigation triangle. The side PS is the polar

distance (90° — declination) of the star, ZS is the zenith distance
(90° - altitude) of the star, and PZ is the colatitude (90° - latitude) of
the observer. The angle ZPS at the pole is the local hour angle, and the
angle PZS at the zenith is the azimuth of the star. The angle PSZ at S,
which is seldom used, is called the parallactic angle.
Solving the Astronomical Triangle. — The quantities from which the
astronomical triangle is PZ and PS, and the
usually solved are the sides
included angle at P. The assumed latitude subtracted from 90° gives
the side PZ\ the declination subtracted from 90° gives the side PS.
The angle at P is the difference between the longitude of the body (geo-

-The astronomical triangle. Fig. 194. — Circles of equal altitude.

graphical position) and the assumed longitude of the observer, which

is the local hour angle.
By specially arranged tables, the latitude, declination, and local
hour angle are used directly in solving the triangle for the computed
altitude, which is 90° minus the side ZS, and the azimuth. The com-
puted altitude is then compared with the measured altitude to determine
the position of the observer relative to the assumed position.
Circles of Equal Altitude. —
Since the altitude of a heavenly body
would be the same for every position on the earth's surface equidistant
from the body's geographical position, it follows that one altitude will
not give definite fix; nevertheless, it will give a circle on which the
observer's position must be.
In Figs. 194 and 195, S is the geographical position of a star at a given
time. If the observer were at S at this instant, he would see the star
in his zenith, i.e.; the observed altitude would be 90°. But if he were,
say, 2,700 nautical miles away from S, his zenith would be over some
point Z on the altitude circle instead of at S. Now we know that 1

nautical mile represents an angle of 1' of arc, so 2,700 nautical miles

284 AIR NAVIGATION

r('pi-es(Mit :iii an^l(» of 45°. Thus it is clear tliat the stai' S would be
45° away from tlic ohservei-'snew zonitli. 4'rials would soon indicate
tliat there wei-e a great nunil)er of positions on the earth from
all of which

this hea\'enly body would have the same zenith distance of 45°; and
all these positions would li(^ on a small circle ha\in^ the geographical

position of the stai- as its center. Such a circle is known as a circle of

equal altitude. Having measured the altitude of a star and knowing its
geographical position, the navigator can find the circ-le of ecjual altitude
upon whose he must ])e situated. By immediately
circumfeience
observing a second star he can determine a second circle of e(|ual altitude,
whi(4i also })asses through his position. The intersection of the two

Fig. 195. — The navigation trianglt* :vik1 circlos of eciual altitude.

ciicles of equal altitude fixes his position. Although in geneial thiM-e ar(*
two intersections of these circles, the navigator always knows his position
closely enough to eliminate one of them.
—
The Line of Position. It is not usual to include tlu^ whoU^ earth on
any one chai-t only that ])art of immediate interest to the naA'igator is
;

shown. Hence the whole circumfeience of circles of equal altitude

would not a|)i)(^ar; as the radius of the circle is usually large, the small,
slightly cur\'(Ml arc in whi(4i the na\'igator is inter(^st(Ml may be rej^laced
by a straight line without ai)preciable error. This line is called a line
of position or position line or Sinnmr line after Cajitain Thomas H.
SunuKM-, an American shi])master, who discovered it in 1887. The
diicM'tion of this line of position on the map must clearly be at right angles
 CELESTIAL NAVIGATION— THEORY 285

to the radius joining the navigator's position to the geographical position

of the heavenly body; in other words, at right angles to the true bearing or
azimuth of the heavenly body at the instant at which the observation was
made. The various methods of finding the line of position are discussed
in Chap. XIII. All the methods of interest to the navigator are based
on the method of Marcq St. Hilaire, which makes use of the difference
between the observed altitude and the altitude computed with the aid
of an assumed position.
Plotting a Position Line on a Chart. —
To lay down a line of position
on a chart by the method of Marcq St. Hilaire, it is necessary to take the
dead-reckoning position, or some convenient point close to it, and to
compute for this assumed position
Nor+h
the altitude and azimuth of the
observed body at the time at which
the observation was made. If the .^.

altitude observed with the sextant

agrees exactly with the computed
altitude, the altitude difference is zero.
Then it is only necessary to draw from Azimuth ~~
the assumed position A (Fig. 196) a Line of
A/Hfuc/e position
line of bearing A B along the computed o/ifYerence
azimuth of the body and a line CAD
at right angles to this; then CAD is
the required line of position.
If, however, the observed altitude
is greater than the computed altitude,
Fig. Plotting altitude difference
say by 15', which equals 15 nautical
and line of position.
miles . on the earth's surface, the
observer is nearer to the geographical position of the heavenly bod}^
than the assumed dead-reckoning position would indicate. In this
case the position line must be moved closer to the geographical position
of the heavenly body by the amount of the altitude difference. Hence
the intercept AE is laid off 15 nautical miles toward the body along the
computed azimuth, and the position line FEG is drawn, as before, at
right angles to azimuth line AB.
The Fix. — If two position lines similar to FG in Fig. 196 are found, the
actual position or assuming that there are no errors in the work,
fix,

will be at their intersection. If three position lines such as AB, CD,

and EF in Fig. 197 are determined, the true position may be reckoned
to be somewhere within the shaded triangle or ''cocked hat."
To determine a number of lines of position, it is necessary to take
nearly simultaneous observations of different heavenly bodies or to get
radio bearings of stations of known position. It should be remembered
286 AIR NAVIGATION

that the nearer hues of position are at light angles to each other, the
sharper and more ck^ar-cut their intersection will be. As the angle
between two lines of position diminishes, the intersection becomes less
clearly defined, until, at 15° or less, little faith can be placed in the fix
ohtaincnl.
Whenever stars are visible, an easy matter to select a j^air of
it is

stars whose position lines will give During the daytime,

a good "cut."
however, the sun is usuall}^ the only heavenly body availal)l(\ In
marine navigation it is the practice to deri\'e a position line from two
observations of the sun several hours apart; by moving the first line
parallel to itself for a distance ecjual to the estimated run between the
observations, it is made to cut the second line and thus give a running fix.
In the however, this is of doubtful
air,

value because
the high speed of the
aircraft, and possibly of the wind, makes
it impossible to estimate accurately the run

between observations. It will usually be

found more satisfactory to consider these
lines separately in celestial navigation.
A single position line will almost always
give valuable mformation and often all
i97.-Obtaining a fix.
^^^^ ^^^ navigator requires.
Consider the case where the position line is parallel to the course
of the aircraft. Then its down by
distance from the course, as laid
dead reckoning, will give the navigator an indication of the accuracy
of his dead reckoning and perhaps warn him of a change in the diiection
or inteasity of the wind. Similarly, if the position line is perpendiculai-
to the course, the navigator can determine the approximate distance he
has traveled. In this case the course plotted by dead reckoning may be
regarded as a position line, and its intersection with the astronomical
most probable position of the aircraft.
position line will be the
It should be remembered that at certain times the moon, Venus,
and Jupiter may be available in the daytime and may be used to give
additional position lines that will cut the sun line, or cut each other.
Position Lines by Azimuths. —
The careful reader may wonder why
the navigator does not get a fix by using the obser\'ed altitude of a
heavenly body in conjunction with its observed azimuth. Th(> answer
is that he can do so, but it is not worth while, because the accuracy so

obtainable is very poor. Also owing to convergence of meridians, it

would \}v (lifTicult to plot the azimuth line accurately.
The can be measured with sufficient accin'acy, but the
altitude
azimuth cannot be obtained with a com])arablo degree of accuracy.
On an aii-i)]ane tlu^ aziunith (l(^t(M-niinat ion of a body at altitudes uj") to
 CELESTIAL NAVIGATION— THEORY 287

about 30° is accurate to about would give a range of intersection

1°; this

with a position line at right angles to the azimuth of 50 to 60 miles each

way.
This inaccuracy arises from the great distance of the geographical
position of the body from the observer's position. As soon as this dis-
tance is decreased by using another body having a nearer geographical
position, the altitude of the body is increased so that, although the
distance is then small enough to reduce the error due to distance to a
reasonable amount, the altitude is so great that the observation of
azimuth becomes very inaccurate owing to the effect of errors of the
level of the observing instrument.
Limit of Accuracy. — To be of practical use to the navigator, the
results obtained by celestial navigation must fall within the limits of
speed and accuracy required in the air. We may approach the problem
by saying that if a position within 5 miles may be obtained in 5 min.
or less, then celestial navigation is of real value to aviation.
Further experience may change these figures somewhat, but the
principle is correct, namely, that methods that are to prove useful in

navigation must be within certain limits of speed and accuracy. Actu-

ally, a line of position may now^ be worked in the air in less than 3 min.

during the daytime; if working with stars during the night, a definite
fix may be determined in about 2 min., with an average accuracy of

about 5 miles.
Summary. — Briefly, celestial navigation consists in finding and plot-
ting on a chart one or more One line of position gives
lines of position.
the navigator certain useful information. Two or more lines of position
determine by their intersection a definite position or fix. To determine a
navigator must take the following principal steps
line of position, the
1. Observe the sextant altitude of a known heavenly body.
2. Note the exact time of the observation.

3. Take the declination and Greenwich hour angle of the observed

body from the Almanac for the GCT of observation.

4. Apply the assumed longitude to the Greenwich hour angle to

find the local hour angle.

5. Compute the altitude and azimuth, using as arguments, the
assumed latitude, hour angle, and declination.
6. Compare the computed and observed altitudes to obtain the

altitude difference.
7. Set off the altitude difference along the computed azimuth and
draw the line of position at right angles to it.
 CHAPTER XII

CELESTIAL NAVIGATION EQUIPMENT

All the (Miuipineiit discussed in Clui]). \ II for dvnd rockoning is

iHHiuiicd by tlic celestial navigator. In addition, four pi'incipal items

that arc ai)j)licable solely to celestial navigation are needed:

1. The sextant.
2. The accurate timepiece.
3. The Almanac.
4. Methods of converting observations into positions

Figure 198 shows a sample celestial-navigation outfit.

THE SEXTANT
The sextantis an instrument for measuring the angle ]:)etween two

objects by bringing into coincidence at the eye of the obser\'ei" rays of

light received directly from the one object and by reflection from the
other object, the measure being afforded b}^ the inclination of the reflect-
ing surfaces I'clative to each other.
Optical Principle. — One
fundamental ])rin('ii)les of optics
of the
is that ''when a ray of light from a plane surface, the angle of
is reflected
incidence is equal to the angle of reflection." From this it may be
proved that when a ray of light undergoes two leflections in the same
plane the angle between its first and its last direction is ecjual to twice
the inclination of the reflecting surfaces. Upon this fact the construction
of the sextant is based.
Since, in direct observations, altitudes may Aary from 0° to 90°,
it follows from the above principle that an angle of 4o° between the

two reflecting surfaces would be sufficient to measui-e tlu^ altitude of

any heavenly body. Since an arc of 45° is one-eighth of a circle, instru-
ments of this general type, having a maximum angle of 45° between the
two reflectors, are kno\Mi as octants. Instruments having an arc or
limb of 00°, or one-sixth of a circle, for measuring the angle between
reflectors are called sextants, and those having arcs of 90°, or one-quarter
of a circle are called quadrants. Either octants or sextants are suitable
for aerial use. but too bulky. For a great many years
the quadi-ant is

])ra('tically all by marine^ navigators for measuring

instruments uscmI
altitudes have been sextants, and the term sextant has become so gen-
288
CELESTIAL NAVIGATION—EQUIPMENT 289

Fig. 198. — Celestial-navigation equipment.

290 A in XAV/CATJOX

cially used tli;it it is now applied to all iiist lu'incnts for incasurin^ alti-
tudes ol" hcaxcnly bodies w liet her they are actually (juadrants, sextants,
or octants.
The piinciple of the sextant may readily he undeistood by a glance
at Fi^-. 199.
The sextant consists essentially of the following i^arts:
1. An arc, or limb, MM
of a little more than 60° with a scale usually
of sih'er graduated to read degrees and fractions. This scale is giaduated
to read 2° for each degree of arc through which the index arm moves,
owing to the optical principle of the sextant.

BzEa-fj.6
from horizon B c

Fig. 190. — Principle of the sextant.

2. An index arm AD
arranged to pivot about the point A, which
is MM. At the lower end D of the
the center of curvature of the limb
index aim is a vernier, in old-style sextants, and a tangent sci-ew and
micrometer drum on modern sextants, for reading the scale more accu-
rately. On the upper end of the index arm is a mii-i'or .1 called the index
glass, which is mounted perpendicular to the plane of the limb.
3. A horizon glass B frame of the sextant. For use at
fixed to the
sea the half of the glass next to the frame is a mirror and tlie othei- half
is clear glass.
4. A to direct the light of sight of the observer and to
telescope^ 7',

magnify objcM'ts that ai-(» observed.

If, now, the ()bs(M•^•er's eye is placed at the telesco})e 7', the sea
horizon is seen through tlu^ unsilvered half of the horizon glass B. The
mirror .1 is then turiKMl on its ])i\'ot until the heavenly body *S appears
 CELESTIAL NAVIGATION— EQUIPMENT 291

to coincide with the sea horizon, when the angle SCB gives the angular
elevation of S above the horizon, which is known as the altitude of the

heavenly body.
The Aircraft Sextant. — The marine navigator has for a great many
years measured altitudes of heavenly bodies from the sea horizon.
With moderately clearweather this sea horizon forms an accurate
reference line all through the day and during morning and evening
twilight.
The air navigator, unfortunately, cannot depend upon the sea horizon.
Most of his flying is done overland where no sea horizon is available.
Even when he is flying over the sea, if the plane is at any considerable
altitude, the sky and sea tend to blend into each other and there is seldom
a clear-cut horizon line. Even in case the horizon can be seen, the
altimeter does not always indicate the height of the plane with sufficient
reliability to determine the height-of-eye correction accurately. One
alternative to using the true horizon is to use a cloud or haze horizon.

This has the disadvantage that the height of a cloud or haze horizon at a
distance has to be guessed and may frequently be guessed wrong.
For these reasons the aircraft sextant must embody its own artificial
horizon within itself. Three lines of approach to this desideratum
have been attempted:

1. Gyroscopic horizons.
2. Pendulous horizons.
3. Bubble horizons.

The gyroscopic sextants have been either mechanically or opera-

The pendulous sextants have found little favor.
tionally complicated.
Development has been mainly concentrated upon bubble sextants,
because of their simplicity.
All three of these types of sextants suffer from the disadvantage
that the horizon element is acted upon, not by the gravitational accelera-
tion alone," but by the resultant of the gravitational acceleration and
whatever other accelerations may exist upon the airplane at the instant
of taking the sight. No device suitable for incorporation in an aircraft
sextant is known at the present time that will react to the gravitational
acceleration alone, ignoring the other accelerations.
Since these accelerational errors, which frequently are of the order
of 2°, or 120 miles, are inherent in the design of the sextant, it follows
that success in its use is very largely dependent upon the skill of the pilot

in flying the plane, steadil}^ Since bubble sextant errors may be either
too large or too small and follow the law of probability^ and chance,
a large portion of the acceleration error may be eliminated by averaging
a series of observatives, as described below.
2<)2 AJh' A.I V IIIATIOX

Allhou^h. lor the aboxc reasons, tlic 'niibhlo sextant is not so accurate
as the mariner's sextant usinji; tlie sea horizon, this loss of accuracy is

compensated foi- hy having the horizon availalile for observations 24 hr

of the (la\ . so tliat ()))servations can be made whenever a heavenh' body
can be se(Mi.

A modern airplane may easily cover 1,500 miles in the interval

between evening and morning twilight. Moreover, it is during this
])eriod of darkness that piloting is most difficult, that dead reckoning
becomes least reliable because of the difficulty of ascertaining the direc-
tion and force of the wind with any degree of accuracy, and that celestial
na\igation by means of stellar observations becomes the most handy
and the movst accurate.
Some of the sextants in use are the Bauscli and Loinl). th(> I^ioneer,
the Fairchild, the RAF, and the Link. All late models of these sextants
include means for averaging a series of observations, and most of them
are similar in many respects. Since the new Link averaging bubble
sextant is the only aircraft sextant available to the public at this writing,
it be described in some detail.
will
—
Link Averaging Bubble Sextant. The Link l)ul)])]e sextant (Fig. 200)
was designed to fill the urgent need for a low-priced l)ul)l)le sextant that
is both accurate and easy to use. It weighs less than 3 lb. and is mechani-
cally simple and rugged. Since particular attention has been paid to
weight distribution, the instrument is well balanced when held in the
hand. This combination of light weight and correct balance eliminates
muscular exertion and makes accurate observations easy to obtain. The
sextant is so engineered as to permit rapid quantity production.

The optical principle of the Link sextant is similar to that in the

Bureau of Standards type of sextant, which permits the object to he
observed without an astigmatizer either dii'cct or reflected with the
image appearing in front of the bubble. StructurallA^ the sextant is
similar to the marine sextant with resulting accuracy. Averaging is
accomplished as follows:
1. With the instrument held in the position shown in Fig. 200, turn

the recording drum until the image appears centered in the sextant
bubble and i)i-ess the recoi-ding trigger.
2. Re])eat this oj^eration 10 or 20 times, noting the average time.

3. Tuin tlie drum until the recording pencil is at the average of the

()bser\'e(l sei-i(s of altitudes and read the a\'erage altitude witli tlie index

verniei'.
Th(^ \(Mni(M" is more difficult to read than the micrometer drum used in
some sextants, but this aj^parent disadvantage counterbalanced by the
is

fact that only one reading is re(]uir(Ml for a seiies and by the important
fact that the cost is about half that of other t\'pes of s(^xtants.
 CELESTIAL NA VIGA TION— EQUIPMENT 293

An illustrated booklet giving the details of construction and use is

furnished with each Link sextant.

—
Bubble-sextant Errors. This type of sextant is subject to two errors:

1. Bubble error.
2. Index error.

The huhhle error is caused by failure of the bubble to indicate the true
horizontal position. There are four practical means for determining
the bubble error:

Fig. 200.— The Link bubble sextant.

1. With the eye within 2 or 3 ft. of sea level, to eliminate dip, observe
the position of the bubble relative to the sea horizon. The center of
the bubble should coincide with the horizon when there is no bubble
error.
2. Observe a distant object at the same level as the sextant as deter-

mined by a theodolite or other accurate means. If there is no bubble

error, the center of the bubble should coincide with the distant object.
3. With the index error reduced to zero, as explained below, work
several lines of position from a position. If the lines pass through
the position of the observer, there is no bubble erroi-; if the lines are
294 \lli .V.I VIGATIOX

1)IIJ1('1i(m1, siiy 8 luiutical miles toward tlic observed hody, the hiihble
is ill ei'i'or hv S' of aic, tlie huhble in this case ix'iiig l)elo\\ the liori-

zoutal position.
4. I^y far the most satisfactory metliod for determining sextant eiTors
is hy means of tlieLink se.xtant collimator as shcnvn in Fi^. 201. It

''id. 201. The colliniator.

was especially desip;ned for the i)iirp()se and permits a clieck for sextant
error for all altitudes. An incidental use of the collimatoi- is student
classroom practice in taking obser\atioiis.
The index caused by the zero i)ositi()n of the index glass not
error is

beinp; properly i-ecordedon the counter.

—
Bubble-error Adjustment.^ \\'ith the bul)l)le error detcMinined as
already desciibed, this error is then adjusted by raising or lowering the
bubble by adjusting screws usually ])rovided with each sextant. If
adjusted by the sea horizon, by the collimator, or by a distant object level
 CELESTIAL NA VIGA TION—EQ UIPMENT 295

with the sextant, the bubble center is simply brought into coincidence
with the horizon or with the object. When adjusting by lines of position,
the adjustment is made by trial and error until the lines pass through
the position of the observer.
—
Index-error Adjustment. The index error, or error caused by the
position of the index glass not being properly recorded on the counter,
may easily be corrected by bringing the reflected and the projected images
of a distant body into coincidence, and then resetting the counter to zero.
Every navigator should be able to make quick and accurate practical
counter-reading adjustments in the air as well as on the ground. This

Fig. 202. — Plotted results of bubble-sextant observations.

is most important, since the safety of the plane and observer may be

dependent on the ability of the observer to make these adjustments in

the air. This may be done by setting the counter near zero, and then
by bringing the direct and the reflected images of the sun, moon, star,
or distant object into coincidence. When in coincidence, the counter
should read zero or, if there is a known error in the bubble, the counter
reading should be set to allow for this error.
—
Bubble-sextant Acceleration Error. In an effort to demonstrate the
bubble acceleration when taking observations in the air, the
effect of the
author observed the data shown in the accompanying graph plotted on
Fig. 202. The straight diagonal line is the computed altitude for the
time and place where the data were observed. This line is the correct
altitude,and the difference between the values picked from the plotted
line and the measured altitudes is the error of the observations. It will

be noted that observations 1 to 6 taken from the deck of the U.S.S.

Cuyama, when practically stationary, are very close to the true altitudes
as shown by the plotted line of true altitudes. On the other hand, the
observations taken in the air a few minutes later, luider the same condi-
296 I /A' .v.t 17r;.1770.V

lions except tliat tluMc was motion on tlic plane and lionce an acceleration
error, showed much larger errors.
The observations were made from an open two-seater seaplane undei-
avera|!;e conditions, except that fi-ecjuent turns were made, which j)erhaps
caused sli<;litly lar^-er ei-ioi's than would be incurrcMl when on a steady
flight.

Altliou«>;h the (M-rors of the ol)sei-vations taken in the air weic in some
cases very large, the average or mean of the observations followed fairly
closely the plotted true altitudes. be seen that, although an indi-
It will
\'idual sight cannot be depended on for accuracy, the average of a large

Fig. 203.—The effect of clip.

ninnber of observations gives results that are sufficiently close for practical
purposes.
Altitude Corrections. — The following corrections to sextant altitudes
are recjuircd:
1. Index error. Eliminate by adjusting sextant.
2 Dip. Re(iuired for sea-horizon sights only.
3, Refraction. Principal correction to be made.
4, Parallax. Required for moon sights only,
5 Semidianu^tei-. Reciuired for sea-horizon sights of sun and moon
only.
(). r^arth's rotation. He(iuir(Hl for bubbk^-sextant sights only.
In pi-actice all these corrections, except the first and last, are combined
into onv table.
Index Correction. — Index correction should l)e applied to the sextant
reading wIkmi there is a known index oi* instrumental ei'ror in the sextant.
The skilled naxigatoi- will keep his sextant correctl}' adjusted and not be
bothered with this con'ection.
 CELESTIAL NAVIGATION— EQUIPMENT 297

Dip. — Dip is the angle of depression of the visible horizon below the
true horizon due to the elevation of the observer above the surface
of the earth. Owing to the spherical shape of the earth, a line joining
an observer in an aircraft to the visible horizon will be sloped below the
horizontal. Thus, in Fig. 203, the true horizontal for an observer at
is OA, whereas the straight line to the visible horizon will have the

slope OB. The angle AOB is the dip. Dip error is not incurred when
using a bubble sextant, because the bubble sextant uses an artificial

horizon incorporated in the sextant and not the true or visible horizon.
Refraction. — It is a well-known principle of optics that a ray of light in
passing from one medium into another medium of greater density is

*S/ar

Fig. 204. — The effect of refraction.

deflected toward a perpendicular to the surface separating these mediums.

This is known in optics as refraction.
Similarly, in astronomy a ray from a heavenly body as it enters
of light
the denser layers of atmosphere near the earth is deflected toward a per-

pendicular to the surfaces of these layers, which are parallel to the surface of
the earth. This change of direction of the ray, as shown in Fig. 204, causes
the altitude measured with the sextant to appear greater than it really is.

Parallax. —Parallax is the error in the altitude due to the fact that
the observer is actually at some position on the earth's surface instead
of at the center of the earth. Navigational tables are computed on
the assumption that the observer's e3^e is at the center of the earth. The
difference between the altitude of a heavenly body measured from the
center of the earth and from a point on its surface is clearly shown in
Fig. 205. Thus, an observer at A would find the zenith distance of the
body S to be the angle ZAS. If he were at the center of the earth, he
would find the zenith distance to be ZES, which is less than ZAS by
the angle ASE. The angle ASE is the correction for parallax. The cor-
298 Alh' .\ A VKiATIOX

must he added to tiic sextant altitude to get the true

lectioii for piirjilhix
()l)served altitude.For practical navigation the moon is the only heav-
enly body for which a correction for parallax need be applied.
—
Semidiameter. The magnifying telescope of a sextant will not show
any disk for stars or planets. For the sun and the moon there Is a
decided disk so that, when a marine
sextant is used, the point brought
into coincidence with the horizon
may be the top of the disk or ''upper
limb," the center of the disk, or the
bottom of the disk or 'Mower limb."
The navigational tables are calculated
for the center of heavenly bodies so
that, if the " upper limb " is observed,
the semidiameter must be subtracted
and, if the "lower limb" is observed,
the semidiameter must be added to
make the final result apply to the
center of the body. Since the
angular diameter of both sun and
moon is always about 30' of arc, the
correction for semidiameter of either
sun or moon will be approximatel>'
Fig. 205.— The effect of parallax.
15' of arc.

If, as is generally the case, the navigator is using tlio modern bubhU^
sextant, it is more convenient to observe the center of the l)0(ly and
thus avoid the necessity of correcting for semidiameter.

Ground speed, m.p.h. /

Lat.
100 150 200 250 300 350 400

10 0.4 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.4 1.6 1.8

20 0.9 1.3 1.8 2.2 2.7 3.2 3.6
30 1.3 2.0 2.6 3 3 3.9 4.6 5.3
40 1.7 2.5 3.4 4.2 5.1 5.9 6.8
50 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.1 8.1
()0 2.3 3.4 4.6 5.7 6.8 8.0 9.1
70 2.5 3.7 4.9 6.2 7.4 8.7 9.9
75 2.5 3.8 5.1 '

(> 4 7 6 8 9 10 2

Translate all line.s •*-- in ^ lieniispher(\ p< rpciuiiciddr to track.

(
'orrect ioi) ill .satno tuiits as (5S.
!"](;. JOC). ('oir( tioii for rotatii pf th(> oarlh
 CELESTIAL NAVIGATION— EQUIPMENT 299

Bubble Sextant Correction for Earth's Rotational Effect. Apart from —

the well-known transient acceleration errors of the bubble sextant in
flight, there exists a persistent and predictable error caused by the rotation

of the earth. This error varies with latitude and ground speed, as shown
in Fig. 206, and is corrected as illustrated in Fig. 207, ^.e., all celestial posi-

Fig. 207. — Applying correction in northern hemisphere.

tion lines are translated: (a) 90° to the right of track in the northern
hemisphere, (6) 90° to the left of track in the southern hemisphere.

THE TIMEPIECE
History. — The first crude portable watches date from the year
1500. The first of these were thick clocklike timepieces called ''
Nurem-
berg eggs," from their shape and place of manufacture.
There were three principal mechanical difficulties to overcome to
produce the modern accurate timepiece:
300 Alii .\ A VKIATIOX

1. I'jiors in rate due to tlic {lijiiiKing teii,si(jii on the nuiin s])ring as

it unwound.
2. Xecnl of a suitable escapement to re|)ljiee tlie ])en(luluin used with
clocks.
3. Erratic rates due to temperature changes.
The pro})lem of variable spring tension was corrected by a series
of inventions between 1515 and 1540, whereby the leverage of the spring
was increased in proportion to the decrease in tension. The first ''dead-
beat escapement" was invented by Thomas Tompion (1039-1713), to
whom watchmaking probably owes most. The first ''temi)erature cor-
rection" was made in 1726 by Harrison.
It is difficult to realize that as late as the end of the eighteenth centur>%
there was no practical means for determining longitude at sea. This
was due to the fact that at sea it was necessary to have the exact time
of the observations, and no practical timepiece had been developed that
would withstand the motion and tempei-ature changes aboard ship. In
1714, the British government appointed ''Commissioners for the Dis-
covery of Longitude at Sea" with authority to grant the following prizes
for determining the longitude at sea:
1.Within 80 nautical miles, $50,000 (near shores of greatest danger).
2. Within 60 nautical miles, $50,000.
3. Within 40 nautical miles, $75,000.
4. Within 30 nautical miles, $100,000.
Since 30 miles represents an error of at least 2 min. in time, it will be
seen that a dollar watch, with the daily radio ticks now available, would
have won the biggest prize.
In 1735 the first chronometer was made. In 1731 the other important
item of navigation equipment, the marine sextant, was improved to the
point Avhere it was fairly reliable. Modein celestial na^'igation may be
fairly dated from either of these inventions.
In 1761-1762 a chronometer made by Harrison was tested on a
voyage from England to Jamaica. The voyage out lasted 147 days,
during which the chronometer lost 1 min. 55 sec. (equal to 18 miles in
longitude); on the return, it lost 1 min. 49 sec. (equal to 16 miles in longi-
tude). Finally, in 1765, Harrison was paid $50,000 and, in 1773, the
remaining $50,000. In 1828, the "Commission for the Discovery of
Longitude at Sea" was disbanded, having in 114 years expended a total of
$505,000, largely toward the develo]:)ment of the modei-n chronometer.
The modern watch is one of the mechanical marvels of the age. A
moderately priced watch is expected to count the 8(),400 sec. of each day
without missing more than one or two of them, or to an accui-acy williin
1 : lO.OOO.
 CELESTIAL NA VIGA TION—EQ UIPMENT 301

Although it is not essential to have a navigation watch run to within

a fraction of a second per day, some watch owners insist on getting the
best possible rate on their watches. One record which has come to the
attention of the writer is most impressive. This watch (Fig. 208)
belonging to E. A. Link, Jr., inventor of the Link Trainer and other
navigation devices, was carried by airplane, train, automobile, and at sea
during the period covered, and gave the following record

Link Watch Record

Error Rate
Gain +, or Number of
+ (fast)
loss — days
+ gaining
— (S10W)^ — losing

sec. sec. sec.

Nov. 25,1939 - 25
Dec. 21, 1939 - 21 + 4 26 + .15
Mar. 23, 1940 - 65 -44 93 -.5
Apr. 21, 1940 i - 68 - 3 29 -.1
June 28, 1940 - 92 -24 68 -.35
July 22, 1940 '; - 98 - 6 24 -.43
Nov. 17, 1940 -121 -23 118 -.21
Jan. 3, 1941 -104 + 17 47 + .36
Net -79 405 Net -.19

Not only is the record of this particular watch impressive as regards

accuracy, but also the fact that it was not permitted to run down over a

period of 407 days isremarkable achievement, especially for a

in itself a
person like Link, who must travel all over the country and is conducting
an active business.
—
Second-setting Watch. Owing to the low gear ratio between the
hour and minute hands as compared with the second hand, and to other
causes, no provision is made for setting the second hand of an ordinary
watch. This means that a watch set to the correct hour and minute
may still be in error as much as 30 sec, which, near the equator, repre-
sents an error in longitude of 7.5 miles. The second-setting watch was
devised to permit the exact second to be set, thus avoiding the correction
ordinarily required by the navigation watch. This is done in the stand-
ard model by rotating an inner seconds dial, as shown in Fig. 209, or by
rotating a special bezel on the wrist model as shown in Fig. 210. The
hour and minute hands are set in the usual way. When the minute hand
is properly set, it should of course be exactly at a minute division when

the second hand is at 60.

—
Rating of Watches. Strange to say, keeping the watches running
correctly is one of the most difficult matters in navigation. Even a
302 A 11^ XAVIGATION

Fk;. —
210. Wrist-model seroiul-
sottin^ watch. {Courtfsi/ Loj}gine{<-
(
Witt na u c r 'o 7n pn n //
.
 CELESTIAL NAVIGATION— EQUIPMENT 303

perfect will stop unless it is wound up, and this is one cause of
watch
trouble. Lincoln Ellsworth, member of the 1925 Amundsen-Ellsworth
Polar Expedition, told the writer that it was Amundsen's custom to wind
his watch both evening and morning, so that he would not forget it.
Watches used for navigation should be handled as carefully as possi-
ble. The writer has used continuously for about 15 years the first pair of
second-setting watches made, and right now they are running within
3 sec. of the correct time per day. Both are losing 2 or 3 sec. per day but
this does not mean that they are changing rate that much. So long as we
know just how much they gain or lose we are all right, forwe can then
allow for the small gain or loss. This pair of watches are large patrol-
boat watches belonging to the Navy. They have been used in the air, on
the ground, in submarines, and at sea. Although they have been given
rather rough treatment, they are in practically perfect condition.
—
Radio Time Signals. Accurate radio time signals are broadcast all

over the world several times daily. For instance, Washington (XAA)

10 20 50 40 SO
iiiiiIiiiiImiiIiiiiIii 56Min.
iiiiIiiiiImii 67Min.
68Min.
iliiiiliniliiiili 69Mfn.
iNoon
Fig. 211. — ^U. S. Naval Observatory time signals.

broadcasts the time signals on frequency 113 kc, from 5 min. before
each hour to the hour, except at 0200, 0400, 1400, and 1600, GCT.
Other stations broadcast the time tick at various times and on various
frequencies.
The time signal begins 5 min. before the hour to be marked and con-
sists of a dot for each second. The dot for the 29th, 56th, 57th, 58th,and
59th sec. of each minute is omitted and also the following: 51st of the fii'st

minute; 52d of the second; 53d of the third; 54th of the fourth; and the
51st, 52d, 53d, 54th, and 55th of the fifth. The silence after the 50th sec.
minute is
of the fifth followed by a 1-sec. dash, the beginning of which
marks the time signal. In this code, the number of dots between the
two omissions at the end of each minute indicates at once the number of
minutes of signal yet to be sent. It is also believed that the shortened
interval before the 1-sec. dash will make more accurate compari-
possible
sons of the final 1-sec. dash. This scheme is shown graphically in
Fig. 211.
In addition, there is a time service furnished by the Bureau of Stand-
ards, little known to the navigation public, which sends out every second
of time throughout the day. This service, kno^^'n as the '' Standard
:^()4 AIR NAVIGATION

I" rccHK^ncy Broadcast," is sent out on 5 niej!;acy('l(\s as iinj)ulses each

s(M'()n(l, a grandfather's clock, throughout the day.
like In order to
designate whicli instant of time is being sent out, a standard musical
pitch, on freciuency 440 cycles per second, is supei-posed on the 5-mega-
cycle iini)ulse for each second. The standard musical pitch is sent out
continuously except for the first minute of each 5-min. period. This
permits an accurate check of two instants in each 5-min. period through-
out the day. This musical note corresponds to A above middle C, and
may therefore be used not only for scientific purposes but also by musi-
cians, as well as by navigators. This combination time signal is sent out
from station WWV and is announced in telegraphic code while the musical
tone is off for 1 min. in the 5-min. period.
This excellent universal time service should prove a great boon to
navigators who find it inconvenient to wait for the even hour, or as for-
merly, to wait for the noontime signal or other principal signals during the
day.
Of course, radio time signals should be backed up by reasonably
accurate navigation timepieces and their proper operation. It is not
necessar}^ to pay an excessive price for navigation timepieces not more —
—
than $100 but a navigation w^atch should be given the attention that any
good mechanism deserves.

THE AIR ALMANAC

To fix a position on the earth by observations of celestial bodies, it is

necessary to determine the position of the observer relative to the position

of the observed body or bodies. To find the position of heaven Ij^ bodies
we use the Air Almanac, in which are tabulated the positions of all bodies
used in navigation for certain intervals of time.
In 1928, the author suggested the direct tabulation of Greenwich hour
angle, and as a result the ''Lunar Ephemeris for Aviators for September 1
to December 31, 1929" was published by the U.S. Naval Observatory.
In 1933, the U.S. Naval Observator}^ published the Air Almanac, designed
by the author, which omitted the equation of time, right ascension, and
other data not required by the air navigator.
Unfortunately, in 1934 the Air Almanac was combined with the
Navtical Almanac instead of being published separately, and the former
publication was discontinued. In 1936, the author suggested to the
superintendent of H.M. Nautical Almanac
Office that the British issue a
separate Air Almanac. This was done, and the splendid British Air
Almanac was published in the United States under license by the author
until a similar American Air Almanac was issued in 1941.
The Air Almanac represents a great advance in navigation, ^vhicli
explains the author's i)ride in being associated with others in its develop-
 CELESTIAL NAVIGATION— EQUIPMENT 305

ment. Appendix B gives extracts from it, together with auxiUary tables,
sample problems, and instruction for use. Although the almanac
includes a star chart, supplementary data are given below.
Identification of Stars and Planets. The frequency with which the —
principal navigational stars are observed makes it essential for a navigator
to recognize them in clear weather at sight, by their relative positions.
When the weather is unfavorable, the navigator should be able to
identify a star observed through a rift in the clouds by the use of star
finders or star maps such as the Brown ell-Weems Star Finder, or Illyne's
Star Chart. Instructions for use are furnished with these devices.
Stars and Planets Used for Navigation. Only about 40 of the stars —
are used to any extent in practical navigation. It is possible to distin-

Hrs. Right Ascension

24 14 \2caPo/am\0

Cass/ope/M
• C/?a/r-

'Mizar ^'*'Zr Capella

Oenei 'Ipiph
1- <7
., Aiphecca /(7r7.s/nr A/phera/z^_
Alphcralz
TPoi/ux\ Sgaare \

ofPegasu. / I Betelgeux *',

1 Mr.
V 1^"^ ''-Mebaran^
/ ^^
I
, ,

^ Procyon^<y^ '

S/nus
\ Rigel

?oufhern
Fo'01i Cross

Keniaurus

L
Fig. 212. — Navigational stars projected on celestial sphere.

guish between fixed stars and planets by the fact that the latter change
their positions in the heavens relative to the former and to each other.
Venus and Jupiter are brighter than any fixed stars. Mars is usually
distinguished by its reddish color.
The angle between the sun and Venus as viewed from the earth is
never more than 47°, which is equivalent to about 3 hr. of time, so that,
allowing for difference in declination, Venus is never visible more than
about 3 hr. before sunrise or 3 hr. after sunset, except in high latitudes.
When Venus is to the eastward of or following the sun,
it is visible as soon

as the sun has set (or even before) and then called the ''evening star." is

When it is to the westward or ahead of the sun, it is visible during morning

twilight and is then known as the ''morning star." When at or near its
maximum brilliancy, it is easily seen in full daylight.
The Constellations. —By referring to a star chart or to Fig. 212, or b}^
observing the heavens, it will be noted that the principal stars group
themselves into certain conspicuous figures.Since the early ages these
groups or constellations have borne fanciful names assigned to them
r
306 AlJf NAVIGATION

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CELESTIAL NAVIGATION— EQUIPMENT 307
 308 A Hi NAVIGATION

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 CELESTIAL NA VIGATION^EQUIPMENT 309

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310 AIR NAVIGATION

PRINCIPAL STAP.S AHOl'M) Til i:' SOITH POLE

7
^ CRUX (Southern Cross)

CENTAURUS 4a: ^
•/^ Acrux \
/?i(^// Kcntaurus \^ ARGUS
TRIANGULUM AUSTRALIS l3v^ ""^'^^ Southern Cross)
^1\ ry Miaplacidus

(CARINAi

Canopus
South Pole

PAVO

Peacock

• Achernar
ERIDANUS

1. Position of Southern Cross, 21st March, midnight, facing south.

At this time. Southern Cross is about zenith at 60°S.
2. Turn chart 90° left for position for 21st December, midnight.
3. Turn chart 90° right for position for 21st June, mi(hiight.
4. Turn chart 180° for position for 21st September, midnight.
5. From 35°S. down to south pole, the Southern Cross is always visible,

and revolves clockwise around the south pole.

6. The False Southern Cross is shown in two wa>'s: solid lines and
dotted lines, however one looking at the sky wishes to imagine it.
The dotted lines show the False Cross as commonly adopted. The
solid lines show a false Southern Cross as imagined by the author
in order to show more navigation stars (2 and ^ Miaplacidus) in
it; also because its main direction is closer to the North-South

direction of the actual Crux and further because K Argus is

fainter.

P^iG. 214c.
 CELESTIAL NAVIGATION— EQUIPMENT 311

by the ancients, and these names, in their later form, are still used.
The individual stars of each constellation are designated by letters of
the Greek alphabet prefixed to the Latin name of the constellation in
the genitive. For instance, the bright star in the constellation Ursa
Major (the Great Bear, but often known as the Dipper) nearest to
Polaris is a Ursae Majoris. In addition to these designations, most
of the bright stars have individual names, usually of Arabic origin.
Thus a Ursae Majoris mentioned above bears the name Dubhe; a Canis
Majoris, the brightest star in the heavens, is better known as Sirius.
Star Magnitudes. — The brightness of stars is expressed in the form
of magnitudes. The 20 brightest stars are of the first magnitude, and
those just visible to the naked eye are of the sixth. Typical second
magnitude stars are those in the belt of Orion. Two stars, Sirius and
Canopus, are so bright that their magnitudes have to be expressed as
negative numbers, as have also those of Venus and Jupiter.
Star Configurations, —The simplest way to learn the stars is to select
(1) a conspicuous constellation in the northern heavens about which to
group stars of high northern declination; (2) one or more of several in the
region of the celestial equator for fixing stars in this region and others not
too far north or south; (3) one in the southern heavens for stars of high
southern declination. The constellations best suited for this plan are
Ursa Major, or the Dipper.
1.

Orion in winter, Leo in spring, Scorpio in summer, and Pegasus in

2.

the autumn.
3. Crux Australis, or the Southern Cross.

After becoming familiar with the brightest stars of these constella-

tions, one should learn the brightest stars close to them, and finally pick
out others by
L Prolonging a straight or curved line through two or more known
stars until it passes through the star in question.
Noting the geometrical figure formed by three or more bright stars.
2.

As anaid to the beginner, a star identification table is provided in

Fig. 2136, which lists and indicates the appearance of the principal con-
stellations for the latitude of the United States at various hours for each
month of the year.
Ursa Major. —By referring to
Fig. 212 and starting at the Dipper,
or Ursa Major, it noted that two bright stars {a and ^) point to Polaris,
is

or the Pole Star; for this reason they are often known as the Pointers.
By continuing the curved sweep of the handle we come to Arcturus, a very
bright star with a reddish tint, and later to Spica, which is further
identified by the ''sail." By following the sweep of this curve round
and back toward the north we come to Regulus, which may also be
identified by the ''sickle." Regulus is a bright white star, which forms
312 AIR NAVIGATION

with Spira and Arctui-us a triangle right-angled at Spica. To the east

of Arcturus are three brip;ht stars forming a large triangle; these are
Vega, Deneb, and Altair. Antares, to the southwest, also forms another
large triangle with Vega and Altair.
Across the pole from the Dipper, and at about the same distance
from Polaris, is a group of stars forming a W, or an M, according to the
position of the coastellation in its diurnal path; this group is popularly
called Cassiopeia's Chair. The westei-ly star of this group, Caph, is

important in that it is near the meridian of zero right ascension; when

Caph upper branch of the local meridian the local sidereal
transits the
time approximately
is Directly south of Caph is the Great Square of
.

Pegasus, the western side of which points to Fomalhaut, one of the few
bright stars in the southern hemisphere available for use in northern
latitudes.
—
Orion and Stars Identified from It. Orion, which is the most brilliant
and beautiful constellation in the heavens, is outlined by a quadrilateral
of three bright stars and one of lesser magnitude. The bright yellowish
northeast star is Betelgeuse, the northwest star is Bellatrix, and the
bright bluish- white star to the southwest is Rigel.^ Inside the quadri-
lateral are three second-magnitude stars nearly equidistant, forming
the well-known Belt of Orion. The three stars of the Belt point south-
eastward to Sirius, the brightest star of the heavens, which shines with
a scintillating white light. To the southward of Sirius, and next to it
in brilliancy, Canopus, which is not seen in high northern latitudes.
is

Forming a gentle curve to the northward of Sirius are Procyon, Pollux,

Castor, and Capella, in the order named. Sirius, Procyon, and Betel-
geuse form an almost perfect equilateral triangle.
—
The Southern Cross. This is the most conspicuous constellation of
the southern hemisphere, and is outlined by five bright stars. When this
group is above the pole a Crucis is the southernmost, ^ Crucis the eastern-
most 7 Crucis the northernmost, and 8 Crucis the western star. A lin(^
from a Centauri through /3 Centauri points directly to the Cross, and these
two stars are therefore known as the Pointers.
The is not marked by any con-
position of the south celestial pole
spicuous star. It may
be found by taking the intersection of a line
thi'ough a and y Crucis (which have nearly the same right ascension) and a
line perpendicular to a and /3 Centauii (which have nearly the same decli-
nation). Or again, it may be taken as halfway between (3 Centauri and
Achernar.

METHODS OF CONVERTING OBSERVATIONS INTO POSITIONS

There are any number of methods, or variations of methods, foi-

converting the observed altitudes and times of celestial bodies into posi-
^ As seen from nortluM-n latitudes.
 CELESTIAL NAVIGATION— EQUIPMENT 313

tions. With the publication of '^H.O. 214," the ''Star Altitude Curves,"
the ''Line of Position Book," and other short methods, practical naviga-
tors have largely settled on several of the best so that solutions of ques-
tionable value described in earlier editions of this book may be omitted
in this one. There is little choice among several of the new methods and
they are easy to learn. We therefore restrict ourselves here to "H.O.

Fig. 215. — Selected methods for celestial navigation.

214," "Line of Position Book," and "Star Altitude Curves" as illus-

trated in Fig. 215.

The "Air Navigation Tables (RAF)," published as "H.O. 218," is
"H.O. 214," and the "Astrograph" is a development of the
similar to
"Star Altitude Curves." Because of their restricted nature, they cannot
be described in detail here.
—
Solving the Navigation Triangle. Let the spherical triangle used in
navigation and projected on the plane of the horizon be represented
by Fig. 216. Let the parts of the triangle be designated as follows:
P = pole.
Z = zenith of the observer. The azimuth (angle PZM) is also called
Z.
M = body observed.
L = latitude.
d = declination.
314 AIR NAVIGATION

=
t hour angle of body M.
H= altitude.
EQ = equinoctial.
N= perpendicular let fall from Z' on PM. This is an aiixiliaiy pail.
= intersection of A^ with PM.
K= distance from to the equinoctial. This is an auxiliary part
introduced to facilitate the solution of the triangle. K always takes the
sign of L.
In the solution of this triangle, modern fast methods use an assumed
position as shown at Z' in Fig. 216,
which provid(\s integral values of hour
angle and latitude and theicby
simplifies the work. Both ''H.O.
214" and the 'a.ine of Position Rook "
use this artifice. Inthecaseof ''H.O.
214," three arguments latitude, —
declination, and hour angle are used—
in the solution of the triangle direct.
In the case of the ''Line of Position
Book," the triangle is divided as
. Assumed shown in Fig. 216, into two right tri-
position
angles,which are solved in turn by
using two ai-guments as described
below. ''H.O. 214" is a shorter
Dr.posifion solution, but requires a longer book
in several volumes. The "Star
Altitude Curves" is a graphical solu-
tion for position direct fi'om observa-
tions of two or three stars. Although
restricted to the selected stars, the
Fig. 210. — The astronomical triangle,
latter method is much faster than
showing method of solution, assuming a
position to give hour angle and latitude as either of the other two.
integral values. {From Weems, Line of 214."— :Many will piefer
**H.O.
Position Book.)
''H.O. 214" owing to its short solu-
tions when working from an assumed position and the absence of any
arithmetical work excejit for the one simple lineai- interpolation for
declination. ''H.O. 214" is ])Ound foi- each lO-degi-ee band of latitude in
a \'olume 9.5 by 11.75 in., containing about 270 ])ages. The cost, weight,
and size are disadvantages. \^alues of //, and Z are tabulated for integral
valuers of and
i L and for every half degr(^e of dcM-linat ion. I'igui-e 221

shows an (^xti-act from ''H.O. 214." With assumcnl integral degrees of

LHA and latitude, and the exact value of declination, the values of He
and Z ai-e found with one int(M-i:)()lat ion for tlu^ minuter of d(M'linat ion.
 CELESTIAL NAVIGATION— EQUIPMENT 315

Figure 219 shows the solution for six lines of position worked first by
''H.O. 214/' and then by the ''Line of Position Book." Similar results
are plotted in Fig. 218. Detailed instructions for use are given in the
book.
"Line of Position Book." — This book of 44 pages includes Ogura's
altitude tables (Fig. 217) (by permission), consisting of two parts and
27 pages, Rust's azimuth diagram (by permission), and necessary auxil-
iary tables.
In the right triangle PZ'O we know the values of t and L.
(Fig. 216)
Table A gives for all integral and L the corresponding values of
values of t

A ( = log sec N) and of K. The angle K is combined with d algebraically

to get K ^^ d, and with X ^^ c? as an argument, we find in Table B the
value oi B [= log sec (K ^-^ d)]. The sum of A and Bis log cosecH, from
which H is found by entering Table B at the bottom. In order to avoid
interpolation in Table A, an assumed position, Z\ is used such that both
t and L will be integral degrees. Figures 217a and h show extracts from
Table A and Table B. Figure 217c shows a portion of Rust's azimuth
diagram.
Rusf s azimuth diagram is based on the formula,

sin t cos d = sin Z cos H

or its reciprocal,

cosec t sec d
cosec Z
sec H
The values of t are shown in the left margin, of Z in the right margin.
Both H and d are plotted on the same curves and numbered alike.
Since this formula uses only secants and cosecants, and since Table B
Book" is merely a convenient table of secants
in the ''Line of Position
when entered from the top and cosecants when entered from the bottom,
this table of only nine pages may be used for the accurate computation of
the azimuth, leaving 27 pages of altitude tables in the briefest and most
efficient form.
Figure 220 shows the solutions for azimuth from given values of
t, d, and He. In practice. Rust's azimuth diagram will be found most
satisfactory. Where possible, the azimuth should be observed at the
time of sight to save computation.
The first sight in Fig. 235 is discussed here to show the steps taken.
In Table A (see Fig. 217a), with hour angle 18° at the top of the page and
Lat. 33° in the vertical column at the left side of the page, take out the
values A = 1509.8, or to the nearest integer, 1510, and A" = 34°19'.r)
(use 34°200. Combine 34°20' with the declination 2r23' S., adding if
316 AIR NAVIGATION

TABLE A
\ HA 16' (1" 4"') 17" (!»" f^'") ^18" (1" I.!'") ig» (U. lOm) 20° (Ih 20m) 1

A 1 K A K A K A K A K
o /
i7«';-8 0.0 19.10.4 o!o 2179.4 o!o 24330 0.0 2701.4 0.0
1 •7I5-3 2.4
1 «939-7 I 2.7 2178.6 1 3.1 2432.2 1 3.5 2700.6 1 3.8
2 <7«3-7 2 4.8 1937-9 2 5.5 2176.6 2 6.2 2429.8 2 6.9 2697.9 2 7.7
Z 1711.0 3 7.2 1934-8 3 8.2 2173-I 3 9.2 2426.0 3 10.4 26935 5 ll.S
A 1707.2 4 9.6 »93^-5 4 10.9 '216S.2 4 12.3 2420.5 4 13-8 26874 4 15.5
5 1702.-5 5 12.0 1925.0 5 13.6 21O2.0 5 15.4 2413-4 5 17.2 2679.6 5 19.1

6 1690.4 6 14.4 I91».2 6 16.3 2«54-3 6 18.4 2404.9 6 20.6 2670.0 6 22 9

3 16S9.4 7 1G.7 1910-3 7 19.0 2145-4 7 21.4 2304-8 7 23.9 2658.7 7 26.7
8 iGSi.^ 8 19.1 1901.1 8 21.6 2135.0 8 24.4 2333-2 8 27.3 2645.8 8 30.4
9 1672.2 9 21.4 1890.S 9 24.2 2123-3 9^27.3 2370.1 9 30.6 2631.1 9 34.0
10 if.62.1 10 23.7 1S79-3 10 26.8 2110.4 10 30.2 2355-5 10 33.8 2614.8 10 37.7
If
'

1650.9 n 25.9 i80o.(> 11 29.4 209O.1 11 33.1 2339-5 11 37.0 .25969 11 41.2
12 163S.S 12 28.1 1852^ 12 31.9 2oSa5 12 35.9 2322.0 12 40.2 2577-4 12 44.7
]3 1625.7 15 30.3 1837-9 15. 34.3 2063.7 •13 38.7 2303-1 15 43.3 2556.3 13 48.2
14 1611.6 14 32.4 1S2I.O 14 36.8 2045.6 14 41.4 2282.8 14 46.3 2533-7 14 61.6
15 1596-6 15 34.5 1S04.S 1.5 39.1 202{M 15 44.1 2261.2 15 49.3 2509.6 15 54.9
J6 1580.0 16 3G.6 17$6.7 IG 41.5 2005.9 16 46.7 2238.3 16 52.3 2484.0 16 58.2
17 1563-8 17 38.6 1767-6 17 43.7 I9S4.3 17 49.2 2214.0 17 55.1 2456.9 IS 1.3
18 1546.0 18 40.6 » 74 7-4 18 4G.0 1961.5 18 51.7 :U8S.5 18 57.9 24284 19 4.4
19 •S27-4 19 42.5 1726.3 .19 48.1 1937-7 19 54.2 2161.8 20 0.6 239S-6 20 7.4
20 1508.0 20 44.3 1704.2 20 50.2 1912.S 20 56.5 2133-9 2V 3.2 2367-5 21 10.4
21 14877 21 46.1 • »68r.3 21 52.2 1.S.SC).9 21 58.8 2104.8 22 5.& 2335-1 22 13.2
22 1466.7 22 47.8 1657.4 22 54.2 '|S6o,o 23 l.O 2074,7 23 8.2 2301.5 23 15.9
25 I445-0 23 49.5 1632.7 23 56.1 1832.2 24 3.1 2043-5 24 10.6 2266.6 24 18.6
24 1422.5 24 51.1 1607.2 24 57.9 1803.4 25 5.2 2011.2 25 12.9 2230.7 25 21.1
25 1399-3 25 52.7 1580.8 25 59.7 1773-7 26 7.1 1978.0 26 15.1 2193.6 26 23.5
26 '375-4 26 54.2 »553-8 27 1.3 1743-2 27 9.0 1943-8 27 17.2 2155-5 27 25.9
27 1350-9 27 55.6 1526.0 a 2.0 1711.9 28 10.8 1908.7 28 19.2 2116.5 28 28.1
28 1325-8 28 56.9 1497-6 29 4.5 1679.9 29 12.5 1372.S 29 21.1 2076.5 29 30.2
29 1300.2 29 58.2 1468.5 30 5.9 1647- 30 14.1 1836.2 30 22.9 2035-6 30 32.1
30 1274.0 30 59.4 1438-8 31 7.9. 1613-7 31 15.6 1798-7 31 24.5 1903:9 31 34.0
91 »247-3 32 0.5 1408.5 32 8.5 1579-b 32 17.0 1 700.6 32 26.1 i95'-5 32 05.7
32 1220.2 33 1.6 I377.ii 33 9.7 1545-0 33 18.4 1721^ 33 27.6 1908.3 53 57.4
S5 1192.6 34 2.5 1346.5 34 10.8 1509.8 34 19.6 16S24 34 28.9 1864.5 34 38.9
34 1164.6 35 3.4 1314-8 35 11.8 147+-1 35 20,7 1642.5 35 30.2 i8?o.o 35 40.2
35 1136.3 36 4.2 1282.7 36 12.7 i4.;8.o 36 21.7 r6o2.i 36 31.3 1775-1 36 41.5
36 1107,6 37 9.0 1250.2 37 15.5 1401.4 37 22.6 1561.2 37 32.3 1729-6 37 42.G
sr 1078.6 38 S.6 12174 38 14.3 1364-6 38 23.5 1520,0 38 33:2 16S3.8 38 43.6
38 1049.4 39 6.2 1 184.3 39 14.9 1327-4 39 24.2 1478-4 39 34.0 1637-6 39 44.5
39 1020.0 40 6.7 1151JD 40 15.4 12S9.9 40 24.8 1436.6 40 34.7 159I.0 40 45.2
40 990.4 41 . 7.1 1117-5 41 15.9 1252.2 41 25.4 1304-5 41 35.2 1544-3 41 45.8
41 960.7 42 7.4 •
1083.9 42 16.3 1 214.4 42 25.7 1352.2 42 35.7 1497-3 42 46.3
42 930.8 43 7.7 lo5ai 43 16.5 1176.5 43 26.0 r309-8 43 36.0 ,1450-2 43 46.6
43 9oa9 44 7.8 ZO16.3 44 1G.7 I13S.5 44 262 12674 44 3C.2 14030 44 46.8
44 870.9 45 7.9 9^2-4 45 16.8 1100.4 45 26.2 1224.9 -45 36.3 1355-9 45 46.9
45 841.0 45 7.0 948.5 46 16.8 1062.4 46 26.2 MS2.4 46 .3G.2 1308.7 46 46.8
46 811.1 47 7.0 914.7 47 16,7 10244 47 26.1 1140.1 47 36. 1261.7 47 46.7
47 781.2 48 7.0 881.0 48 1G.5 986.5 48 25.9 1097. 48 35.3 1214-8 48 46.4
48 75J-S 49 7.4 847-4 4d 16.2 948.8 49 25.5 4055.S 49 35.4 I16S.2 49 45.9
49 722.0 50 7.0 81.VO 50 15.8 911.4 50 25.1 1014.0 50 34.9 1121.8 50 45.4
50 692.6 51 6.'5 7S0.8 61 15.3 874.1 51 24.5 •9724 51 34.3 1075.7 51 44.7
51 663.4 52 6.1 747-9 62 14.7 8372 52 23.9 931-2 52 33.G lovJ.l 52 43.8
52 634-5 53 5.6 .715.2 63 14.1 S00.6 53 23.2 S904 53 i52.8 984.S 53 fl2.9
53 605.9 54 4.9 682,9 64 J5.3 764-3 54 22.3 850.0 54'51.8 940.1 54 41.8
54 577-6 55 4.2 65ix> 55 12.5 ,
^8.5 55 21.4 Sio.i 65 59.8 895.8- 55 40,7
55 549-7 56 3.4 619.4 66 11.6 69.V1 56 20.3 770.7 56 29.6 852.3 56 39.4
56 522. 57 2.5 58S.3 57 10.6 658.3 57 19.2 73 '-9 57 23.3 809.2 57 37.9
57 495-0 58 1.5 557-7 68 9.5 624X> 58 18.0 6')3.7 58 2G.9 766.9 58 36.4
58 468.3 59 0.5 527.6 59 8.3 590.2 59 16.7 656.2 59 25.5 7253 59 3-5.8
S9 442.1 59 59.4 498.1 60 7.1 557-1 60 15.2 6.9-3 60 23.9 6S4.5 60 33.0
60 4164 60 58.2 . 4601 61 5.8 5=4-7 61 13.-7 5S3.2 61 22.2 644.5 61 31.1
61 . 391-3 Gl 57.0 440.7 62 4.3 492.9 62. 12.2 547.8 62 20.4 . tK)5-.4 62 29.2
62 . 366.7 62 55.7 .4>3-o 63 2.0 461.9 63 10.5 5«3-3 63 18.6 567.2 65 27.1
65 342-7 65 54.3 3S6.0 64 1.3 43t-6 64 8,7 470.6 64 1G.6 5 "lo.o 64 24.9
64 3>9-4 64 52.9 359-7 64 59.7 402.2 65 6.9 446.9 65 14.6 493 7 65 22.6
65 29^7 65 51.4 .T!;i 65 58.0 373-6 68 6.0 415.0 6S 12.4 45^5 6G 20.3

% A
l64°(io'.
iSo°-K

Fi(7.
56")

217a.
1
A
I63"(io''
•
iSo»-K
52"0

S;iiiii)l<' i)a{:(^ fr
A ..So-'-K
I62"(io" 4S'")

Lin
A
Ifir(lol.

)f
iSo^-K
44m)

P().>^iti()n
A
160''(lo''

Book.'
|iSo°_k|
4^>">) 1
 CELESTIAL NAVIGATION—EQUIPMENT 317

TABLE B.

K^d 50' 51" S2« 53» 54* 55" S6' 57° 58" 59" MIN
1
.ALT.
/
»9i93 20113 21066 22054 '23078 24141 25244 26389 27579 28816 60
1 19208 20128 21082 22070 23096 24159 25263 26409 27599 28837 59
2 19223 2"i44 21098 22087- 231 13 2*177 25281 26428 27619 28858 58<
3 19238 20160 21114 22104 23130 24195 25300 26448 27640 .28879 57
4 19254 26175 21131 22121 23148 24213 25319 26467 27660 28900 56
5 19269 20191 21147 22138 23165 24231 25338 26487 27680 28921 55
6 19284 20207 21163 22154 2J183 24249 25356 26506 27701 28942 54
7 19299 20222 21179 22171 23200 24267 25375 26526 27721 28964 53
8 19314 20238 21195 22188 23218 24286 25394 26545 2774r 28985 52
9 19329 20254 21212 22205 23235 24304 25413 26565 27762 29006 61
10 »9344 20269 2122S 22222 23253 24.-?22 25432 26584 27782 29027 50
11 »9359 40285 21244 22239 23270 24340 26604 527802 29048 49
12 19375 20301 2I26I 22256 23208 24358 26623 27823 29069 48
13 19390 20316 21277 22272 23305 24376 25488 26643 27843 29091 47
14 19405 20332 21293 _ 22289 23323 24395 25S07 26663 *7!63 29112 46
'
IS 19420 20348 21.'?09 22306 23340 24413 25526 26682 27884 29133 45
16 I943S 20364 2x326 52323 23358 24431 25545 26702 27904 29154 44
17 19450 20379 21342 22340 23375 24449 25564 26722 27925 29176 43
.18 19466 20395 21358 22337 23393 24467 25583 26741 27945 29197 42
19 19481 20411 21375 22374- 23410 24486 25602 26761 27966 29218 41
20 19496 20427 21391 22391 2342S 24504 25621 26781 27986 29239 40
,
21 195" 26442 21408 22408 23446 "24522 25640 26800 i8oo6 29261 39
22 19527 20453 21424 22425 23463 24541 25659^ •26820 28027 29282 58'
23 19542 20474 21440 22442^ 23*81 24559 25678 26840 28048 29303 57
24 19557 20490 21457 22459 23499 24577 25697 26860 28068 29325 5ff
,25 19572 20506 21473 22476 23516 24595 25716 '26879 .28089 29346 35
26 19588 20522 41490 52493 23534 24614 25735 26899 28109 29367 54
27 1960.1 20537 21506 22510 23552 .24632 25754 26919- 28130 29389 53
28 19618 .20553 21522 22527 2356? 24650 25773 26939 28150 29410 54
29 19634 20569 21539 22544 23587 24669 2579.2 26959 2Si7» 29432 31
30 19649 20585 21555 22561 24687 2581 26978 S8191 29453 80
31 19664 20601 21572 22578 23622 '24706 25830 26998 28212 29475 29
22 19680 20617 215S8 22595 23640 24724 25849 27018 28233 29496 28
33 19695 20633 21605 22613 23658 24742 25868 27038 2^253 29518 27
34- 19710 . 20649 21621 22630 23676 24761
. 25887 27058 28274 29539 26
35 19726 20665 21638 226*7 23693 24779 25907 27078 28295 29561 25
36 1974 26681 21654 22664 837" 24798 25926 27098 28315 ?9S82 24
37 19756 2b696 21671 22681 23729 24816 25945 27117 28336 29604 23
38 19772 207 fe 21687 22698 33747 :.24835 25964 271*37 ^29625 22
59 19787 20728 21704 22715 23764 24853 27157 29647 21
.40 1980.1 20744 21720 22732 23782 24872 27177 28398 29668 20
41 19818 20760 21737 22750 23800 24890 2602i 27197 28419 29690
42 19834 20776 21754 22767 23818 24909 26041 27217 28440 -29712
>43 19849 20792 21770 22784 23836 2«27 26060 27237 28461 29733
44 19864^ 20808 21787 22801 23854 .24946 26079 27257 28481 29755
4S 19880' 20824 21803 22819' 23871 '24964 26099 27277 28502 29776
,

46 19895 20840 21820 22836 23889 24983 26118 27297 28523 29798
47 19911 20856 . 21837 22853 23?07 25001 26137 27317 28544 29820
48 19926 20872 21853 22870 23925 23020 26157 27337 29841
49 19942 20889 21870 2288S 23943 25039 26176 27357 29863
SO 19957 20905 21887 22905 23961 25057 2619s 27378 28607 29885
51 20921 21903 22922 23979 25076 26215 27398 28627 29907
52 1.9988 «0937 21920 22939 23997 25094 26234 27418 2S648 29928
53 20004 20953 21937 22957 24015 05:13 26253 27438 28669 29950
54 20019 20969 21953 22974 24033 25132 26273 27458 28690 29972
55 20035 20985 21970 22991 24051 25150 26292 27478 28711 29994
S6 20050 21001 21987 23009 24069 25169 263,11 27498 28732 30016
57 20066 21017 22003 23026 24087 25188 26331 27518 28753 30037
58 20082 21033 22020 23043 24105 25206 26350 27539 28774
59 20097 25050 22037 23061 24123 25225 26370 27559 28795
60 20113 21066 22054 23078 24141 25244 26389 27575 28816 30x03

Min
zr 38* 37" 36«» 35* 34"* 33" 32* 51" 50" ALT.

ALTITUDE He »

Fig. 2176.- -Sample page from "Line of rositiou l^.ook.

318 AIR NAVIGATION

AZIMUTH DIAGRAM -LEFT HALF

-DECLINATION AND ALTITUDE ON CURVES -
H.M. 90 85° 80° 75° 70° 65*
VTrr

NAME 2. LIKE QUADRANT IN WHICH BODY IS FOUND

Fig. 217c.--Aziinutli diagram

CELESTIAL NA VIGA TION—EQ UIPMENT 319
;^2() AIR NAVIGATION

SOLUTIONS FOR LINES OF POSITION 17 MARCH 1941 |

SUN MOON MARS ARCTURUS CAPELLA VEGA

GCT l5h|4m40S 12 04 08 10 14 52 10 05 28 18 40 40 18 50 20
GHA 45°23' 123 55 34 02 324 35 94 57 97 27
CORR 1 10 1 GO 3 43 1 22 10 05
(SHA) 146 45 281 55 81 16

GHA 46 33 W 124 55 37 45 112 42 17 02 178 48

LONG(A> 15 33 W 75 55 76 45 77 42 78 02 78 48
LHA 29 E 49 W 39 E 35 W 61 E lOOW
LAT(A) 39 N N39 39 N 39 N 39 N 39 N
DEC 20S
1 14 215 22 46 S 19 29 N 45 56 N 38 44N
K 42 48 N 50 59 N 46 11 N 44 40 N 59 06 N 102 05N
K~DEC 44 08 65 20 68 57 25 11 13 10 63 22

A 3325 91 55 5937 4810 13461 19137

+B 14404 37951 44468 4337 1157 34845
LOG He 17729 47106 50405 9147 14618 53982
He 41° 40' 19 45 18 15.5 54 06 45 35 16 46
Ho 41 34 19 54 18 29 54 01 45 07 16 24
a 6A 9T 13.57 5A 28A 22 A
z S40°E S 51 W S 38 E S 67 W N 60 E N 53. 5W

Hs 41 35 18 57 18 32 54 02 45 08 16 27

SUN MOON MARS ARCTURUS CAPELU\ VEGA

GCT l5h|4n^40S 12 04 08 10 14 52 10 05 28 18 40 40 18 50 20
GHA 45° 23' 123 55 34 02 324 35 94 57 97 27
CORR 1 10 1 00 3 43 1 22 10 05
(SHA) 146 45 281 55 81 16

GHA 46 33 124 55 37 45 112 42 17 02 178 48

LONG(A) 15 33W 75 55 76 45 77 42 78 02 78 48
LHA 29 E 49 W 39 E 35W 6! E lOOW
LAT(A) 39 N 39 N 39 N 39 N 39 N 39 N
DEC I 20S 14 2IS 22 46 S 19 29 N 45 56 N 38 44 N

H 41° 31.7' 19 38.2 18 03.8 54 06.7 45 35.7 16 37.7

CORR (+85) 8.5 (+18) 7.0 (+86) 12.0 (-64) 0.6 (-24) 1.0 (+60) 8.4

He 41 40.2 19 45.2 18 15.8 54 06.1 45 347 16 46.1

Ho 41 34 19 54 18 29 54 01. 45 07 16 24
a 6A 9T 13T 5A 28 A 22 A
Zn 139.1° 230.9 142.5 247.2 60.2 306.4

Hs 41° 35' 18 57 18 32 54 02 45 08 16 27

21<». Solution of .six li .! po.siti VW and "ir.O.

CELESTIAL NA VIGA TION—KQ (JIPMENT 321

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ai
. oo O (M ^ * t^ i^
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322 AJh' NAVICATIOS

latitude and dccliiKitioii arc of contrary iiaincs, or subtracting if of tin?

same name, to get the value K ^^ d.
nTATTO N S AME NAME AS LATITUDE 257
Cfc )' 57° 00' 57 ° ao' 59° 00' 5a ° 30'
HK UL
Alt. Az. Alt. Az. Alt. Az. Alt. Az. AH. Az. 39°
1 o / ad At o ' Ad At o o / id At o o ' Ad At o / Id At o
3109.1 M:n 40.1 3121.6 4149 39.0 31 33.9 41 19 39.1 32102 40 47 37.5 32 22.1 39 47 36.9 91
30 39.1 •1.) .V) ;5'.).n 30 51.9 43 49 39.3 3104.6 42 48 3S.8 31 42.0 41 47 37.2 3154.1 40 40 36.7 2
S 30 09.3 41 ri 39.G 30 22.4 44 49 39.1 30 35.5 43 48 38.6 31 13.9 42 47 37.0 31 26.4 4146 36.5 3
29 39.6 4.') 4'.l :i!)..'5 29 53.1 45 48 38.8 30 0C.5 44 48 38.3 30 45.9 43 46 36.7 30 58.8 42 46 36.2 4
29102 K 49 ;i9.() 29 24.0 46 48 38.5 29 37.7 46 48 38.0 3018.1 44 46 36.5 30 31.3 43 4.'^ 35.9 as
28 40.9 47 4.S 38.7 28 55.0 47 48 38.2 2909.1 47 47 37.7 29 50.5 45 46 .36.2 3004.0 46 46 35.7 6
2811.8 40 48 38.4 28 26.3 48 48 37.9 28 40.6 48 47 37.4 2923.0 47 45 35.9 29 36.9 40 45 :i,5.4 7
27 42.9 4!) 4S 3S.1 27 57.7 49 47 37.6 28 12.4 40 47 37.1 28 55.7 48 45 35.6 29 10.0 47 45 3.5.1 8
27142 50 47 37.8 27 29.4 50 47 37.3 27 4-1.3 .W 46 36.8 28 28.6 40 45 35.4 28 432 48 44 34.9 9
) 26 45.8 52 47 37.r) 27 01.1 5146 37.0 27 16.5 51 46 36.5 28 01.8 50 44 35.1 28 16.7 49 44 34.6 100
\ 2617.5 53 47 37.2 26 332 52 40 36.7 26 48.8 52 40 36.2 27 35.1 5144 34.8 27 50.3 60 44 34.3 1
/ 2549.4 5-146 36.9 26 05.4 53 46 36.4 2621.4 53 45 35.9 27 08.5 52 44 34.5 27 24.1 6143 34.0 2
(25 21.6 55 46 3()..5 25 37.9 54 46 36.0 25 54.1 61 45 35.6 26 42.3 53 43 34.2 26 582 .52 43 33.7 3
\ 24 53.9 ,W 46 36.2 2510.5 55 45 35.7 25 27.1 .5.5 45 35.3 26162 54 43 33.9 26 32.4 .54 43 33.3 4
/ 24 26.5 57 45 35.8 24 43.4 35.4
50 45 2500.3 34.9
50 4-1 25 50.3 55 43 33.(i 26 06.8 55 42 33.1 105
23 59.3 58 45 35.5 2416.5 35.0
57 44 24 33.7 57 44 34.6 25 24.6 56 42 33.2 25 41.5 50 42 32.8 6
V 23 32.3 58 44 35.1 23 49.9 68 41 34.7 2407.3 58 43 34.3 24 592 57 42 32.9 25 16.3 57 41 32.5 7
23 05.6 59 44 34.8 23 23.4 69 44 34.3 23 412 69 43 33.9 24 33.9 58 41 32.6 24 51.4 5841 32.1 8
22 39.1 60 44 34.4 22 572 60 43 34.0 23 15.3 60 43 33.6 24 09.0 ,W4i 32.2 24 26.7 59 41 31.8 9
2212.9 6143 34.1 22 312 6143 33.6 22 49.6 61 42 33.2 23 442 60 41 31.9 24 02.3 60 40 31.5 110
21 46.9 62 43 33.7 22 05.6 62 12 33.3 22 242 62 42 32.9 23 19.7 01 40 31.6 23 38.0 6140 31.1 1
2121.1 63 43 33.3 2140.1 63 42 32.9 2159.0 63 12 32.5 22 55.4 62 10 31.2 2314.0 62 39 30.8 2
20 55.6 64 42 32.9 2114.9 64 42 32.5 2134.1 6141 32.1 22 31.3 63 40 30.9 22 50 J 63 39 30.5 3
\ 20 30.4 65 42 32.6 20 49.9 65 41 32.1 21 09.4 65 41 31.8 22C7.5 6139 30.5 22 26.8 6139 30.1 4
20 05.4 60 41 32.2 20 252 66 41 31.8 20 45.0 66 40 31.4 2143.9 65 39 30.2 22 03.5 05 38 29.8 115
19 40.7 67 41 31.8 20 00.8 67 40 31.4 20 20.9 67 40 31.0 2120.6 66.38 29.8 21 40.5 66 38 29.4 6
19163 68 40 31.4 19 36.7 08 40 31.0 19 57.0 08 39 30.0 20 57.6 07 38 29.4 21 17.7 67 37 29.0 7
18 52.1 60 40 31.0 1912.8 09 39 30.6 19 33.4 60 39 30.2 20 3-1.8 68 37 29.1 20 552 68 37 28.7 8
18 28.3 70 39 30.6 18 492 70 39 30.2 19 10.0 70 38 29.8 2012.3 60 37 28.7 20 33.0 69 37 28.3 9
1804.7 7139 30.2 18 25.8 7138 29.8 18 47.0 7138 29.4 19 50.1 70 37 28.3 2011.0 70 36 27.9 120
17 41.4 72 38 29.S 1802.8 713.8 29.4 18 242 7137 29.0 19 28.1 7136 27.9 19 49.3 TO 36 27.5 1
17 18.4 72 38 29.4 17 40.1 72 37 29.0 18 01.7 72 37 28.6 19 06.4 72 36 27.5 19 27.9 7135 27.2 2
16 55.7 73 37 28.9 1717.6 73 37 28.6 17 39.5 73 36 28.2 18 45.0 73 35 27.1 19 06.7 72 35 26.8 3
16 33.3 74 37 28.5 16 55.5 74 36 28.2 1717.6 74 36 27.8 18 23.9 73 35 26.7 18 45.9 73 34 26.4 4
16112 75 36 28.1 16 33.6 75 30 27.8 16 56.0 75 35 27.4 18 03.0 74 34 26.3 18 25.3 74 34 26.0 125
15 49.4 76 36 27.7 1612.1 76 35 27.3 16 34.7 76 35 27.0 17 42.4 75 34 25.9 18 04.9 75 33 25.6 6
1527.9 77 35 27.2 15 50.8 77 35 26.9 1613.7 77 34 26.6 17 222 76 33 25.5 17 45.0 76 33 25.2 7
1506.7 7S35 26.8 15 29.8 78 34 26.4 15 53.0 78 34 26.1 17 02.3 77 33 25.1 17 25 J 76 32 24.8 8
14 45.9 78 34 26.3 1509.3 78 34 26.0 15 32.7 7S :« 25.7 1642.6 78 32 24.7 17 05.9 77 32 24.4 9

. .

6 59.5 96 14 11.0 7 28.4 90 14 10.8 7 57.3 %14 10.7 9 23.9 96 13 10.3 9 52.8 96 13 10.2 160
6 50.8 97 14 10.4 7 19.8 97 13 10.3 7 48.8 97 13 10.2 9 15.8 96 13 09.8 9 44.8 9t5 13 09.7 1

642.6 97 13 09.9 711.7 9713 09.8 7 40.8 97 13 09.7 9 08.1 97 12 09.3 9 372 97 12 09.2 2
6 34.8 97 12 09.3 704.0 97 12 09.2 7 332 97 12 09.1 9 00.8 97 11 08.8 9 30.0 97 U 08.7 3
627.4 asu 08.8 6 56.7 98 11 08.7 7 26.0 98 11 0S.6 8 53.9 98 11 08.2 9 232 9811 08.1 4
620.5 98 11 08.3 649.9 98 11 08.2 7 19.3 98 10 08.1 847.3 9S10 07.8 916.8 98 10 07.6 165
6 14.0 9S 10 07.7 643.5 98 10 07.6 7 13.0 98 10 07.5 8 41.3 98 09 07.2 910.8 98 09 07.1 6
6 08.0 98 09 07.2 6 37.5 98 09 07.1 7 07.1 98 09 07.0 8 35.6 98 09 06.7 9052 98 09 06.6 7
6 02.4 00 09 06.6 6 32.0 90 08 06.5 701.6 99 08 06.5 8 30.4 98 08 06.2 900.0 98 08 06.1 8
5 572 90 08 06.1 6 26.9 99 08 06.0 656.6 9908 05.9 8 25.6 90 07 05.7 8 552 99 07 05.6 9
5 52.5 99 07 05.5 6222 99 07 05.5 652.0 99 07 05.4 8 21.1 90 07 05.2 8 50.8 99 06 05.1 170
5 482 99 00 05.0 618.0 99 06 04.9 647.8 99 06 04.9 817.1 90 06 04.7 8 46.9 99 06 04.6 1
5 44.4 99 06 04.4 6142 9905 04.4 644.1 99 05 04.3 813.5 O'.ios 04.1 8 43.3 99 05 04.1 2
5 41.0 90 0.5 03.9 610.9 99 05 03.8 6 40.8 99 0.5 03.8 810.3 90 01 03.6 8 402 99 04 03.6 3
5 38.1 OToi 03.3 608.0 99 01 03.3 6 37.9 90 01 03.2 8 07.6 O'lw 03.1 8 37.5 99 04 03.1 4
5 35.6 1 .0 03 02.8 6 05.5 1.0 03 02.7 6 35.5 1.0 03 02.7 80521.003 02.6 8 352 1.003 02.6 175
5 33.6 1.0 ra 02.2 6 03.5 1.0 02 02.2 6 33.5 1.0 02 02.2 803.4 1.0 02 02.1 8 33.3 1.0 02 02.1 6
5 32.0 .0 o-j
1 01.7 6 02.0 1.0 02 01.6 6 32.0 1.0 02 01.6 801.9 1.0 02 01.6 8 31.9 .0 02 01.6 7
5 30.91.0 01 01.1 600.91.001 01.1 6 30.91.0 01 01.1 8 00.8 1.0 01 01.0 8 30.8 .0 01 01.0 8
53021.000 00,6 60021.0 00 00.5 63021.000 00.5 8002 1.000 00.5 8 302 .0 00 00.5 9
5 30.0 1.0 00 00.0 6 00.0] 00 00.0 6 30.0 00 00.0
1 8 00.0 00
1 00.0 8 30.0 .0 00 00.0 180 1

4—76a«
{

i)iv fl ir.o. I'll.

WWh the \ahi(^ A' ^d turn to T:\h\v \\ (Fig. 217/>) and witli the value
to tlic n(>arc.^t minute, 55°43', find the number 24927, and add together A
and B to gel 2(;437. Now, entering Table B (Fig. 2176) at the bottom
and looking in the column for this same number, the altitude is found to be
 CELESTIAL NA VIGA TION—EQ IJIPMENT 323

32°58' as the calculated altitude. The difference between this altitude

and the true altitude found with the sextant gives the altitude intercept 14
miles. Since the true altitude is greater than the calculated, the direction
is toward the observed body.
—
Azimuth. The azimuth is tai^en from the diagram shown in Fig. 217c.
On the left-hand side of the page enter with 18°, cross on this horizontal
line until it intersects the curved line of declination 21°, pass up this line in
a vertical direction until the altitude curve 33° is intersected, then pass
horizontally to the right side of diagram, and thus read the azimuth 20°.
Since the sun bore southeast, the azimuth is S. 20°E.

Longifude-j B H Polan's Altitudes

Fig. 222. — Substellar points.

For Meridian Altitude. — If the LHA is 0, the sun is on the meridian,
and A = 0, and
K= latitude

Since +5= 5, it is only necessary to enter Table B with K '^ d

and pick out from B the He direct. not necessary in this case to
It is
write down A, B, or log He. Also since the body is on the meridian,
the azimuth is not required, and the a is applied to the assumed latitude
to get the latitude direct.
Form Used. —The column form of work sheet as shown will be found
convenient in the air, since several sights can be worked on one page and
since the form need not be written each time. Also since similar terms
for all sightsappear on the same line, a read}^ check on the work is
afforded. It is customary to make the small correction for refraction
mentally.
—
"Star Altitude Curves." From any given position on the earth, at
any given instant of sidereal time, there is onh^ one possible altitude for
each fixed star. The ''Star Altitude Curves" take advantage of this fact
to do in advance a great part of the work otherwise required of the
navigator.
324 AIR NAVIGATION

'V\\v siiniiltaiH'ous altitudes of two stai's, to^ctlicr with the Greenwich

sidereal time of ohseiAat ion, definitely determine a j)oint on the earth's
surface, 'i'his may he i)ut in p;rap}iic form hy j)lotting the altitudes
against the latitude and local sidereal time. The simultaneous altitudes
thus determin(^ hy the curves a latitude and a corresponding local sidereal
time. Tlie local sidereal time found from the curves combined with
the GrecMiwich sidereal time gives the longitude of the observer. Thus
both latitude and longitude are determined without i-eference to the
dead-reckoning position, light ascension, declination, hour angle, or
azimuth. No plotting whatever is recjuired to obtain a fix. The entire
computation foi- the latitude and longitude of a definite position is
reduced to one subtraction of time to find the longitude.
—
Graphical Representation. At any gi\'en instant a star is directh^
over (^.c., in the zenith for) some point on the earth called the substellar
point. On a small-scale chart such as Fig. 222, assume that the substellar
l^oint for one star is at ^, and for a second star at B, shown just off the
chart. At A the altitude of the zenithal star is 90°, and at a distance of
600 miles (60 nautical miles equal 1°) the altitude is 80°, and at 1,200
miles the altitude is 70°, etc. In the same way, curves of altitudes for
the second star (Polaris) may be constructed from B. These circles of
equal altitudes are nothing more than lines of position laid down for a
given instant of time.
Referring again to Fig. 222, suppose the altitude of star A is observed
to be 28°, and of star B, 40°; then the intersection of these two altitude
circles at C is the o])server's position. There are two })ositions possible
which are on the same two circles of altitude, but only the one for which
the curves are constructed will give the proper value of the local sidereal
time.
If the star A of 0° declination is on the prime vertical with the observer
on the equator, its altitude at ])oint C will increase at the rate of 1° for
every 4 min. of elapsed sidereal time. The star A changes altitude from
0° to 90° in 6 hr., therefore, 1 hr. equals 15°, or 4 min. equals 1°. Four
minutes after the altitude of star A, as observed from C, is 28°, it will
have increased to 29°, and 4 min. later, to 30°,
etc. This may be graphed
by having the time scale increase toward the right as shown in Fig. 223.
Instead of considering that the altitude increiises for the passing of time,
picture the time increasing, as represented by the local-sidereal-time scale,
for greater altitudes. For other latitudes and declinations, the change
of altitu(l(^ would be less than 1° for 4 min. of time, but the figures given
illustrate the piinciple. The ''At" in ''H.O. 214," shows the change of
altitude foi- change of time.
Sinc(^ th(^ azinuith is at right angles to the line of j^osition and since
th(^ altitud(> inci'eases when the body is approached, the "Star Altitude
 CELESTIAL NAVIGATION— EQUIPMENT 325

Curves" give the approximate azimuth at a glance. In Fig. 223 the

azimuth of Vega will be seen at once to be rising because the altitude
increases with time, and to be nearly east because the altitude curves
for Vega run nearly north and south. Given the approximate local
sidereal time and latitude, the curves give the name, azimuth, and
approximate altitude of the star to be observed. The curves may be
used conveniently for star finding.
Provision is also made for the accurate simple use of any edition of
the curves for a date earlier or later than the date of publication. This
is accomplished by applying to the sextant altitude a correction for the

desired date. The figure below each star's name in Fig. 223 is the correc-
tion to be applied for the annual change in altitude, the sign showing
how it is applied for a date later than the epoch for which the curves are
computed and positioned. Figure 223 shows a sample page of the new
curves reduced one-half.
—
Sidereal Time and Longitude. Local sidereal time (LST) is found
from the ''Star Altitude Curves" by projecting the altitude intersection
to the top or bottom scale. Longitude is the difference between Green-
wich sidereal time (GST) and LST. GST may be determined by any of
several different methods:
L By GST watch showing GST in time units.
2. By GST watch showing GST in arc units.

3. By converting Greenwich civil time (GCT) to GST in arc by means

of the Air Almanac, or by means of a mechanical time converter.

When using GST in time units, LST is taken from the top scale of the
''Star Altitude Curves," and the difference is longitude in time units
which should be converted to arc units. When GST in arc units is used,
LST is taken from the bottom scale of the "Star Altitude Curves."
The Air Almanac gives GST in arc (GHA of T) for 10-min. intervals
with a convenient interpolation table for minutes and seconds from to
10 min. This is perhaps the most satisfactory way of finding longitude
when the Air Almanac is available. Remember that the hour angle of
Aries, T, is sidereal time.

—
Example. At any time, any place, observed with an adjusted bubble sextant
the altitude of Vega to be 39°35' and the Greenwich sidereal time of obser^-ation
to be 19^15°'29^. Immediately thereafter observed the altitude of Polaris to be
37°58'. The star Vega is observed to be in the east and rising. Required, a fix.
Solution (Using GST watch). —(1) The altitude of curve of Polaris indicates the
band which the observer is located. (2) Follow through
of latitude (30° to 40°N.) in
the curves until the altitude of the star Vega is approximately 40° and rising, or take
the difference between the approximate longitude in time and the watch (GST^* tc^
get the approximate LST and turn to that page of the curves (Fig. 223). (3) Find the
exact intersection of the curves for the two altitudes observed. This point projected
vertically to the time scale at the top or bottom gives the local sidereal time 14''09'"3S'*)
(
326 AIR NAVIGATION

of \hv pl:i('(\ The (lilTcrciicc Ix-lwccii tlic local sidereal time from tlic scale and tlie
observed (Ireeiiwich sidereal time ^ives a lonp;itude of ')\)~)'"r>V, this bcinp; in units
of time, and when converted into arc gives a longitude of 7()°28'W. (4) The point of
intersection projected horizontally to either of the latitude scales gi\'es a latitude of
38°r)7'.r)X. Note that the Polaris altitu(h' curves are not horizontal and should
not be followed to i)ick latitude from the scale.

Figure 224 shows the solution of four examples, using the Air
Almanac to find GHA T (GST).
Practical Use of Adjusted Altitude Line. — Kegarcllcss of the method
used, the difficulty of taking simultaneous altitudes of two or of three
stars complicates celestial air navigation. This difficulty may he leduced
hy using the ''Star Curves" in a manner similar to "Precomputed
Altitudes" described later.
Suppose a plane making 300 m.p.h. on course 240° true is at A,
Lat. 70°N., Long. 50°W. at 1800 GST, or 14103 LST (1800 less 3H4'"
for 5()°W. longitude). In 10 min. the plane would travel 50 miles on
240° and, with a page of the curves used as a Mercatoi- chart, as shown
in Fig. 225, would arrive at point B, in Lat. G8°3G'X. Because of the
distance traveled in 10 min., the altitude of Yega. would change from
44°36' at A to 43°55' at B. In the elapsed 10 min. Alga's altitude
increases at point Bfrom 43°55' to 44°48' at C. The combined effect
of change of position and 10 min. of elapsed time would change Vega's
altitude from 44°36' to 44°48'. If Vega's altitude at 1800 GST Ls 44°36'
and at 1810 GST is 44°48', then for 1805 GST ^'ega's altitude is shown
at once to be 44°42'. In other words, the line AE is the locus of simul-
taneous altitudes of \egsi, Capella, and Polaris, provided the plane
remains on its schedule. If at 1830 GST A'ega's altitude is 45°00', the
plane is at some point D
about 12 miles off course to right. If an observa-
tion of Polaris gives an altitude of ()7°40' at 1830, the intersection with
Vega gives D as the definite fix, and the plane is shown to be 13 miles
247° true from the scheduled 1830 position.
The adjustedaltitude line may Ix^ laid down for any coui-se and speed.
J3y its use the problem of advancing lines may be greatly simplified.
—
Other Methods of Using Curves. A transparent template may be
used over the curves in the book to find a ])()siti()n without any calcula-
tion. The latitude and longitude are etched on the trans])arent template,
making of it a Mercator chart to the same scale as that of the curves.
Positions may l)e plotted on the* tem])late; also, courses and beai'ings.
With this arrangement, the latitu(l(^ and longitude^ may be determined
without writing a single figure— simi)ly l)y oi'icMiting \\\v LST scale with a
|)()int on th(> lians])arent cover, and tluMi by marking tlu^ intersection of
Ihe altitude curves. The intersection of th(^ altitude curves shows the
hititude and h)ngitude on the transparent vovvv.
 CELESTIAL NAVIGATION— EQUIPMENT 32]

ANTARES
1400 ?

P-T ,
,
I
1
, 1
1
" -I
T— r—
' I
-
—
|
r—r—
1 T 1 '^ 1 I 1
1
1 1 1
j < <
1

210° 2ir 212° 213° 214° 215° 216° 217°

Fig. 223. — Sample page of 1938 edition of "Star Altitude Curves" reduced one-half.
These curves are printed in three colors, black, red, and green.
328 AIR NAVK'.ATIOX

1moui(> 22(5 sliows a t i-;iiis|).Mi(Mit template'. 'V\\v inid-loii^itude is

marked 70°, 80°, etc., as desired. 'Hie mid-lon^itiide ol' the template
is th(Mi aliened with the hist di^it of degrees and exact minutes of GHA T,

in whicii position the star altitude curve be correctly traced on may

the temi)lat(\ UefcMTing to Fig. 224, example 1, the mid-longitude of
the template would be marked 80°, and aligned with (28) 3°38', in

POLARIS
45
ro-' —
^= ARCTURUSi
rr.
50
-0:4'
1
'
1

'
ANTARES <$N
_
55
-0:3 ^n
ARCTURUS CAPH^x
10
POLARIS-
15

40 r40 40^ r40

39 39 39 39

38 38 38 ^38

37 37 37- 37

285°

Hs POLARIS 38° 45' 38 47 38 52 38 '51

Hs ARCTURUS 27 07 26 16 24 57 23 50
CORR.DATE + 02
Hs ARCTURUS 27 09 26 18 24 59 23 52
G.C.T. 2 55 30 3 00 08 3 07 00 3 12 37

G.S.T. 358 44 351 14 361 14 363 44

CORR. 231 2 1 45 39
6.3.1. 360 07 361 16 362 59 364 23
L.S.T. 283 38 284 45 286 27 287 55
L0N6. 75 29W 76 31W 76 32W 76 28W
LAT. 38 58N 38 58N 39 00 N 38 58 N
^1..

SAC TEST 8 AUG. 1941

Fig. 224. — Solution of four exiimplos using tlio Air Alnuinac to find GHA T (GST).

which position the Arcturus curve would be correctly i)()sitioned undei'

the tem])late. In addition to the l)()()k form, the Star Altitude Curves
may be lithographed on strips suitabl(> foi- use in a loller map holdei-
with a transparent celluloid cover on which -aw (>tcluMl tlu^ latitude and
longitude to the same scale as that of the curv(>s.
The slight adxantage gained in the use of the template by saving
the subtraction ot tinu^ for longitude wlien working direct from the curves
is offset by a slight loss in accuracy, and the necessity of carefully i)lacing
the longitude scal(> at a definite point on the LST scale.
CELESTIAL NAVIGATION—EQUIPMENT 329

I t

r—
CM
1—
o
TJ
13
-M

03

-o
330 A Hi NAVIGATION

Tlu^ same ^ciioriil idcti oi" the Stiii" Altitude (Xirvos is used in the
construction of the Baker navigation machine. With this macliine,
the altitude curves on a transparent sheet are passed over a map. Differ-
ent sheets are used for different dechnations in order to give a g(»neral
sohitioii U)v (lifT(M"ent IxxHes.
Line of Position by '*Star Altitude Curves."- Althougli designed to
d(^termine a fix l)y simidtaneous observations of two or more stars, the

curves ma,y also be used to lay down a line of position when only one
star is available. To from the cuives, assume two
plot a line of position
latitudes, and for each, pick off the LST corresponding to the observed
altitude, and find the longitudes for each latitude. Then plot the two
positions so determined on the chart and connect them with the required
line of position. A Polaris observation gives the latitude when the
approximate LST is used. The Polaris line will, of course, run nearly
east and west. It is customary to pick off the latitude direct and not to
consider the line.

Problems Solved by "Star Altitude Curves."— In Fig. 224, the

solution of four problems is shown together with portions of two pages
of the curves. The correction for date appearing on the third line of the
solution is ignored for Polaris, and is four times 0.4' for Arctuinis. The
sign of the correction is reversed and added because the observations
were made about four years in advance of the date for which the curves
w^ere constructed. The GST in the sixth line of the solution is given in
arcand is taken from the Air Almanac. The LST is taken from the
bottom scale of Fig. 224.
 CELESTIAL NA VJGATION—EQUIFM ENT 33 J

"? n 'T ('

S° ? ;5 fe
? ?? S? f? 1--' s

2
O
^
o

u
•>

*1
<
5
ft
1

it

1
]

n !
1

o
j

g 1

s
z
J

'""I'IMI 1 1 1 1

1
1 < 1 1 1
'""li""
 niAPTKl? XTTT

CELESTIAL NAVIGATION PRACTICE

Much of llic (•()ini)ut;iti(ni toi' navigation in flight can be done before

tlic take-off. ( )h\iously. the charts, tables, and equipment must be
assciuhlcd and the courses seh'cted. The courses, distances, speeds,
and j)aits of the c()m|)utat ions can be prepared in advance. Since time
consumed before the take-off is not pressing and since practice is bene-
ficial, as inucli of \\\v woik as p()ssil)le should be done and checked in
ad\ance and condensed in a neat, orderly manner for the most convenient
used in t \]v inv.

Practice in the Air.-— In a text such as this, the most we can hope*
to (h) is to make chvir the principles and procedure of air navigation.
()l)\iously. the practical air navigator must follow this up \nth practice
in tile air. A few experiences trying to tune in a radio station, a few
hours in a dense fog, a few hundred celestial observations applied in
fhght. and practice in air pilotage and dead reckoning are worth many
w(>eks of classroom study.
Value of a Single Line of Position. —A single line of position gives
tlie naxigator some \'aluable information. If such a line intersects the
course at right anglers or nearly so, shows the navigator the speed made it

good since the last fix; if it runs parallel to the course, it shows a definite
set across the course; if it runs north and south, it gives a definite deter-
mination of longitude and similarly; if east and wTst, a definite latitude.
A single line of i)osition represents the locus of the ship's position at
the time of sight, and the point on this line that is the most ])r()bable
|)osition (called estimated position, abbreviation E.P.) will vary with
conditions. .\t times its intersection with the D.R. course gives the
most probable position; at others, it gives the intersection with the line
that represents the D.R. couisc^ ])lus the drift. In the final analysis, the
point accejited as the estimated position must take into consideration
the probable ethn't of such di'ift as has been experienced since the last fix.

Intersecting Lines of Position; a Fix. — Two or more sights taken

simultaneously oi-, neaii\' so. gi\(^ two oi- moi'i^ linens of position, the
intersection of which is called a fix. Sinuiltan(M)us sights arc seldom
taken, as usually the naxigator lik(>s to tak(> his own sights. Therefore
the sights are necessarily inkou al dithMXMit times, the time between
the first and last sights varying by se\ (>ral minutes. As each sight must
be worked out for the exact tim(> of sight, \\w resulting lines of position
XV2
 CELESTIAL NAVIGATION—PRACTICE 333

must be advanced or retarded for the distance between the sights that
the ship has run on the course, in order to get a fix for any particular
time.
Advancing or Retarding Lines of Position. —To advance or retard
a line of position, it is necessary to carry such a Hne forward or backward
parallel to itself along the course followed by the plane for the distance
run during the time interval.
When a line of position is run up, say for 100 miles or more, it partakes
appreciably of the inaccuracies of dead reckoning during that time and
consequently may be subject to slight error. Under such conditions,
a fix obtained in this manner is called a '^ running fix," to distinguish it

from the accurate fix obtained by nearly simultaneous observations.

Combining Celestial and Terrestrial Lines of Position. In the —
foregoing discussion of plotting a fix we have discussed only lines of
position determined from celestial observations. Corrected com-
as
pass bearings of charted objects and radio bearings are also lines of
position and at the time of taking them represent the locus of the plane's
position. These bearing lines may be handled in the same manner as
the lines of position heretofore described in this chapter. A radio
bearing or compass bearing may
be advanced or retarded similarly to
intersect with a line of position determined from the observation of a
celestialbody to obtain a fix.
—
Precomputed Altitude Curves. Normally, the altitude and azimuth
of an observed heavenly body are computed for the time of observation,
and the position line plotted on a chart. The run of 30 to 60 miles while
the plane's position is being fixed detracts from the value of the fix. It is
most desirable to know where we are, not where we were.
By judicious application of the known methods of navigation we
may fix the plane's position almost instantaneously after taking observa-
tions of two bodies. We may do this by
1. Calculating the altitude and azimuth for a predetermined time
and dead-reckoning position.
2. Use of methods such as the ''Star Altitude Curves."
3. Plotting curves of altitude and azimuth in advance; usually only
the altitude curve will be required, which we shall now discuss.
The rapid changes and declination of the
in the right ascension
sun, moon, and planets render it impracticable to precompute their
altitudes and plot them as permanent altitude curves as we have done in
the case of the stars.
On the other hand, it is entirely practical to compute in advance
the altitude of any heavenly body for any given time and place. Now
by estimating the course and speed to be made good, it is possible to
read from the chart for any instant of the flight the estimated position
334 Alh' \A VICATIOS'

of the phi lie. H> selecting!; a scries of such ixjsitions iit reasonable
intcrwils of time, these |)()siti()iis may he used to compute the altitudes
of the SUM ()!• These conii)uted altitudes may be plotted
other bodies.
on ci-os>->(ctioiipajxT as oi'dinatcs, with the times as abscissas. A
sniootli (Mii\c iiia\- i)e diawn throu^;h them, thus ^ivin^ a curve of pre-
c()ini)Uted ahitudes for any instant during the flij^ht.
When ati ahitude is obseived durinj^ the flight, it is comi)ared with t]ie

precoinput cd ahitude read from the curve for the moment of o})servation.
If the obxiNcd altitude is the same as the computed altitude, the plane
is at the estimated |)()siti()n or on the line of position passing through it.

If obseiNcd altitude differs from the computed altitude, we know

th(-

that the i)lane is on a line of j)ositi()n parallel to the line of position through
the estimated position but displaced by the difference between the
()l)S(>rved and the c()mi)uted altitudes. If the observed altitude is 20'

of arc greater than the com])ut(Hl altitude, we know from our stud}^ of
the line of position that the plane is not at the scheduled position for
that instant of time but is at a point 20 miles toward the observed
bo(l\ Simihirly, if the observed altitude is 20' of arc less than the
.

c()m|)uted altitu(l(\ the plane is not at the scheduled position but is at a

l)oint 20 miles farther away from the observed body.

Thus, once the curve of precomputed altitudes has been made for
a particular flight, the navigator may make time and altitude observations
as he wishes and, l)y a glance at the precomputed altitude curves, get
an altitu(l(» diiferencc^ without writing a single figure. This tells him
at once whether he is at his estimated position, or, if not, how far he is
toward or away from the observed heavenly body.
To sa\'e tlu^ trouble^ of correcting each sextant altitude for refraction
(and i)aiallax in the ca.s(^ of the moon), the necessary correction may be
a|)plied to the comj)ute(l altitude with the reversed sign.
iMgure 227 shows a ])r(H'()mputed altitude curve of the sun as described
in the "Line of Position Book Supplement." Computations are madc^
both from the U.K. position and from an assumed position. In working
fi'om the D.R. i)()siti()n more computation and less plotting are reciuired.
In working from an assunu>d i)ositi()n, an additional correction is made to
allow for the distance of the D.R. position to the line of position thi-ough
the assumed position.
Application of the Curves. —
This ai)i)licati()n of tlu^ ])rinciple of the
line of position makers it ])()ssible. for a ground computing staff to pre-
compute the desired altitude curves and hand them to the navigator
before he takes off. The ad\antage of ransfcM'ring tlu^ bulk of the com-
t

puting woik fiom the naxigator in the i)lane to })rofessional computers

in an ollice, with all th(> fa('iliti(>s of (^xtended tables, calculating machines,

and ficedom from hnstl(\ is s(>lf-evident.

 CELESTIAL NA VIGAT ION—PRACTICE 335

24 April 1939 PRE-COMPUTED ALTITUDE OF SUN LAT. 38°58'M

LONG.76''30'W
I 2 3 4 5
USING D.R. POSITION USING ASSUMED POSITION
GCT IShOOmOOs 15 08 00 15 16 00 15 00 00 15 08 00 15 16 00 GCT
GHA 30° 26.'! 30° %\\ 30° 26.'1 30° 26:i 30° 26 .'1
30° 25:1 GHA
CORR. 15 00.0 17 00 19 00 15 00 17 00 19 00 CORR.
6HA 45 26.1 47 26.1 49 25.1 45 26.1 47 26.1 49 26.1 GHA
LONG. 76 30 76 30 76 30 76 26.1 76 25.1 76 26.1 LONG.
LHA(t) 31 03.9 E 29 03.9 E 27 03.9 E 3I°E 29 E 27 E LHA(A)
LAI 38 58 N 38 58 N 38 58 N 39 N 39 N 39 N LAT (A)

f CSC 28734 31354 34198 43 22.3N 42 47.7 N 42 16.0 N K

Lsec+ 10929 10929 10929 12 4I.9N 12 42.0 N 12 42.1m d
N CSC 39663 42283 45127 30 404 30 05.7 29 33.9 K~d
N 23° 39.'] 22° 11.'5 20° 43 .'1

A 3811 3343 2904 3791 3325 2887 A

Lcsc" 20144 20144 20144 6546 6289 6058 B
Kcsc 16333 16801 17240 10337 9614 8945 IHe
K 43° 21.'5n 42° 46.'8n 42° I4'.9 52° 01.'0 53° 15:0 54° 28.'4 He
REFR.
d 12 41.9N 12 42.0 N 12 42.1 (+) .7 (+) .6 (+) .6
REVERSED

K-d 30 39.6 30 04.8 29 32.8 52 01.7 53 16.6 54 29.0 Hs(^Ef)

(-) 1.5 (-) 1.2 (-) 1.0 POS.CORR.
3811 2904 52 00.2 53 154 54 28.0 Hs
R^ 6540 605)
I He 10351 9625 8955 s54?5e s52°OE s49°.5e Z
He 51° 59.6 53° 1418 54° 27.'3
REFR. (+) .7 (+) .6 (+) .5
REVERSED

Hs 52 00.3 S3 15.4 54 27.9

^ i

54°30' 1 1

'
1 /
1 1 /'
1 ' / '

j j
/ j

54°00' 1
' / 1

1 ' / '

1
I / 1

1
1 / '

1 1 / 1

A'
53°30'

?^
1

'
1

!A^
A 1
1

r
••
^ !

fi 1

? i

IF !

SS'^OC
\
' 1

A
A^
1

1
/.«j

A
1 1

' !
1

1 /^ ' 1

52°30' '
/ I
1

1 / ' '

1 / i
1

1
/ 1 1

'/ ' '

52°00' y / i 1

I5h00m I5h08m I5hl6m

•<-- 7/me H

77°W 76°W

Fig, 227. — Precomputed altitude of the sun.

:VM\ AIR NAVKiATlON

The student at ''What ha])})ens if I do not

once asks the (luestioii,

follow the course which the altitudes were computed?"

and timet able lor

The aiiswei' is th:it the |)i-ec()nii)uted altitude curves are designed to

sh<)w not onl\ the i)lane is on scliedule, but also if it is off, and, if so,
il

1)\- how nuich. if the |)reari-anged route and timetable were always
followed, neither the i)i-ecomj)uted altitudes nor an}' othei- method would
be i-etjuired to suj)i)lement the d(>ad reckoning.
W one obserxcd body, the best that can be done is to determine
ith onl\-

a line of position for a given instant of time, and for an assigned position.
The distance of the o})server from this assumed i)Osition is indicated by
the altitude dillei-ence and may, and does, differ b}^ amounts up to 60'
or moi-e, depending on how close theassumed i)Osition is to the actual
|)ositi()n of the obsei'ver. Tlie assumed position may differ from the
ol)s(M\'ei's |)osition by as much as 100' or more, and the observed data
still be of \'alue.

In the same way, the ol)ser\'er using pi-ecomputed altitudes may

\)v off scliedule 100 miles or more and find the cui'ves of practical use.
The woi-st that could hai)pen would be for the flight to be delayed, say
()\'ei-night, due to weather or motor trouble, in which case the altitude
(ur\-es would be recomputed for the new schedule.
The azinuith may, of course, be precomputed and used if desired,
but this is not usually necessary. If the observer is 10 miles "away"
with body bearing ahead of the plane, the plane is simply 10 miles
th(^

Ix^hind schedule, and is speeded up if it is desired to keep to schedule.

In the same way, if the observed body is on the starboard beam and the
()bs(M\e(l altitude is 20' above the curve, the observer is 20 miles too
close to the body, or 20 miles off course to the right. To correct the
error the i)lane would change course to the left, gradually working back
to \\\v sch(Mlul(Hl c()ui's(> and determining when it was on course by
fui'tluM- ol)S(M-\-ations.

When th(^ observed body is on the bow or quarter, the navigator

judges his position as based on his knowledge of the line of position.
Altitude Curves for Two Bodies. — ^^'hen the altitude curves for two
bodies ai-e be checked
plotted for the sanu^ time, the plane's position may
continuously. If the altitiuh^ differences for both bodies as found from

the ;iltitude eur\('s are kei)t at zero, the plane is on the estimated coui^se
and making the sclunluhMl spcHMl. This, of course, is the same condition
as haxing two lines of position, the int(M-section being the fix.
Using Precomputed Curves for Making Landfall.— An illustration
of one of the uses of a ))i-ecomi>ut ed altitude^ cui'\(^ is gi\-(Mi below. This
in^eniou- ;ipp!ication to ;i part icular |)i-obI(Mn, that of det(Minining posit ion
relative to a landfall, has been woikiMl out \)y Lieutenant W. ('. Px'iitle.w
.Ir., \\v (
'oip>, r. S. Army.
 CELESTIAL NA VIGA TION—PHACTICE 337

The conditions of this problem assume that only one body is available
for observations and that* the navigator after a long overwater flight
with no recent fixes is in doubt as to his position and, therefore, not sure
on which side of his present course his objective lies. He therefore
precomputes a curve of altitudes of the body for the position of the
objective and lays off lines of position for half-hourly intervals of time.
He takes observations of the body and plots the altitudes against his
precomputed curve (Fig. 228) until he determines that he has arrived
on a line of position through his objective. The objective not then
being in sight, he turns and flies along the LP, heading along the azimuth

11:10
65^

.a^
\ ^:C^^
Y ^Q.^ ^f^ ^^

45' „rr>g^

8:14--
?<$r/
':>^-'
35'

y
^><^' W^ \
3

^*""
^w
25'

c
^/ y
15
7 7:30 8 8:30 9 9-30 10 10:30 II 11:30 12
A.M. Noon
Fig. 228. — Precomputed altitude at destination for use in making a landfall.

for that time either plus or minus 90°. After correcting his heading for
drift to be certain his track will lie along the LP, he continues taking
observations, plotting them against the precomputed curve.- Provided
the observations are made with intervals of not less than 5 min. and taken
with reasonable accuracy, after three plots he knows whether his objective
liesahead or behind and also, approximately, the position. He deter-
mines the direction of the objective bj^ the following rules:

1. When heading azimuth plus 90°:

a. plotted are less than cvu^ve, destination is ahead.
If altitudes

h. If altitudes plotted are greater than curve, destination is behind.

2. When heading azimuth minus 90°

a. If altitudes plotted are less than curve, destination is behind.

h. If altitudes plotted are greater than curve, destination is ahead.

In Fig. 229 is shown how a navigator would determine the position of a

landfall (labeled ''Destination" in the figure) using the foregoing method.
His course would place him to the right of his destination, therefore, on
reaching a line of position through his objective at 0814 he turned left
338 A Hi NAVIGATION

oil ili(> 1.
1' licndin^ nziiniitli minus \)(f. On ^rttinjj; successive plots less
iliMii I he |)i('C()ni|)Utc(l cuiN-e. he ;ii)i)lie(l 1 he appropriate rule for heading
.iziiiiiilh iiiiini> *.»() ;iii(l del ci mined
that his ol)jective was behind him.
He ih(Mi turned riiiht ;il onto the azimuth for 0930 as a heading.
()*>()()

At 0929 he a^ain arii\('(l on a LP of the destination. He then turned

iin;ht. knowing from his previous reckoning the direction of his destina-
lion. ()9()() and 0929 was moved along until it just
The run Ix'twcen
((lualecl the di.-Iance between the i)()sition lines for 0900 and 0929. This
;ia\c the ai)pi()\imate distance to destination and E.T.A. He corrected

^^c/

Pos. 7A.M.

12 M. L.P.

I-'k;. 'I'lW. Process of fiiulintj: destination l)y means of pieeoinputiMl allitndc^ curves.

hea(lin<2; tor drift on this \\v\\ coui'se so that his track would lie along the
LP. lie continued taking ()l)servations and plotting them as shown in
I'ig. 22S. B>' drawing smooth curve through the first five plots made
a
and continuing \\\v cur\-e until it met the precomputed curve, he was
al)l(^ to estimate* the time* of liis arrival at his destination independently
of |)re\ious estimate* the run between 0900 and 0929.
found hv ])l()tting

This m(>thod. of course, has its limitations, yet should be valuable

when understood .-ind used properly.
Finding a Destination. Dui-ing th(> daylight hours it is often imjios-
sible to get more than one LP. viz.^ that given by the sim. If pilotage
 CELESTIAL NAVIGATION—PRACTICE 339

cannot be used (as when flying over water) or radio bearings are not
may be utilized for finding a destination.
available, this single position line
The air navigator, having found a position line as he approaches
his destination, continues flying on his course until the position line
carried forward by D.R. passes through the destination. He then turns
right or left and follows the LP. If, after a reasonable time, the destina-

tion is not sighted, he infers that he has turned the wrong way, and so
reverses his track. Some navigators approaching a landfall purposely
keep to one side so that they know the proper direction to turn.
Special Cases. —
There are two special cases for finding latitude, each
of which may be handled by a special short solution peculiar to the case.
These are

1. Meridian altitudes.
2. Altitudes of Polaris.

1. When the observed body

is on the meridian, at which time its

LHA is may
be found by the meridian altitude method.
zero, the latitude
The general formula when the body is at upper transit is

L = z + d

where L is the latitude.

d is the declination.
z is the zenith distance, or 90° — Hq.
Name south when the body bears south, and north when the bod}^
z
bears north, and then combine z and d algebraically; i.e., use their sum
when the signs are unlike and the difference when alike. At lower
transit,

L = Ho + p

where p is the polar distance = 90° — declination.

Figure 230 will help the student to understand the different cases.
2. The altitude of the north pole is equal to the latitude in the

northern hemisphere. Since Polaris is only about 63' from the pole
and revolves about it, a small correction depending on the hour angle

of Polaris be applied to its Hq to find the latitude directly. A table

may
giving these corrections is printed on the back of the star chart in the
Air Almanac.
Circles of Equal Altitude Plotted on Chart. —
The only cases where the
LP must be plotted as the arc of a circle are those where the body observed
is close to the zenith of the observer. For these high altitudes, between
85° and 90°, the assumption that the LP is a straight line does not hold,
for the circles of equal altitude are so small that errors would be intro-
 10 Mli SAVICATION

(luccd if t li(\\- woio j)lottC(l lis a stniiKlit lino. In these cases the procedure
for plotting \\\v l.P is as follows:
'V\\v suhsolar, siihstollar, or sublunar geograi)hi('al position of the
body data obtained from the " Nautical Almanac"
()l)s(M\('(l is i)l()tt('(l l)y

for the (1( r of si«i;lit. The GHA of the body observed is plotted as
the longitude and tlu; declination as the latitude. From this point as

a center, an arc is drawn with a radius in nautical miles ecjual to tii(^

body's zenith distance in minutes of arc. It is not necessary to draw

the entire circle of altitude but only that section (arc) which plots in the
vicinity of the D.R. i)()sition. The arc thus drawn may be advanced or
retarded by advancing or retarding the subsolar, substellar, or sublunar
l)()int parallel to the shi])'s course and again drawing the arc.

POSITION OF HEAVENLY
BODY IS AT I(E.III,IV)

QOQ'=Equ(^tor
NS = Horizon
Z -Zenith of observer
ZQ observer
=Loifitucle of
ThenIS = Hc = (nN.inN,IYS)=Hc,
c^ndIQ-Dec.(nQ,inQ'I^Q)

HenceZa=IZ+IQ=90-IS+IQ
= 90-Hc+Dec.

Fig. 'I'M). — Meridian altitude figure.

Such lu<>;h altitudes as those necessitating plotting are in general

avoidable, except in the tropics when the latitude of the ship's position
api)r()xi mates the declination of the sun. In am' case, the}' are not desir-
able, inasnuich as it is difficult to measure such high altitudes with
accuracy'
Polar Celestial Navigation. — For an observer at the pole, the Green-
wich lioni- an<i;l(^ in (Miect bcH'omes the azimuth, and the declination of the
sun becomes its true altitude. Theoretically there is only one direction,

south, foi- an ()bse?\er at the north pole. However, by measuring

azinnitli fiom a standard meridian, say Greenwich, we may indicate
direction and this is tluMi identical with GHA. This allows the pole
to be used as the assumed ix)sition when within about 15° of the pole
and permits tlu^ use of a convenient graphical method of laying down lines
of position. Plot the sun's GHA as its azimuth on a suitable ]K)lar
chart and consider tlie sun's declination as the computed altitude. The
line of position is then i)lotted in the usual way, using the difference (laid
 CELESTIAL NA VIGA TION—PRA CTICE 341

off from the pole) between the observed and the computed altitudes.
If the observeris more than 100 miles from the point where the line of

position crosses the sun's meridian, a correction should be made foi'

curvature of the line. The accompanying was made spe-

table (which
cially for Ellsworth) gives, for distances from the intersection of the hne
of position and the sun's meridian, the corrections to be appUed to the
altitude and azimuth to permit a portion of the circle of position to be
plotted.
Corrections for Rectifying Lines of Position

100 200 300 400 500

True
alt.
AH AZ AH AZ AH AZ AH AZ AH AZ

o f o / o 1 o 1 o / o

10 0.3 0.3 0.7 0.6 2.1 0.9 3.8 1.2 6.2 1.5
15 0.4 0.5 1.5 0.9 3.5 1.4 6.2 1.8 9.6 2.2
20 0.5 0.6 2.1 1.2 4.8 1.8 8.6 2.3 13.3 3.0

25 0.7 0.7 2.7 1.6 6.2 2.3 11.0 3.2 16.9 3.9
30 0.8 1.0 3.5 1.9 7.8 2.9 13.5 3.8 21.0 4.8
35 0.9 1.2 4.0 2.3 8.8 3.5 16.1 4.7 25.3 5.8

_.

500 550' 600 650 700

True
alt.
AH AZ A^ AZ AH AZ AH AZ AH AZ

o 1 o / o 1 o 1 1 o

10 6.2 1.5 7.5 1.6 9.1 1.8 10.6 1.9 12.7 2.1
15 9.6 2.2 11.7 2.5 13.2 2.7 16.2 2.9 18.9 3.1
20 13.3 3.0 15.8 3.3 18.9 3.6 22.2 3.9 26.2 4.2

25 16.9 3.9 20.5 4.3 24.2 4.6 28.5 5.0 32.7 5.4
30 21.0 4.8 25.3 5.3 30.1 5.7 35.9 6.2 41.4 6.7
35 25.3 5.8 30.4 6.4 36.1 6.9 42.3 7.5 49.0 8.1

The table of corrections may be replaced by templates giving the

proper curve for various altitudes. The student should give a free rein
to the imagination in order to visualize that this is merely a special
method of laying down the line of position.
In order to show how the curvature of the line of position may be
rectified by this table. Fig. 231 is drawn to represent to scale the condition
where an observer at Lat. 80°N., Long. 135°W., observes the sun's
altitude to be 25° when its declination is 22^N., and its GHA is 100°.
The pole is used as the assumed position. It is also the observei's zenith
for this assumed position, and the azimuth is equal to the GHA of the
;m2 A Hi NAVIGATION

sun. Siiico the dcclinatioii sliould ('(nijil the altitude at the pole, and the
measured altitude is 3° greater, the obseix'ei- is 180 miles toward the sun.

Since the observer's ))osition is about 400 miles from the intersection of
the line of })()siti()n with the sun's meridian, the corrections as ^iven in

the table should be applied to the i)lotted straight line to get a segment
of the 25° circle of altitude.

N.POLE,
ZENITH, AND
ASSUMED
POSITION

^ SUN
Altitude -25°
Declincition-22°N

Fig. 231. — Polar celestial navigation.

The sun
gives only one line. During the summer months, the moon
will often be in a position to give a second line. Also, Venus should often
be visible. During the six months of night, stars will be available and
should be used with the ''Star Altitude Curves" to fix a position.

PRACTICAL HINTS TO THE NAVIGATOR

1. Take every opportvmity to practice navigation when the j^osition of
the plane is known as this will gi\'e incieased confidence in the
results obtained.
2. Avoid the tedious comi)utati()ns for dead reckoning retjuiied in
older texts; instead, measure courses and distances diiectly and
accurately on charts.
3. For accom])lishing dead reckoning such as speed-tinie-distance and
wind-drift problems, use the Dalton INIark \\\ computer or other
suitable nuH'hanical de\'ice to save mental (effort and speed up the
work.
I. I'se a good magnetic compass, preferably the aperiodic type.
.").
Ha\'e a working knowledge of meteorology, radio, and instiunuMit
(l>ing, and make full use of this knowledge^.
 CELESTIAL NA VIGA TION—PRA CTICE 343

6. Make every effort not to get ''lost." Once the sequence of naviga-
tion is broken, it is often difficult to determine the plane's position,
not to mention the increased danger, work, and worry.
7. Collect the necessary navigation equipment and keep it intact and in
good condition, i.e., the sextant in adjustment, the watches care-
fully rated. Keep a current Almanac, know the compass devia-
tion, etc.
8. Install and use a good drift indicator. The Gatty Periscopic Drift
Indicator is a good type.

9. Keep the necessary charts, including large-scale charts such as the

U.S. Aeronautical Sectional Charts for contact flying, and smaller
scale charts such as the U. S. Aeronautical Regional and WSN
(1:5,000,000) skeleton charts for long-range navigation.
10. Make full use of radio and celestial navigation, and for the latter, take
full advantage of the ''Star Altitude Curves." A prominent
authority on aviation has stated that "The plane of the future
will fly looking up" —meaning that stratosphere flying will require
more celestial navigation, and that contact flying will not ordinarily
be possible, due to the high altitudes at which the planes will
operate.
11. Practical adjustment of the bubble sextant:
a. With the sextant held at a convenient point, sight at an object such
as a telephone pole about 100 yd. away, noting where the center
of the direct image bubble appears to be. Ignore the reflected
image of the bubble.
h. Go to the point sighted and shoot back at the point where the
sextant was first held.
c. If in adjustment, the center of the bubble should coincide with the
first position of the sextant. If it doesn't, remove half the
errorby means of the bubble adjustment and test again. It
should be in adjustment.
d. With the bubble in adjustment, bring the direct image of a distant
body into coincidence with its reflected image. If the index
then reads zero, there is no index error. If the index does not
indicate zero, set it at zero and then tighten the lock screw.
Also see detailed instructions furnished with the instrument, and
Chap. XII.
12. Converting standard or zone time to Greenwich civil time:

Civil time over

about 15° of longitude is reckoned from the same
meridian. For example, Eastern standard time (EST) is reckoned from
the 75th meridian; Central standard time from the 90th meridian, etc.
Therefore, Eastern standard time is 5 hr. (75°) behind GCT. To find
344 A Hi NAVKJATION

OCT when EST is ^iven, simph' udd 5 hr. to EST. In the siiiiu* way
add (') hr. to C'ST; 7 hr. to Mountain time; and 8 hr. to Pacific time.
The data in the "Ahnanac" arc given for GCT to 24 hr. Add 12 hr.
to watch reading in the afternoon.

13. Setting and rating watches:

For cck^stial na\igati()n, it is suggested that a reliable watch, preferahly
with the second-setting feature, be carefully regulated and set to Green-
wich civil time (GCT). The exact EST in New York maj' be obtained
by dialing "]\Iermaid." Other cities have similar time ser\'ices. The
Na\'al Observatory, or Longines broadcast o\'er \\'0R, Newark, gi\'cs
the correct time. With the watch set to the exact GCT, wind it regularly
and avoid rough treatment. Daily, or as often as desired, note the error
of the watch and from these errors establish the watch rate. See also
Chap. XII.
The following table shows a convenient method of rating a watcli:
Record of I>oxnixEs Second-settixo CICT WAicir Xo. 2

Date, Watch Daily Dial

Remarks
1942 error, sec. rate, sec. setting

1 May 10 Set by radio tick

2 May +5 +5 5 Set by radio tick
4 May +8 +4 57 Checked bj^ Longines broadcast
8 May + 18 +4.5 39 Checked by local time sers'ice
9 May Forgot to wind. Ran down
10 Mav 31.5 Checked by Longines broadcast
20 May -h38.5 +3.9 53 Checked by radio

Rate established as gaining 4 sec. per day.

NAVIGATION IN FLIGHT
Figure 233 shows how celestial na^'igati()n data may be arranged on
the pages of the navigator's notebook. This particular flight was made
to test the Link sextant and the Link timer for indicating tlie average
time. More about the dead reckoning would ha\'e l)een entci'cd
details
had time permitted. The air was quite bumpy during the latter i)art of
the flight, but the errors are about what might be exi:)octed under normal
conditions. Particular note should be made of the fact that the arcragc
error was 4.8 miles and that the actual navigation error, allowing for
the i)lus and minus errors, was only 0.8 mile. ''H.O. 214" was used for
solving the lines of i)()siti()n. The {)lot of tliis flight is shown in Fig. 232.
FigiU'e 235shows th(^ solution of 12 lin(^s of position by the "Line of
Position Rook." The first nine of the {)roblenis rei)resent the first
nticMnpt at celestial navigation by the author. The oiiginal observations
were made fiom a Xavy maili)lane on a run fi'om San Diego to Los
CELESTIAL NAVIGATION—PRACTICE 345 1
346 AIH NAVIGATION

NAVIGATION FLIGHT April 12.1942

TIME POSITION COMPASS TRUE DRIfT IAS.
6.C.T. LATA/ LONG. IV HEADING HEADING LEEWAY TRACK Vs D.R. SP.

/J5J + 36''59' 76''29' TOOK T VO SIN 'yLE SH -yTS AT SEA PL WE BA S£

1426^^ 38° 57' 76^20' 180 120 STA nEDR IN
1511'° 37"16' 76''20' 84 REVERSED lOURSt
1630 3d''59' 7e°20' COM RLE TED RUN

T E s N
LINK AND .ANE C ^BSERV ID CHI -QK PC, >ITI0N6
SEXL WT Ot SERVA IONS ?K P.V. H. WEt MS I

20 ISERVA r/ONS -QR EAt^ :ii GRO UP TAK EN IN FLIGHT

)

USEt LINK AVER/ GING SEX TAN 'AND L INK se KTANT TIMER
1

R ^ S U LTS
NO. OF M7HC^ RIO LIS
posmoh ERROR CORR. APPLIED

J -h2.5 I- 1.0

4 -1.5 -3.0
5 -9.5 -8.0
6 -I-5.5 + 7.0
A\ ERA6E ERROR 4.8 4.8
Mi -AN ER ROR -0.8 -0.8

SUN L / NE S
1 2 3 4 5 6
G.C.T. 13 -S3- 29 13-56-16 14-33-35 14-50-05 15-23-20 15-47-34
G.H.A 27 11 27 17 37 17 42 n 49 41 S4 47
CORR. 52 1 34 54 1 SO 1 64
G.H.A 28 09 w 28 51 38 II 42 18 50 37 56 41

A(g) 76 09 w 76 5/ 76 II 76 18 76 37 76 41

L.H.A. 48E 48 38 34 26 20
DEC. 8 J5a^ 8 3JN 8 36 6 36 8 36 8 37
LA7(^ 39 N 39 38 38 38

tij 37 23.8 44 50.5 41 29.2 52 19.4 55 25.3

ad 68 3.4 73 +4.4 75 +4.5 62 +4.9 66 +6.1

He 37 27.2 31 27.2 44 55 41 33.7 52 24.3 55 31.4

Ho 37 14.0 31 49.0 44 29 47 25.0 52 49.0 55 49.0

A 13.2 A 21.8 T 26a 8.1A 24.lT I1.6T

z N 112 E 112 121 125 135 143

ERROR -hO.'S -5.5 hl.O -3.0 -8.0 + 7.0
< ST/^T/C
.
IN6 7
.^

23:^. Navi«:iti()ti flight to test tbc Link sextant and Link timer for indicating average
time.
 CELESTIAL NAVIGATION—PRACTICE 347

Angeles on Nov. 28, 1927. The work has been brought up-to-date by
making the necessary alterations. Three additional problems are
included in order to show the solution with 0° and westerly local hour
angle.
Given: The data shown in Fig. 235, for GCT, Ho, and the assumed
position.
Required: Work and plot the lines of position using the ''Air Almanac."
Solutions: See Fig. 235 for computations and Fig. 234 for the plot.
Figure 236 shows the solution of two problems by means of the
''Star Altitude Curves." Note that in the first problem the observer's
approximate position is not known. In this case, the information that
Ardurus is rising is sufficient information to determine a
fix. In the
second problem the approximate longitude is given but the fact that
Procyon is setting is not stated. The two problems are stated and solved
as follows:
On Jan. 1, GCT simultaneous altitudes taken with
1940, at 5 20"55^
adjusted bubble sextants were: Arcturus, 47°13', rising; Polaris, 50°38'.
Required: A fix.

Solution:

Arcturus 47°10' (47°13' less correction for date, 5 X 0.6)

Polaris 50°40' (50°38' plus correction for date, 5 X 0.3)
GHA T 179°58' From "Air Almanac" for 5''20"55'
LH A T 176°53^ From Fig. 236
Long 3°05'W.
Lat 51°30'N. Fix.

On Feb. 5, 1940 (approximate Long. 24°E.), the navigator of a

plane on track 60°, speed 240 knots, observes with an adjusted bubble
sextant as follows:

0''55"22' GT, Procyon, 24°23'

l'00™23' GT, Polaris, 50°04'

Required: A fix at 1^00°'23'.

Correction for date for each star is +2' (5 X 0.3), giving corrected
altitudes: Procyon 24°25'; Polaris 50°06'.
Referring to Fig. 236, the plotted altitude of Procyon for 55°'22^ is

shown at A, which point is moved for time

horizontally to the right 5'''

between observations to point B. Point B is then moved on track 60°,

20 miles, to allow for run between observations, to point C. The Procyon
curve through C crossed with Polaris curve determines point D, whicli
projected vertically to bottom scale gwes LHA T = 173°07'; and,
horizontally to the right scale, gives latitude of 50°55'N.
 ;i48 AIH NAVIGATION

3pn|(|^-l-pilAj
^ i^ ?L- 5_ ° o „

PLOT OF SUN LINES Z8 NOV. 1940

Ik^ i
 CELESTIAL NA VIGA T I ON—PR A CTICE 349

SUN LINES 28 NOV. 1940 |

1 2 3 4 5 6
GOT 18h24"^32S 18 34 30 18 42 02 18 53 14 19 01 14 19 07 26
GHA 97" 58' 100 28 102 58 105 28 107 58 107 58
CORR I 08 1 08 31 49 19 1 52
GHA 99° 06' 101 36 103 29 106 17 108 17 109 50
LONG (A) 1)7 06 117 36 117 29 117 17 117 17 117 50
LHA 18 E 16E 14 E HE 9E 8E
LAT(A) 33 N 33 N 33 N 33 N 33 N 33 N

DEC 21 23S 21 23S 21 235 21 23S 21 23S 21 23S

K 34 20 N 34 03 N 33 48 N 33 29 N 33 20 N 33 I5N
K~DEC 55 43 55 26 55 11 54 52 54 43 54 38

A 1510 1193 913 563 577 298

+B 24927- 24614 24340 23997 23835 23747
LOG Hr 26437 25807 25253 24560 24213 24045
He 32°58' ^33 30 34 00 34 37 34 56 35 05
Ho 33 12 33 39 34 03 34 31 34 22 34 40
a I4T 9T 3T 6A 34A 25A
z S20*'E S18E S 16E S 13 E S lOE S 9 E

7 8 9 10 11 12
GCT 19h I5"^42S 19 22 22 19 30 14 19 39 00 19 48 00 19 58 00
GHA 110° 28' 112 58 115 28 115 28 117 58 120 28
CORR 1 26 36 04 2 15 2 GO 2 00
GHA 111° 54' 113 34 115 32 117 43 119 58 122 28
LONG(A) 117 54 117 34 117 32 117 43 117 58 118 28
LHA 6E 4E 2E 2W 4W
LAT(A) 33 N 33 N 33 N 34 N 34 N 34 N

DEC 21 23 S 21 23 S 21 23 S 21 23 S 21 23 S 21 23 S
K 33 09 N 33 04 N 33 01 N 34 00 N 34 01 N 34 04 N
K~DEC 54 32 54 27 54 24 55 23 55 24 55 27

A 168 74 19 18 73
+B 23640 23552 23499 24577 24632
LOG He 23808 23626 23518 24595 24705
He 35 19 35 29 35 35 34 37 34 35 34 29
Ho 34 38 34 58 35 05 34 55 35 46 34 46
a 4IA 31A 30A I8T 11T 17 T
z S7°E S 5 E S 2 E S S 2 W S 5 W

Fig. 235. — Solution of 12 lines of position in flight by "Line of Position Book.

350 Af/i NAVICATION

GHA T for l''{)(r23" '

1
49°()9'

I.HA T from i)()iiit 7), Fijr. 2'M\ 173°07'

Long 23°58'E.
Fix:Lat., 5()°55'X.
Lonjr., 2;r5<S'W.

\\v shall now gi\'c \\\v solution of two lines of ])osition to dctcrniinc
ihc position of jin ohserx'cr in flight. Tliis necessitates 'Miandlin^ lines"

ARCTURUS /// POLARIS PROCYON

a'
llnir 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 12^
12^t

170° 171° 172° 173° 174° 175° 176° 177° 178° 179 180^
Page 518

V\(i. 230. — Solution of two problems by means of "Star Altitude Curves." (Kxtraet from
Band 5()°-60° N.)

])y advancing or retarding to allow for the i-un between observations as

previousl.y described. In the two following problems, the rim between
observations is so short that definite fixes as opposed to "running fixes"
are obtained. Also, the altitude cori'ections are shown in detail where in
practice this is ordinarily done mentalh\
Problem: At about GOT 2204, Mar. 3, 1941, the navigator of a plane
whose D.R. position was Lat. 39°45'N., Long. 30°00'W., took sights as
follows

Star CiCT Hs

22''03"':)2"' 4(r02'
Polaris
(apclhi 22''04"'37^ 71 28'

The plane was making good a track of ()()()° true and a GS (ground
speed) of 240 knots. Find the ])lane's position (fix) at the time of the
C'apella sight.
For ])l()tting this problem, construct a chart on a universal i)lotting
chart for Lat. 39°N. to 41 °X. on the left of the centei- meridian. Number
the center meridian 30°W. and the left-hand meridian 31 °W. See
Fig. 237.
 CELESTIAL NAVIGATION—PRACTICE 351

Solution:

GCT 2200 GHA T 131°17' H^ 40°02'

Int. for 3"52' 58^ Corr. (-) J_

GCT 22'03"'52^ GHA T. 132°15' H„ 40°0r

D.R. Long 30 OOW . LHA corr. (-) 14
LHA T 102°15' Lat 39°47'N.
Capella, Mar. 3, 1941:
GCT 2200 GHA T 131°17'
Int. for4"3r 1 09
GCT 22''04"3r GHA T 132°26'
SHACapella 281 55
GHACapella 414°2r
Long. (A) 30 21W .

LHA Capella 384° or

t 24°W.
L {A) 40°N.
K 42°34.0'N. H. . . . . 7r28'
d 45 56.0N . Corr (AAA tables)

K^d 3°22'.0 H,, . . . . 7r28'

A 2218
B 75
logi^, 2293
He 71°32^8
Ho 71 28
a 4'.8A.
z ::. 63°w.
Zn 297°

Plotting: First plot the Polaris latitude line as a dashed line. Then
advance it along the track 000° {T) for the distance run between the times
of the Polaris and Capella sights: 45' = 3 miles. Plot the Capella sight
from the AP along the azimuth 48'.^ and draw the LP as a solid line.
Now enter tables either in pamphlet or on page 6, LPB, and find the
Coriolis correction. The table is entered opposite Lat. 40° and since the
GS for 240 knots is not given, interpolate between columns, tabulating
200 and 250 knots GS to find the correction 4.0 nautical miles for 240
knots. The intersection of the advanced Polaris line and the Capella
LP gives the uncorrected fix. To obtain the corrected fix, we apply the
Coriolis correction, 4 miles, to the right, perpendicular to the track.
The corrected fix is Lat. 39°50'N., Long. 30°15'W. See the accompany-
ing diagram for plotting.
352 AIR NAVIGATION

Problem: At about OCT 1720, Mar. 21, 1941, the navigator of a plane
whose D.H. i)ositi()u was Lat. 40°35'N., Long. 24°30'E., took sights as
follows:

Star 1
(iCrr I
Hs
Polaris |
\7^25'"0(f \
40°44'
Rogulus 17''2r,"'12" MY UV

The plane was making good a track of 045° true and a (iS of 180 knots.
Find tlie plane's position (fix) at the time of the Regulus sight.
For plotting this problem, use the right-hand part of the chart
constructed for the preceding j^roblem for Lat. 39°X. to 41 °X. For this
problem, call the center meridian 24°E. and the right-hand meridian
25°E. See Fig. 237.

Solution:

Polaris, Mar. 21, 1941:

GCT 1720 GHA T 78°50' Hs 40°44'
Int. for 5" 1 15 Corr. (-) 1

GCT 1725 GHA T 80°05' H„ 40°43'

D.R. Long 24 30E . LHA T corr. (-) 12
LHA T T04°35' Lat 40°3l'N.

Regulus, Mar. 21, 1941:

GCT 1720 GHA T 78°50' Hs 40°46'
Int. for 6"42^ 1 41 Corr. (-) 1

GCT 17'2rr42' GHA T. 80°31' H„ 40°45'

SHA Regulus 208 41
LHA Regulus 289° 12'
Long. (A) 24 48E' .

LHA* 314 00
t 46°E.
L (A) 41°N.
K 51°22'.3N.
d 12 15 .ON .

K ^d 39°07'.3
.4 7583
B 11025
lo^ //,. T87)08
Hr 40°39'.3
//.. 40°4^0
a ^ ^7T.
Z S ()7°.5 E.
Zn 112°.5
 ^
CELESTIAL NAVIGATION—PRACTICE 353

^pn+!40^-pih
354 AIR NAVIGATION

Plotting: First plot tlic Polaiis J.P as a diislied lino. Now advance
this line alon^- tho course 45° (7') for the distance run between the time
of Polaris and Rcj2;uliis sights: l"'42'' at 3 miles a minute = 5.1 miles and
plot as a solid lin(\ Plot the Regulus LP. Its intersection with the
advanced Polaris LP gives the uncorrected fix.

Now enter the table to find the Coriolis correction. This will be
found to be 3 miles. This is laid off from the uncorrected fix to the right,
perpendicular to the track, and gives the corrected fix as Lat. 40°32'.5N.,
Long. 24°45'.5E.

COMMENTS ON OUTSTANDING NAVIGATION FLIGHTS

First Atlantic Crossing, N.C.dy 1919. — A total distance of 4,513 miles
was flown, but the navigation was made simple by having station shii)s
every 50 miles across the Atlantic. Captain Read related one unusual
incident in connection with navigation. The N.C.4 took off from the
Azores in rough water. It w^as noted that the first station ship 50 miles
to the east was left well to the north; the second ship at 100 miles was not
sighted. Shortly after this it wa^ noted that on taking off the compass
had bounced out of its gimbals, and the forward lubber line had moved
about 30° to the left. The plane was headed for Africa! The compass
was reset, and at the time the third ship (150 miles east) was due abeam,
the N.C.4 turned 90° to the left, and soon sighted the station ship dead
ahead; when over it, she reset her course for Lisbon.
Hawker and Grieve's Attempted Non-stop Atlantic Crossing, 1919. —
Shortly after the N.C.4 flight, Hawker and Grieve attempted a non-stop
Atlantic crossing in a Sopwith two-seater plane. Speaking of navigation
on this plucky attempt. Grieve states,

I preferred to navigate chiefly by celestial observations, and my position by

the stars when picked up was used a cloud horizon instead
practically correct. I
of the sea horizon, as the sea was hardly visible at any part of the time we were in
the air. For the first four hours after leaving we were passing over fog banks,
and the clouds below were like the sea, giving a perfect horizon. I had only to
judge our height above them and take the sun, as on a sea horizon, and about
seven o'clock Greenwich mean time I saw the sea for a few seconds through a hole
in the fog and cloud bank. I obtained the drift of the machine by noting the

breaking waves through the drift indicator, and we were then at 4.000 feet and
climbing. The drift was 10° to the right of our course, which I had already
allowed for on starting, owing to the northeast wind then blowing from 8t. John's.

Alcock-Brown Non-stop Atlantic Crossing, 1919. Alcock and

First —
Hrown in a \'ickers-Mmv made the first non-stop Atlantic crossing in
1019. The}^ flew non-stop 1,890 miles from Xewfoundland to Ireland
in 15 hr. 57 min., at 117 m.p.h. They followed the approximate great-
circle course.
 CELESTIAL NAVIGATION—PRACTICE 355

Coutinho South Atlantic Crossing, 1922. —Admiral Coutinho, of

the Portuguese Navy, navigated a plane on the first non-stop Soutli
Atlantic crossing in 1922. He had good weather, and used the sea horizon
for sextant observations and specially prepared tables for reducing the
observations to position. He claims to have known his exact position
within 4 or 5 miles continuously on the and picked up St. Paul's
flight,

Rock, a mere speck in the sea. This is an excellent example of efficient

navigation.
Dole Race, 1927. —Several planes in 1927 competed in a race from
San Francisco to Honolulu. Lieutenant Davis, navigator of the winning
plane, Woolaroc, used all four methods of navigation effectively, especially
radio and celestial navigation, and flew direct to his destination. Per-
haps more lessons may be gained from a study of the methods used by
Schluter, the navigator of the plane winning second place. He was a
merchant-marine navigator with little air experience before the flight.
He used a marine sextant and the old time-sight method of fixing his
longitude. After flying through the night he took a careful observation
with the sun bearing 90°, and from it computed his longitude. As the
time-sight method could not be used to determine latitude, he had
to depend on getting his latitude by a meridian altitude of the sun.
Unfortunately, the plane reached the longitude of Honolulu before the sun
did. Schluter told his pilot to '^circle till noon," which he did for more
than half an hour. He then took a careful observation, told the pilot
to head south, and reached Honolulu with 20 min. of gasoline left We !

must give Schluter credit for sticking to his guns. His feat is a classic
example of saving the plane by accurate, if antiquated, methods of
navigation. Actually, a plotted line of position about 11 a.m. would
have led him direct to Honolulu.
—
Lindbergh New York to Paris Flight, 1927. On this flight Lindbergh
used only pilotage and dead reckoning, but he did it skillfully. He
had previously spent a week carefully computing his great-circle course
and other data, and during the flight followed his course carefully.
At about mid-distance he ran into a storm, and ice started to form on his
plane. He turned back, cleared the storm, flew east past it, then north
to get on his course again. Finally he sighted Ireland within a few miles
of the intended point. After this flight Lindbergh did not make any
long overseas flights without means (radio and celestial navigation) of
definitely fixing his position. He tells of flying for hours above fog over
the Newfoundland Banks, and how 'Hhe fact that I might have been
blown in any direction without knowing it preyed on n\v mind." He
came down through a hole in the clouds till he could see the surface
of the water, and got some estimate of the wind. In doing this he left
a good tail wind and lost about an hour.
350 AIR NAVIGATION

Post-Gatty Round-the-world Flight, 193l.-()ii tliis flight Gatty

used pilotage, dead reckoning, and celestial navigation. He carried a
radio set but made no practical use of it. Except for the fact that full
use was not made of radio, the navigation on this flight might be con-
sidered the best to that date. He measured drift and ground speed on his
own instrument designed for the flight. He constructed his own na\'iga-
(ion charts. He used celestial navigation effectively^ and claims to
have been within 25 miles of his scheduled course at all times. Of
particular interestis his feat of making a landfall at Blagoveschensk,

Russia, after dark by means of the ''Star Altitude Curves." His best
second-sotting watch was out only 4 sec. in 10 days.
Lindbergh 1933 South Atlantic Flight— In 1933, with Mrs. Lindbergh
as copilot and navigator, Lindijergh flew 3,000 miles across the south
Atlantic Ocean. flight is the best example to date of efficient
This
na\'igation. There was perfect teamwork between Colonel and ]\Irs.
Lindbergh. Normally he piloted while she operated the radio, observed
the ground speed and drift on the Gatty instrument, and kept the log.
Lindl)ergh accomplished the celestial navigation while Mrs. Lindbergh
piloted the plane. This is clearly the best combination, since each person
may have short periods of relaxation. ]\lis. Lindbergh was in
at times
communication with South America within an hour after the take-oft'
from Dakar, near Bathurst, Africa. She obtained three wireless bearings
on the S.S. Westfalen, and directed the course to her. Later Lindbergh
set a new course to the island of Fernando Xoronha, and from there to
Natal, Brazil. In other woids, they showed the ability to make any
desired contacts at sea or on islands by celestial navigation, radio, dead
—
reckoning, and air pilotage thus making full use of all methods for the
safe navigation of aircraft.
Navigation on Scheduled Transoceanic Planes. The navigation of —
scheduled transoceanic aircraft is accom{)lished with the assurance and
accuracy approaching that of ocean liners. The large clijiper i^lanes
have roomy and fully equipped navigation compartments and full use
is made of all available methods for safe navigation. Many of the skilled
navigators were formerly licensed marine navigators and usually are
permitted to use their own preferred methods and equipment.
With the twofold purpose of giving a valuable technical dcscri})tion
of the navigation as accomplished on a clipper plane, and also as a tribute
to the navigator of the Earhart plane, the following confidential letter
to the author is pul^lished with the knowledge of Pan American Airways:

I hope you will pardon this long delay in acknowledging your congratulatory
and Preparatory work prior to the flight
greatly apiircciuted letter of April 1st.
to Hawaii, and subsequent arrangement and study of data gathered during the
 CELESTIAL NAVIGATION—PRACTICE 357

flight, has so occupied my time that I am afraid all my friends consider me an

extremely poor correspondent.
For reasons which I am certain you will understand, we are not permitted
to discuss the particulars of the flight for dissemination among the general public.
However, there can be no objection to an informal discussion that will not pass
beyond the second party. Having long considered you the foremost authority
on the subject of aerial navigation, and appreciating the interest you naturally
would have in the Hawaiian flight of the ''Pan American Clipper," I am exercis-
ing that privilege.
Due to the spacious chart room and large chart table aboard the Clipper, the
navigation equipment need not be so severely limited as in smaller planes, hence
the choice of equipment may be governed entirely by the individual's personal
preference or the Company's desires in the matter. To date the Company has
not decided upon any standard equipment, and therefore I chose the equipment
used on the subject flight. My choice was not necessarily based upon a convic-
tion that the particular type of any instrument chosen was superior to any other
type. As a matter of fact, several factors influenced the selection. Preeminent
among them was the fact that most of the instruments had been used extensively
by the writer and had proven satisfactory; in some instances a choice was gov-
—
erned entirely by the nature of the work involved as for instance, parallel
rulers versus protractors —
and I suspect that plain prejudice, which actuates
so many of us, carried some weight.
A set of marine charts, general, coastwise, and harbor, was carried; also
aviation strip charts of the California coast. The actual chart work was carried
out on VP-3 and 4 Aircraft Plotting Sheets. By working along the track from
Alameda to the left-hand border of the chart, then transferring that termination
of the track back to the right-hand border in the same latitude, and continuing
in this manner, two sheets sufficed for the entire crossing.
Timepieces carried were a Longines Civil Time chronometer, and a Longines
second-setting watch. The latter was set to correct G.C.T. at all times by check-
ing with the chronometer. This watch was of the arm type, but the strap was
removed, and the watch clips on the octant were adjusted to accommodate the
beckets on each side of the watch, I prefer such arrangement to carrying the
watch on the arm.
—
Two sextants were carried a Pioneer bubble octant, and a mariner's sextant.
The former was used for all sights; the latter carried as a ''preventer."
Originally a Pioneer Universal protractor was installed on the chart table but
experience convinced me that parallel rulers, where room permits their use, are
more satisfactory for rapid plotting of long-range D.F. bearings because of their
greater scope. Protractors, such as yours, are more convenient for plotting
short bearings and lines of position. However, a minimum of instruments
lessens confusion, so I decided upon the rulers only. Those carried were of the
—
Captain Fields Improved type graduated in degrees and consequently —
the greatest objection to their use in aircraft; namely, ci-eeping, wlien referring
to compass roses, was removed. «

I also carried a Dalton Mark Vll Airci'aft Navigational Computer, which T

find a great convenience.
358 AIR NAVIGATION

TIk; actual navigation was coiiiparablc with such as would he j)racti('(Hl

afloat — fixes were (letennined entirely l)y stellar ()l)servations at ni^ht. These
fixes were more reliable than would he ])ossil)le by erossinf^ a line of position with
a D.F. })eaiinjj;, due to the amount of error whieh would 1)6 introduced by
e\-en a small anfrular error in the lonfi^-range D.F. bearings. By day, having
only the sinj^le heavenly body determination of lines of position, we did
for
eross the bearings. However, during daylight hours we were nearer the radio
stations and consequently the error introduced was generally considerably
reduced.
The accuracy of fixes was very gratifying. By that, an accuracy of approxi-
mately ten miles is implied. My experience is that such a degree of accuracy is
about the average one may expect in aerial navigation. A comparison of our
expected time of arrival over Kaneohe Bay, Oahu, w^here our D.F. station is
located, and the time of our actual landfall afTords a good indication of the reliabil-
ity of our sights. At 0457 L.C.T., while still above a solid cumulus bank, our
fix by • Polaris and • Deneb w^as latitude 24°04'X., longitude 15;ri4'W. That
was our last observation, and on the strength of it w^e advised our station we
would pass over at 0700. We w^ere then cruising at reduced speed so as to
arrive at Pearl Harbor not earlier than 0800. Going below the clouds shortly
after establishing the fix, w^e encountered light mist and scattered showers. The
visibility varied between tw^o to tw'elve miles, which prevented us sighting
Molakai, as w^e w^ould have done with normal visibility. At 0653 we sighted
Makapuu Point slightly on our port bow, with Kaneohe Bay directly ahead. At
0700 w'e were directly ofT the radio station. This accuracy was due to smooth
flying conditions at the time of sight, and of course it could not be cited as an
example of accuracy consistently possible.
The greatest difficulty is, of course, the determination of drift angle. We
carried smoke bombs and water flares for this purpose. The latter are of an
improved pattern and are unusually effective when the surface of the water
is visible. —
However, during both flights westbound and eastbound we —
were above solid cumulus banks approximately 90 per cent of the time. The
smoke bombs are not entirely satisfactory. Although a special pattern has
l^een developed, we find that the smoke blends too closely witli tlie water color
to afford a good reference mark.
Consequently, the difference between "no wind" positions and fixes estab-
lished l)y observations were utilized entirely for determination of drift angle, and,
of course, wind direction and velocity for laying new courses. This method
joroved to have been quite accurate, as indicated by the very nearly direct track
we made for the entire westbound flight. However, it would not be so desirable
in a region where sudden wind shifts could be expected. Then reliance would
necessarily have to be placed on D.F. bearings despite their lack of extreme
accuracy.
Tn addition to the actual navigation, I maintained a very detailed log during
l)oth flights. In addition to recording courses, variation, deviation, track made
good, indicated and true air speeds, ground speed, etc., a complete meteorological
i-ecord was kei)t. As you may imagine, each hour represented sixty very busy
minutes.
 CELESTIAL NAVIGATION—PRACTICE 359

I consider the development of the Greenwich hour-angle idea the gr(3atest

contribution to the science of navigation since Sumner, and have used it exclu-
sively since first published in the Air Almanac. The second-setting watch runs
it a close second as a time saver and an aid tending to minimize errors. Naviga-
tors owe you a debt of gratitude for those contributions to the science.
I suppose you wonder what method I use for computation of observations.

I use Dreisonstok exclusively. Probably another prejudice, but I have used it

since it first became available in 1927 or 1928, and still prefer it.
I would appreciate further communication with you upon any navigational

matters which might be of mutual interest.

Thanking you very much for your letter, which really was greatly appreci-
ated despite my tardiness in replying, I am
Very truly yours,
Frederick J. Noonan
Special Training Devices. — Obviously, navigation in flight is the best
training for the beginner. However, this training is expensive and slow,
owing to delays caused by weather, material, etc. A great deal may be
accomplished by '' synthetic training" where special training devices
such as the '^Navitrainer," the Link Celestial Navigation Trainer, and
improvised devices that simulate navigation as accomplished in flight.
The worth of an instructor hinges largely on his ability to give efficient
training in the shortest time and with a minimum time in training flights.
—
Experiences in the Second World War. Personal reports from former
pupils of the author giving their experiences and describing the methods
being used have substantiated the general procedure followed in this book.
Owing to the rapid expansion of long-range transocean flying over both
the Atlantic and the Pacific, navigation becomes increasingly important.
It now appears that beginners are first classified to select the best navi-
gators before the majority start pilot training. In any case, the most
critical need in aviation today is for efficient long-distance navigators.
All four general methods of navigation are in use, although radio is
restricted in war zones. On long overwater flights the principal depend-
ence is placed on celestial navigation, and numerous reports indicate that
excellent results are being obtained.
Having progressed through the various steps of fixing position b}-
celestial navigation, we book pocket
refer the student to the folder in the
which gives the actual work accomplished by Captain Lewis A. Yancey,
navigator of the Archbold Expedition plane Guha on its flight across the
Pacific Ocean. The author believes this is the most complete a\'ailable
example of skilled navigation. It will be noted that the Guha made all
three landfalls with the destination '^ sighted dead ahead"; that she
passed around a storm; and, having arrived off Hollandia ahead of
schedule, she '^lay off and on until daylight." It is suggested that the
student reconstruct the Guha navigation in detail, using Yancey's
observed data.
p
 APPENDIX A
AVIATOR'S DEAD-RECKONING TABLES

I. Ground-speed and drift table (sample only).

II. Speed-time-distance table.
III. Course-correction table.
IV. Ratio of ground speed to air speed.
V. Conversion angle for converting great-circle courses to rhumb-line courses and
vice versa (see Chap. VI).
VI. Course errors for distances off the required course.
VII. Formulas for radius-of-action problems (Chap. VIII).
Vltl. Meridional parts and length of 1° of longitude and latitude.
IX. Dead-reckoning formulas for various sailings.

When the first book was published in 1931, there were

edition of this
no suitable aircraft computers. To
simplify dead reckoning, the author
consulted aviators on the U.S.S. Lexington, U.S.S. Saratoga, etc., and
prepared 23 pages of aviators' tables. With the development of the
Dalton Mark VII and other dead-reckoning computers, the tables so
laboriously prepared have decreased in value. Since these tables are in
type, some of them are included here to provide a check on the accuracy
of the various computers and to help the student get a thorough under-
standing of the problems for which the tables were designed.
—
Table I. This table of ground speed and drift for various winds
covered speeds from 80 to 200 m.p.h. A sample only is given here since
any of several computers give the same results with less effort.
—
Table 11. This was one of the first tables designed especially for the
aviator and originally appeared in the ^'Line of Position Book," 1927.
—
Tables III, IV, and VI. These are condensed tables designed to
solve special problems as listed.
Table V. — This table general use at present, but should be
is in
replaced by the graphical method described Chap. V. in
Table VII. — These formulas are general See Chap. VIII.
in use.
Tables VIII and IX. — These tables are not to be used by practical
navigators, but are included because of their condensed form and for the
rare occasions when they might be of interest.

361
362 AIR NAVIGATION

Table 1. Guound-si'kkd and 1)iui r Table

lO-mile wind IS-mile wind 20-mile wind 25-mile wind 30-mile wind 40-mile wind

Wind Wind
Track Track Track Track Trick Track
Wind Wind Wind Wind Wind Wind angle
speed, speed, I
speed. speed, speed, spec-*!,

m.p.h, I
m.p.h. 1
m.p.h. m.p.b. m.p.h,

Air Speed 180 Miles per [lour

0° 0° 170 0° 1C5 0° 100 0° 155 0° 0" 0°

l.')0 140
10° 1° 170 1° Kio 1° 160 1° 2° 2'
155 150 140 10°
20° 1° 170 2° 166 2° 161 3° 156 3° 151 4° 20°
142
30° 2° 171 2° 167 3° 163 4° 158 5° 153 6° 30°
144
40° 2° 172 3° 168 4° 164 5° 160 6° 156 8° 40°
147

50° 2° 173 4° 170 5° 167 6° 163 7° 159 10° 50°

152
60° 3° 175 4° 172 6° 169 7° 166 8° 163 11° 60°
156
70° 3° 176 5° 174 6° 172 8° 170 9° 167 12° 70°
162
80° 3° 178 5° 177 6° 176 8° 174 9° 172 13° 168 80°
90° 3° 180 5° 180 6° 179 8° 178 9° 177 13° 175 90=

100° 3° 1S2 5° 1S2 6° 183 8° 183 9° 182 13° 182 100°

110° 3°
3°
1S4 5°
4°
185 6°
6°
186 8°
7°
185 9°
8°
m 12° 190 110°
120° 185 187 189 191 193 11° 197 120°
130° 2° 186 4° 189 5° 192 6° 195 7° 198 10° 130°
203
140° 2° 188 3° 191 4° 195 5° 198 6° 202 8° 140°
209

150° 2° 189 2° 193 3° 197 4° 201 5° 205 6° 214 150°

160° 1° 190 2° 194 2° 198 3° 203 3° 208 4° 217 160°
170° 1° 190 1° 195 1° 200 1° 205 2° 209 2° 170°
219
180° 0° 190 0° 195 0° 200 0° 205 0° 210 0° 220 1,80°

Air Sp)eed 190 Miles per Hour

0° 0° 180 0° 175 0° 170 0° 165 0° 160 0° 150 0"

10° 1° 180 1° 175 r 170 1° 165 2° 160 2° 150 lo-
20° 1° 180 2° 176 2° 171 3° 166 3° 162 4° 152 20°
30° 2° 181 2° 177 3° 173 4° 168 4° 164 6° 155 30°
40° 2° 182 3° 178 4° 175 5° 170 6° 166 8° 158 40°

50° 2° 183 3° 180 5° 177 6° 173 7° 170 9° 162 50^

60° 3° 185 4° 182 5° 180 7° 176 8° 173 11° 167 60°
70° 3° 186 4° 184 6° 183 7° 180 9° 178 11° 173 70°
80° 3° 188 4° 187 6° 186 7° 184 9° 182 12° 179 80°
90° 3° 190 5° 190 6° 190 8° 188 9° 188 12° 186 90°

100° 3° 192 4° 192 6° 192 7° 193 9° 193 12° 193 100°

110° 3° 194 4° 194 6° 196 r 197 8° 198 11° 200 110°
120° 3° 196 4° 197 5° 200 r 202 8° 204 11° 207 120°
130° 2° 197 3° 199 5* 202 6° 206 "V 208 9° 213 130°
140° 2° 19S 3° 201 4° 204 5° 209 6° 212 8° 219 140°

150° 2° 199 2° 203 3° 207 4° 212 4° 216 6° 225 150°

160° 1° 200 2° 204 2° 209 3° 214 3° 218 4° 228 160°
170° 1° 200 1° 205 1° 210 1° 215 2° 220 2° 229 170°
1S()° 0° 200 0° 205 0° -10 0° 215 0° 2::0 0° 230 iS0°
 APPENDIX A 363

Table II. —Aviator's Speed-time-distance Table

Speed in miles per hour
Time in
minutes
50 1 60 1 70 1
80 90 1
100 1
110 120 1
130 140 |
150 IGO 170 1 180 190 200

Distance

0.8 1 1.2 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.8 2 2.2 2.3 2.5 2.7 2.8 3 3.2 3.3
1.7 2 2.3 2.7 3.0 3.3 3.7 4 4.3 4.7 5.0 5.3 5.7 6 6.3 6.7
2.5 3 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6 6,5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9 9.5 10.0
3.3 4 4.7 5.3 6.0 6.7 7.3 8 8.7 9.3 10.0 10.7 11.3 12 12.7 13.3
4.2 5 5.8 6.7 7.5 8.3 9.2 10 10.8 11.7 12.5 13.3 14.2 15 15.8 16.7
5.0 6 7.0 8.0 9.0 0.0 11.0 12 13.0 14.0 15.0 16.0 17.0 18 19,0 20.0
5.8 7 8.2 9.3 10.5 1.7 12.8 14| 15.2 16.3 17.5 18.7 19.8 21 22.2 23.3
1.7 8 9.3 10.7 12.0 3.3 14.7 16 17.3 18.7 20.0 21.3 22.7 24 25.3 26.7
7.5 9 10.5 12.0 13.5 5.0 16.5 18 19.5 21.0 22.5 24.0 25.5 27 28,5 30.0
8.3 10 11.7 13.3 15.0 6.7 18.3 20 21.7 23.3 25.0 26.7 28.3 30 31.7 33.3
9 11 13 15 17 24 26 28 31 33 37
10 12 14 16 18 26 28 30 34 36 40
11 13 15 17 20 28 30 33 37 39 43
12 14 16 19 21 30 33 35 40 42 47
13 15 18 20 23 33 35 38 43 45 50
13 16 19 21 24 35 37 40 45 48 53
14 17 20 23 26 37 40 43 48 51 57
15 18 21 24 27 39 42 45 51 54 60
16 19 22 25 29 41 44 48 54 57 63
17 20 23 27 30 43 47 50 67 60 67
18 21 25 28 32 46 49 53 60 63 70
18 22 26 29 33 48 51 55 62 66 73
19 23 27 31 35 50 54 58 65 69 77
20 24 28 32 36 52 56 60 68 72 80
21 25 29 33 38 54 58 63 71 75 83
22 26 30 35 39 56 61 65 74 78 87
23 27 32 36 41 59 63 68 77 81 90
23 28 33 37 42 61 65 70 80 84 93
24 29 34 39 44 63 68 73 82 87 97
25 30 35 40 45 65 70 75 85 90 100
26 31 36 41 47 67 72 78 88 93 103
27 32 37 43 48 69 75 80 91 96 107
28 33 39 44 50 72 77 83 94 99 110
28 34 40 45 51 74 79 85 96 102 113
29 35 41 47 53 76 82 88 99 105 117
30 36 42 48 54 78 84 90 102 108 120
31 37 43 49 56 80 86 93 105 111 123
32 38 44 51 57 82 89 95 108 114 127
33 39 46 52 59 85 91 98 110 117 130
33 40 47 53 60 87 93 100 113 120 133
34 41 48 55 62 89 96 103 116 123 137
35 42 49 56 63 91 98 105 119 126 140
36 43 50 57 65 93 100 108 122 129 143
37 44 51 59 66 95 103 110 125 132 147
38 45 53 60 68 98 105 113 128 135 150
38 46 54 61 69 100 107 115 130 138 153
39 47 55 63 71 102 110 118 133 141 157
40 48 56 64 72 104 112 120 136 144 160
41 49 57 65 74 106 114 123 139 147 163
42 50 58 67 75 108 117 125 142 150 167
43 51 60 68 77 111 119 128 145 153 170
43 52 61 69 78 113 121 130 147 156 173
44 53 62 71 80 115 124 133 150 159 177
45 54 63 72 81 117 126 135 153 162 ISO
46 55 64 73 83 119 128 138 156 165 183
47 56 65 75 84 121 131 140 159 168 187
48 57 67 76 86 123 133 143 162 171 199
48 58 68 77 87 126 135 145 164 174 193
49 59 69 79 89 128 138 148 167 177 197
50 60 70 80 90 130 140 150 170 180 200
Time in
hours
100 120 140 160 180 200 260 280 320 340 360 3801 400
150;i80 210 240 270 300 390 420 480 510 540 570 600 I

200 240 280 320 360 400 520 560 640 680 720 760 800
250 300 350 400 450 500 650 700 800 850 9001 950 1,000
300 360 420 480 540 600 780 840 960 1,020 l,080il,i;0 l,2fO
3.')0|420 490 560 630 700 910 9801 1,050 1,120 1,190 l,260!l,330 1,400
4001480 560 640 720 800 1,040 1,12011,200 1,280 1,360 l,-440i 1,5-20, 1,600
450 540
1 630 720 810 900 1,170 1,26011,350 1,4401.530 1, 620' l,710l 1,800
.364 Alii AM \ /a AT I ON

Course-correction Table. '1

liis tal)le tabulates the drift angle for
various wind forces and directions. Given the direction and force of the
wind, the tal)le gives tlie amount to be allowed to make good a certain
course. In other words, if the force and direction of tlie wind aic known
or if they can be fairl}- closely estimated, this little tahle will gi\(; the
same data as are obtained b}^ a drift obsei-vation.

TaBLI: 111. COURSE-CORRKCTION Tablk

Ratio Inclination of wind to course to be made good

of
WF 10° or 20° or 30° or 40° or 50° or 60° or 70° or 80° or
90**
AS 170° 160° 150° 140° 130° 120° 110° 100°

o o o o o o o

0.05 0.5 1.0 1.4 1.9 2.2 2.5 2.7 2.8 2.9
0.10 1.0 2.0 2.9 3.7 4.4 5.0 5.4 5.7 5.8
0.15 1.5 3.0 4.3 5.5 6.6 7.5 8.1 8.5 8.6
0.20 2.0 3.9 5.8 7.4 8.8 10.0 10.8 11.4 11.6
0.25 2.5 4.9 7.2 9.3 11.1 12.5 13.6 14.3 14.5
0.30 3.0 5.9 8.6 11.1 13.3 15.1 16.4 17.2 17.5
0.35 3.5 6.9 10.1 13.0 15.5 17.6 19.2 20.2 20.5
0.40 4.0 7.9 11.5 14.9 17.8 20.2 22.1 23.2 23.6
0.45 4.5 8.9 13.0 16.8 20.2 22.9 25.0 26.3 26.8
0.50 5.0 9.9 14.5 18.8 22.5 25.7 28.2 29.5 30.0
0.55 5.5 10.9 16.0 21.2 24.9 28.5 31.1 32.8 33.4
0.60 6.0 11.9 17.5 22.7 27.4 31.3 34.3 36.3 36.9
0.65 6.5 12.9 19.0 24.7 29.9 34.3 37.6 39.8 40.6
0.70 7.0 13.9 20.5 26.8 32.4 37.3 41.8 43.9 44.6

orce f wine
W^r. Y.O + ; ^ TI7Z^ lo /-k/-^n ol +/^ I O 1-1 /-I 1 . .l^.x.,- ,. ;,, L fi ..^o
^ speed oi plane
Enter -with ratio in left margin and inclination of wind to course to ])e
made good at the top and pick out the angle to be allowed for the wind to
make good the course.
 APPENDIX A 365

Table IV. Ground Speed in Per Cent of Air Speed

Inclination of wind to course to be made good

Ratio
WF 0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60° 70° 80° 90° 100° 110° 120° 130° 140° 150° 160° 170° 180°

AS 1 1

Percentage

0,06 95 95 95 96 96 97 97 98 99 100 101 102 102 103 104 104 105 105 105
0.10 90 90 92 91 92 93 95 96 98 100 101 103 105 106 107 109 109 110 110
0.15 85 85 86 87 88 90 92 94 96 99 102 105 107 109 111 113 114 115 115
0.20 80 81 82 83 84 86 89 92 95 98 102 105 109 112 115 117 119 120 120
0.25 75 75 76 78 80 82 85 89 93 97 101 106 110 114 118 121 123 124 125
0.30 70 70 72 73 75 78 82 86 90 95 101 106 112 116 121 125 128 129 130
0.35 65 65 66 68 71 74 78 82 88 94 100 106 113 119 124 129 132 134 135
0.40 60 60 62 63 66 70 74 79 85 92 99 106 114 121 127 133 137 139 140
0.45 55 55 56 58 61 65 69 75 82 89 97 106 114 123 130 136 141 144 145
0.50 50 50 52 53 56 60 65 71 78 86 95 105 115 124 133 140 146 149 150
0.55 45 45 46 48 51 55 60 67 75 83 94 104 116 126 136 144 150 154 155
0.60 40 40 42 43 46 50 55 62 70 80 91 103 115 127 138 147 154 159 160
0.65 35 35 36 38 41 45 50 57 66 76 88 101 115 128 141 151 169 164 165
0.70 30 30 32 33 36 40 45 52 60 72 84 99 114 130 143 155 163 168 170

Enter this table as in the table preceding and pick out the correspond-
ing number. This number is the percentage of the air speed that equals
the ground speed. Thus if ratio of wind force to air speed is 0.25 and
the inclination of wind to track is 120°, then the ground speed is 110 per
cent of the air speed.
:u>(3 A Hi NAVICATION

Takijo V. — OciWKiisioN A.\(;li; Foit ( "onvkktinc; (juka r-( iuci.k ("ouusks to

Rhimh-mmo ('ourses and Vice Versa
'onvcrsioM iuikIo = 3"2 DI^o. sin L,„
(

Diticrcncc of l()n{i;il udc

Mid-lnl.
1° 2° 3° 4° 5» 6° 70 8^^ 9° 10" ll** 12° 13° 14°

o , , , , o o

5 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.6
10 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.2
15 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.6 1.7 1.8
20 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.1 2.2 2.4
25 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.1 2.3 2.5 2.7 3.0

30 0.2 0.5 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.5 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.5
35 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.1 1.4 1.7 2.0 2.3 2.6 2.9 3.2 3.4 3.7 4.0
40 0.3 0.6 1.0 1.3 1.6 1.9 2.2 2.6 2.9 3 2 3.5 3.9 4.2 4.5
45 0.4 0.7 1.1 1.4 1.8 2.1 2.5 2.8 3.2 3.5 3.9 4.2 4.6 4.9
50 0.4 0.8 1.1 1.5 1.9 2.3 2.7 3.1 3.4 3.8 4.2 4.6 5.0 5.4

55 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.5 2.9 3.3 3.7 4.1 4.5 4.9 5.3 5.7
60 0.4 0.9 1.3 1.7 2.2 2.6 3.0 3.5 3.9 4.3 4.8 5.2 5.6 6.1
65 0.5 0.9 1.4 1.8 2.3 2.7 3.2 3.6 4.1 4.5 5.0 5.4 5.9 6.3

Difference of longitude
Mid-
lat.
14° 15° 16° 17° 18° 19° 20° 21° 22° 23° 24° 25°

, „

5 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.9 0.9 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.1
10 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2
15 1.8 1.9 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 3.0 3.1 3.2
20 2.4 2.6 2.7 2.9 3.1 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 3.9 4.1 4.3
25 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4.0 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.9 5.1 5.3

30 3.5 3.8 4.0 4.2 4.5 4.8 5.0 5.2 5.5 5.8 6.0 6.2
35 4.0 4.3 4.6 4.9 5.2 5.4 5.7 6.0 6.3 6.6 6.9 7.2
40 4.5 4.8 5.1 5.5 5.8 6.1 6.4 6.7 7.1 7.4 7.7 8.0
45 4.9 5.3 5.7 6.0 6.4 6.7 7.1 7.4 7.8 8.1 8.5 8.8
50 5.4 5.7 6.1 6.5 6.9 7.3 7.7 8.0 8.4 8.8 9.2 9.6

55 5.7 6.1 6.6 7.0 7.4 7.8 8.2 8.6 9.0 9.4 9.8 10.2
60 6.1 6.5 6.9 7.4 7.8 8.2 8.7 9.1 9.5 10.0 10.4 10.8
65 6.3 6.8 7.3 7.7 8.2 8.6 9.1 9.5 10.0 10.4 10.9 11.3

If (ho .lilTf roncc nf loncittidc i> Ihan 2.^)^. it ho divide! by 2, and tho t:>bular entry
rioublcd.
 APPENDIX A 367

Table VL--Course Errors for Distance off Course

Miles off course

Miles
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 15 20 25 30 40 50
flown

Compass correction to parallel track course

o o ^o o o o o o o o o o o o o

10 6 12 17 24 30 37 44 53 64 90
20 3 6 9 12 14 17 20 24 27 30 49 90
30 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 15 17 19 30 42 56 90
40 1 3 4 6 7 9 10 12 13 14 22 30 39 49 90
50 1 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 17 24 30 37 53 90
60 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 14 19 25 30 42 56

70 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 7 7 8 12 17 21 25 35 Te
80 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 6 7 11 14 18 22 30 39
90 1 2 3 3 4 4 5 6 6 10 13 16 19 26 34
100 1 2 2 3 3 4 5 5 6 9 12 14 17 24 30
110 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 8 10 13 16 21 27
120 2 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 7 10 12 14 19 25
130 2 2 3 3 4 4 4 7 9 11 13 18 23
1
140 2 2 2 3 3 4 4 6 8 10 12 17 21
150 2 2 2 3 3 3 4 6 8 10 12 15 19
160 2 2 3 3 3 4 5 7 9 11 14 18
170 2 2 2 3 3 3 5 7 8 10 14 17
180 2 2 2 3 3 3 5 6 8 10 13 16
190 2 2 2 2 3 3 5 6 8 9 12 15
200 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 4 6 7 9 12 14

Example. —After flying 113'^ miles the perpendicular distance to the required track
is 1^ miles. What is the error of the track made good? Entering at 115 miles and
15 miles, we find the required value, namely, 73^°.
.368 AIR NAVIGATION

I'ahm: \'II. — Formulas for H adii's-of-ai iion Pkoblkms

Tlio pr()l)l('in here considered is tliat of deternniiiiif^ how far a j)lane may fly from
its base under difTerent wind conditions (see also pa^es 157, H)()i.
H = distance froni l)as(> at time of turning l)ack, i.e., radius of action.
/i= tim(^ (jf outward flifj;ht.
{,= time of n^turn fli^lit.
T = total time of flight = /, + /..
= rat(> of d(>i)arture ('p;r()und speed; from has*'.
»S'i

= rate of returning Cground speed) to base.

*S'2

Since

(, = !? .,,,,1 (, = -^-

\vv have

Si S-i S1S2
from which
^'^'-^^
R=
But R = tiSu so

'"'-^
u
Si + ^2
TSi
h = +S2
Sx
 APPENDIX A 369

Table VIII. Meridional Parts and Length of 1° of Longitude and Latitude

Meridional Length of 1° of Meridional Length of 1° of

Lat. Lat.
parts parts
L M Long.
L M
Lat. Long. Lat.

60.1 59.7 40 2608 46.1 59.9

60 78
1 60 60.1 59.7 41 2686 45.4 59.9
59 80
2 119 60.0 59.7 42 2766 44.7 59.9
60 81
3 179 60.0 59.7 43 2847 44.0 59.9
60 83
4 239 59.9 59.7 44 2930 43.3 60.0
59 83
5 298 59.8 59.7 45 3013 42.5 60.0
60 86
6 358 59.7 59.7 46 3099 41.8 60.0
60 87
7 418 59.6 59.7 47 3186 41.0 60.0
60 88
8 478 59.5 59.7 48 3274 40.3 60.0
61 90
9 539 59.3 59.7 49 3364 39.5 60.0
60 93
10 599 59.2 59.7 50 3457 38.7 60.0
61 94
11 660 59.0 59.7 51 3551 37.9 60.0
61 96
12 721 58.8 59.7 52 3647 37.1 60.0
61 98
13 782 58.5 59.7 53 3745 36.2 60.1
61 101
14 *843 58.3 59.7 54 3846 35.4 60.1
61 103
15 904 58.0 59.7 55 3949 34.5 60.1
62 106
16 966 57.8 59.7 56 4055 33.7 60.1
63 108
17 1029 57.5 59.7 57 4163 32.8 60.1
62 111
18 1091 57.1 59.7 58 4274 31.9 60.1
63 115
19 1154 56.8 59.7 59 4389 31.0 60.1
63 118
20 1217 56.5 59.7 60 4507 30.1 60.1
64 122
21 1281 56.1 59.7 61 4629 29.2 60.1
64 125
22 1345 55.7 59.7 62 4754 28.3 60.1
65 130
23 1410 55.3 59.8 63 4884 27.3 60.1
65 134
24 1475 54.9 59.8 64 5018 26.4 60.2
65 140
25 1540 54.5 59.8 65 5158 25.5 60.2
66 144
26 1606 54.0 59.8 66 5302 24.5 60.2
67 150
27 1673 53.6 59.8 67 5452 23.5 60.2
67 157
28 1740 53.1 59.8 68 5609 22.6 60.2
68 164
29 1808 52.6 59.8 69 5773 21.6 60.2
69 171
30 1877 52.1 59.8 70 5944 20.6 60.2
69 180
31 1946 51.5 59.8 71 6124 19.6 60.2
70 189
32 2016 51.0 59.8 72 6313 18.6 60.2
71 199
33 2087 50.4 59.8 73 6512 17.6 60.2
71 211
34 2158 49.9 59.9 74 6723 16.6 60.2
73 225
35 2231 49.3 59.9 75 6948 15.6 60.2
73 239
36 2304 48.7 59.9 76 7187 14.6 60.2
75 257
37 2379 48.0 59.9 77 7444 13.6 60.2
75 278
38 2454 47.4 59.9 78 7722 12.5 60.2
76 301
39 2530 46.7 59.9 79 8023 11.5 60.3
78 329
40 2608 46.1 59.9 80 8352 10.5 60.3
370 A Hi NAVIGATION
Tamli; L\. 1 )i:.\i)-i{i:(K()MX(; Form ul.\s' for Various Sailings

(Jivcii To (ind Mid-latitude Sailing Mercator sailing

Both latitudes Departure p = DLo. cos Lm P-- m

and both
Course tan
^ = p =
C
DLo. cos Lm
tan C =
^^-
y -J
m
longitudes
l)istanc(> J)* = Zsec C = I) = I sec C =
p cosec C / tan C cosecCf

Course tan C = tan C =

Both latitudes 1 1
Distance /;* = see C =
^ /;* = ^sec C =
and p cosec C p cosec (

departure Diff. of Long. DLo. = ;; sec Lm DLo. = m tan C =^

One latitude, Diff. of Lat. ,
= /; cos C
/ I = I) cos C
Departure = D sin C
p p = 1) sin C
course, and
Diff. of Long. DLo. = p sec Lm =
distance D sin C sec Lm
DLo. = in tan C =
^
Both latitudes
Departure p = I tan C p = Itan C
Distance D* = / sec C = I) = Isoc C
and p cosec C
Diff. of Long. DLo. = p sec Lm = DLo. = m tan C
course I tan C sec Lm

Both latitudes Course cos C = -^ <<« c =

1^
and Departure p = DsinC p =^ I) sin C
DifT. of Long. DTiO. = p sec Lm = DLo. = „i tan C
distance D sin C sec Lm
One latitude, Diff. of lat. I = p cos C I = p cot C
Distance D = p cosec C D = p cosec C
course, and
DLo. = m tan C =
departure
Diff. of long. DLo. = p sec. Lm
^
One latitude
Course .in r =
i;

and Diff. of lat. = /) cos C

I / = /) COS C
DLo. = p sec Lm
departure
Diff. of long. DLo. = m tan C =
^
If l)()lli I and ;» arc known, use tlu> Kioat(
t Uho this form if Ian (' is Kieatcr tlian 1.
 APPENDIX B
NAVIGATION AUXILIARY TABLES

Bubble Correction for Sun, Stars, and Planets. — This table is similar
to those in various navigation tables, except that corrections for low
altitudes are included. Mariners prefer not to use altitudes less than
about 10°, in altitude with changes in temperature
owing to the variations
and pressure. When the bubble sextant is used, extreme accuracy is
not expected, and, as will be seen by a study of the four additional
corrections, observations may be made down to the horizon without
serious loss of accuracy. See page 372 for these table.
Correction for Temperatures. —Refraction tables are made for a
standard temperature of 50°F. For variations from this temperature,
an additional correction should be made to the refraction table given
above as shown in the table Correction for Temperatures.
—
Correction for Pressure. Variations from the standard pressure of
30'' cause the refraction to change. This should be corrected as shown
in the table Correction for Pressure.
Correction for Height. —The refraction tables are computed for sea
level. Observations taken at, say, 20,000 ft., are subject to only a
portion of the total refraction at sea level. The table Refraction Sub-
correction gives the subcorrections that must be applied for various
heights.
Correction for Earth's Rotation. —For high latitudes and high speeds
the earth's rotation affects the bubble as shown in the table Correction
for Earth's Rotation.
It will be noted that, except for altitudes less than about 4° and for
extremes in temperature and pressure, the tables correcting for variations
will not be required. Also, the correction for height is only 2' for 10°
observed altitude up to a height of 20,000 ft.
Common sense should indicate when to use the various auxiliary
tables. The sheet is printed on heavy paper to permit its use as a book-
mark in the ''Navigation Note Book."
Warner Course-distance-conversion Table. —
This table, prepared
by Warner, is included (page 373) to permit rapid conversion of
L. A.
azimuths from ''H.O. 214," etc., to Zn, azimuth measured from north to
the right, from 0° to 360°. This table also indicates the cardinal and
intercardinal points, and converts integral degrees of arc to nautical miles.

Extracts from Air Almanac

Interpolation for GHA.— This table (page 374) and the ta]:»le of
Position of the Stars (page 384) (both taken from the Air Almanat^ are
included as a convenience to the navigator.
371
'M2 AIR NAVIGATION

Correction for Earth's HoVation

C.rouiHl Spcr.l (M.P.n.^
Lat. 1(1(1 200 :<()() 4 DO

20 0.9 1.8 2.7 3.6

40 1.7 3.4 5 1 6 8
60 2.:} 4.6 6 8 9.1
76 2.5 5.1 7 6 10.17

'I'rHnsh tp (ill liii

R . N li»'TniKpJiort', p.-rppfulir ihir tn t :.rk.

Hubble C'orkkctiox for 8u.\, iSt.vu.'^ a.nd I'la.vkts

Hs REl-
(-)
0° 0' 34'
20 30
40 27
I 00 24
30 21
2 00 18
30 16
3 00 14
4 00 12
5 00 10
6 00 8
7 00 7
9 00 6
11 00 5
13 00 4
18 00 3
25 00 2
40 00 1

90 00

Correction for TEMPERATURE^

(Fahrenheit)
Hs 10° 30° 50 °K 70° 90°
-3 -2 +2 +4
1 -3 - 1 +1 +2
2 -2 -1 +1 +2
4 -1 -1 + 1

6 - 1
^1

Ue FRACTION 8U H-(()UIiE(TI()\
iSubtract from Bubble Correction
HriKht Observed altitude |

in
10» 20° 45° 75°
feet

10.000 1 1 n
20,000 2 2
•SO. 000 3 '2
1

40. ()()(» } 1

(
'oHitKi I'lox i(»K rui;ssri{i I .\( iii;s

Hs 28.5" 29.0" 29.5" 30.0" 30.5"

+2 +1 +1 -1
3 1-1
 1
APPENDIX B 373

WARNER COURSE-DISTANCE-CONVERSION TABLE

AZ ZN AZ ZN
Dtg. Ditt. N-W SE S-W Deg. Out. N-W S-E sw
60 359 179 181 91 5460 269 89 271
2 120 358 178 182 92 5520 268 88 272
3 180 357 177 183 93 5580 267 87 273
4 240 356 176 184 94 5640 266 86 274
5 300 355 175 185 95 5700 265 85 275
6 360 354 174 186 96 5760 264 84 276
7 420 353 173 187 97 5820 263 83 277
8 480 352 172 188 98 5880 262 82 278
9 540 351 171 189 99 5940 261 81 279
10 600 350 170 190 100 6000 260 80 280
II 660 349 169 191 101 6060 259 79 281
12 720 348 168 192 102 6120 258 78 282
13 780 347 167 193 103 6180 257 77 283
14 840 346 166 194 104 6240 256 76 284
15 900 345 165 195 105 6300 255 75 285
16 960 344 164 196 106 6360 254 74 286
17 1020 343 163 197 107 6420 253 73 287
18 1080 342 162 198 108 6480 252 72 288
19 1140 341 161 199 109 6540 251 71 289
20 1200 340 160 200 110 6600 250 70 290
21 1260 339 159 201 111 6660 249 69 291
1320 338 158 6720 248 68 292,,„,„,
v,v,r.22
NNE23 1380 337 157 lllss^ ESE,,3 6780 247 67 293WNW
24 1440 336 156 204 114 6840 246 66 294
25 1500 335 155 205 115 6900 245 65 295
26 1560 334 154 206 116 6960 244 64 296
27 1620 333 153 207 117 7020 243 63 297
28 1680 332 152 208 118 7080 242 62 298
29 1740 331 151 209 119 7140 241 61 299
30 1800 330 150 210 120 7200 240 60 300
31 1860 329 149 211 121 7260 239 59 301
32 1920 328 148 212 122 7320 238 58 302
33 1980 327 147 213 123 7380 237 57 303
34 2040 326 146 214 124 7440 236 56 304
35 2100 325 145 215 125 7500 235 55 305
36 2160 324 144 216 126 7560 234 54 306
37 2220 323 143 217 127 7620 233 53 307
38 2280 322 142 218 128 7680 232 52 308
39 2340 321 141 219 129 7740 231 51 309
40 2400 320 140 220 no 7800 230 50 310
41 2460 319 139 221 131 7860 229 49 311
42 2520 318 138 222 132 7920 228 48 312
43 2580 317 137 223 133 7980 227 47 313
44 2640 316 136 224 134 8040 226 46 314
NE45 2700 315 135 225SW SE135 8100 225 45 315NW
46 2760 314 134 226 136 8160 224 44 316
47 2820 313 133 227 137 8220 223 43 317
48 2880 312 132 228 138 8280 222 42 318
49 2940 311 131 229 139 8340 221 41 319
50 3000 310 130 230 140 8400 220 40 320
51 3060 309 129 231 141 8460 219 39 321
52 3120 308 128 232 142 8520 218 38 322
53 3180 307 127 233 143 8580 217 37 323
54 3240 306 126 234 144 8640 216 36 324
55 3300 305 125 235 145 8700 215 35 325
56 3360 304 124 236 146 8760 214 34 326
57 3420 303 123 237 147 8820 213 33 327
58 3480 302 122 238 148 8880 212 32 328
59 3540 301 121 239 149 8940 211 31 329
60 3600 300 120 240 150 9000 210 30 330
61 3660 299 119 241 151 9060 209 29 331
62 3720 298 118 242 152 9120 208 28 332
63 3780 297 117 243 153 9180 207 27 333
64 3840 296 116 244 154 9240 206 26 334
65 3900 295 115 245 155 9300 205 25 335
66 3960 294 114 246 156 9360 204 24 336
4020 293 113 9420 203 23
ENE^^
'-'^'^68
4080 292 112
^^^WSW SSE'57
** 158 9480 202 22
;];nnw
69 4140 291 111 249 159 9540 201 21 339
70 4200 290 110 250 160 9600 200 20 340
71 4260 289 109 251 161 9660 199 19 341
72 4320 288 108 252 162 9720 198 18 342
73 4380 287 107 253 163 9780 197 17 343
74 4440 286 106 254 164 9840 196 16 344
75 4500 285 105 255 165 9900 195 15 345
76 4560 284 104 256 166 9960 194 14 346
77 4620 283 103 257 167 10020 193 13 347
78 4680 282 102 258 168 10080 192 12 348
79 4740 281 101 259 169 10140 191 11 349
80 4800 280 100 260 170 10200 190 10 350
81 4860 279 99 261 171 10260 189 9 351
82 4920 278 98 262 172 10320 188 8 352
83 4980 277 97 263 173 10380 187 353
84 5040 276 96 264 174 10440 186 6 354
85 5100 275 95 265 175 10500 185 5 355
86 5160 274 94 266 176 10560 184 4 356
87 5220 273 93 267 177 10620 183 3 357
88 5280 272 92 268 178 10680 182 358
89 5340 271 91 269 179 10740 181 1 359
E90 5400 270 90 270W S180 10800 180 360N
 374 Alii NAVIGATION

INTERPOLATION OF GHA

SUN, PLANETS, T MOON

Int. Int. Corr. Corr. Int. Corr. Int.
< m s m » m t
00 00 03 17 06 37 00 00 03 20 06 39
00 50 1 40 00 49
01 21 41 02 24 43
01 51 1 41 01 50
05 25 45 06 29 47
02 52 1 42 02 51
09 29 49 10 33 52
03 53 1 43 03 52
13 33 53 14 37 56
04 54 1 44 04 53
17 37 57 18 41 07 00
05 55 45 05 54
21 41 07 01 22 45 04
06 56 46 06 55
25 45 05 26 49 08
07 57 47 07 56
29 49 09 31 53 12
08 58 48 08 57
33 53 13 35 58 16
09 59 49 09 58
37 57 17 39 04 02 20
10 1 00 50 10 59 1 47
41 04 01 21 43 06 25
11 1 01 51 11 1 00 1 48
45 05 25 47 10 29
12 1 02 1 52 1 01 1 49
49 09 29 51 14 33
13 1 03 1 58 1 02 1 50
53 13 33 55 18 37
14 1 04 1 54 1 03 1 51
57 17 37 01 00 22 41
15 1 05 1 04 1 52
01 01 21 41 04 27 45
16 1 06 1 05 53
05 25 45 08 31 49
17 1 07 1 57 1 06 54
09 29 49 12 35 54
18 1 08 1 58 1 07 55
13 33 53 16 39 58
19 1 09 1 59 1 08 56
17 37 57 20 43 08 02
20 1 10 1 09 57
21 41 08 01 24 47 06
21 1 11 1 10 58
25 45 05 29 51 10
22 1 11 59
29 49 09 33 56 14
23 1 12 00
33 53 13 37 05 00 18
24 1 14 1 13 01
37 57 17 41 04 23
25 1 15 1 14 02
41 05 01 21 45 08 27
20 1 16 1 15 03
45 05 25 49 12 31
27 1 17 1 16 04
49 09 29 53 16 35
28 1 18 1 17 05
53 13 33 58 20 39
29 1 19 1 18 06
57 17 37 02 02 25 43
30 1 20 1 19 07
02 01 21
21
41 06 29 47
31 1 1 20 08
05 25 45 10 33 52
32 1 22 1 21 09
09 29 49 14 37 56
33 1 23 1 22 10
13 33 53 18 41 09 00
34 1 24 1 23
17 37 57 22 45 04
35 1 25 1 24
21 41 09 01 26 49 08
36 1 20 1 25
25 45 05 31 54 12
37 1 27 1 26
29 49 09 35 58 16
1 28 1 27
33 53 13 39 06 02 21
1 29 1 28
37 57 17 43 06 25
1 30 1 29
41 06 01 21 47 10 29
1 31 41 1 30
45 05 25 51 14 33
42 1 32 1 31
49 09 29 55 18 37
43 1 33
53 44
13 33 03 00 23 41
1 34
57 17 37 04 27 45
45 1 35 1 34
03 01 21
36
41 08 31 50
40 1 1 35
05 25 45 12 35 54
47 1 37 1 36
09 29 49 16 39 58
48 1 38 48 1 37
13 33 53 20 43 10 00
49 1 39 49
17 37 57 24
50 1 40
21 41 10 00

Correction to be added to GHA for interval of GCT

 APPENDIX B 375

EXPLANATION AND EXAMPLES

(See also condensed explanation on back cover)

1. The object of this volume is to provide in convenient form the astronomical data re-
quired for aerial navigation. The two sides of a single leaf give complete data for a single day.
Auxiliary tables are given inside the front and back covers, on the flap near the back, and on
the outside back cover; these tables give values to the nearest minute without interpolation.
2. of the daily sheets give the Greenwich Hour Angles at ten-minute intervals
Columns 2-7
for the Sun, Vernal Equinox, the three planets most suitable for observation at that time, and
the Moon, and declinations at ten-minute intervals for the Moon and at hourly intervals for the
Sun and planets. The magnitudes and symbols of the planets are given in the headings with their
names.
Example: For Jan. 1, 1942, at 17M7"16^ Greenwich Civil Time find the GHA and Dec. of
Sun, Moon and Venus:
Sun Moon Venus
(From the daily sheet for Jan. 1) GHA at 17''40"' .... 84°06' 275°13' 44°43'
(From table on flap) GHA Int. of T-^IG' 1 49 1 45 1 49
(From table on A. M. side of daily sheet) 7™ Corr. HAC .

The required GHA 85°55' 276°58' 46°32'

(By inspection from daily sheet) The required Dec. ... S 23°01' N IS^SS' S 14°39'

3. The GHA of a star is found by adding the Greenwich Hour Angle of the Vernal Equinox
to the star's Sidereal Hour Angle, i. e.

GHA*=GHAT+SHA*
On the inside of the back cover are given the Name, Mag., SHA, Dec, and RA of each of the
55 principal navigational stars. Two separate lists are given: one in alphabetical order, and
the other in order of SHA. The numbers in the first column are the index numbers in Astro-
nomical Navigation Tables (H. O. 218) and in the British publication of the same name (Air
*
Publication 1618).
Example: For Jan. 1, 1942, at 17H7'°16'' find the and Dec. of Aldebaran: GHA
(From the daily sheet for Jan. 1) GHAT at 17''40'" 5°44'
(From table on flap) GHAT Int. of 7"'16» 149
(From inside back cover) SHA* 291 51

The required GHA* 299°24'

(From inside back cover) The required Dec N 16''23'

The semidiameters of the Sun and Moon and the correction for Moon's parallax
4. are
given on the A. M. side of the daily sheets; the values given are for the middle of the day and the
first is the Moon's Horizontal Parallax.
correction value in the parallax table Two correction
tables are given on the outside of the back cover, one for refraction and one for dip. The cor-
rection for refraction, which must be applied to all observed altitudes, depends on the height of
the observer in feet and on the observed altitude. The correction for dip, which must be
applied to altitudes measured from the sea horizon, depends on the height of the observer.
Example: Correct the following observed altitudes taken at a height of 5,000 feet with
a bubble sextant.
Sun Moon Polaris
Observed Alt 40°25' 25°11' 15°49'
Refraction —1 —1 —3
Parallax +49

Corrected Alt 40°24' 25°59' 15»46'

IV
376 AIR NAVIGATION

GREENWICH A. M. 1942 JANUARY 1 (THURSDAY) V

OCT G SUN T 9 m<UB-4.4 <f MAM ••• •a Jurrrw-tJ O MOOH (C

GHA D*: GHA GHA D«:. GHA D.C. GHA Dk GHA D.C. For.

k m o / o / / / o / o / o / o / o / o , o 1

00 179 12 S23 04 100 01 139 15 S14 52 77 18 NIO 21 27 55 N21 50 18 48 N18 11

10 181 41 102 31 141 45 79 48 30 25 21 13 11
20 184 11 105 02 144 16 82 18 32 55 23 38 12
30 186 41 107 32 146 46
• • 84 48 • • • • 35 26 • • 28 03 •
12 ?
40 189 11 110 02 149 16 87 18 37 56 28 28 12 s
50 191 41 112 33 151 46 89 49 40 27 30 54 13
1 00 194 11 S23 04 115 03 154 17 S14 52 92 19 NIO 21 42 57 N21 50 33 19 N18 13
10 196 41 117 34 156 47 94 49 45 28 35 44 13
20 199 11 120 04 159 17 97 19 47 58 38 09 14 ^ J
30 201 41 • 122 34 161 47
• • 99 50 • • •
50 29- • 40 34 • 14
40 204 11 125 05 164 18 102 20 52 59 42 59 14 t
m •

o •
50 206 41 127 35 166 48 104 50 55 30 45 25 15
2 00 209 11 S23 04 130 06 169 18 S14 51 107 20 NIO 21 58 00 N21 50 47 50 N18 15 10 *t
10 211 41 132 36 171 48 109 51 60 30 50 15 15 15 \\
« T
20 214 11 135 07 174 19 112 21 63 01 52 40 16 18
30 216 41 • • 137 37 176 49 • 114 51 • • 65 31
•
55 05 • 16 21 \l
40 219 11 140 07 179 19 117 21 68 02 57 30 16 24 !2
50 221 41 142 38 181 49 119 52 70 32 59 56 17 26 1«
29
\\
a
8 00 224 11 S23 04 145 OS 184 20 S14 50 122 22 NIC 22 73 03 N21 50 62 21 N18 17
10 226 41 147 39 186 50 124 52 75 33 64 46 17 33 ^f
20 229 11 150 09 189 20 127 22 78 04 67 11 18 35 1'
30 231 40 .. 152 39 191 50 . . 129 52 . . 80 34 • • 69 36 • 18 36 -J
J1
40 234 10 155 10 194 21 132 23 83 05 72 01 18 38 i\
50 236 40 157 40 196 51 134 53 85 35 74 27 18 40 \]
4 00 239 10 S23 04 160 11 199 21 S14 49 137 23 NIO 22 88 06 N21 50 76 52 N18 19 41 Vn
10 241 40 162 41 201 52 139 53 90 36 79 17 19 43 12
20 244 10 165 11 204 22 93 142 24 06 81 42 19 44 \\
30 246 40 .
167 42 206 52 • .
95 144 54 • • 37 • • 84 07 ' 20 46 ^«
40 249 10 170 12 209 22 98 147 24 07 86 32 20 47 \{ O ,

50 251 40 172 43 211 53 149 54 100 38 88 58 20 49 \{

5 00 254 10 S23 03 175 13 214 23 S14 48 152 25 NIO 23 103 08 N21 50 91 23 N18 20 50 \l
10 256 40 177 44 216 53 154 55 105 39 93 48 21 51 \\
20 259 10 180 14 219 23 157 25 108 09 96 13 21 53 \\
30 251 40 . • 182 44 221 54 . . 159 55 • • 110 40- • 98 38 •
21 54 \]
<x *
40 264 10 185 15 224 24 162 26 113 10 101 03 21 55 \'
50 266 40 187 45 226 54 164 56 115 41 103 29 22 o
6 00 269 10 S23 b3 190 16 229 24 S14 48 167 26 NIC 23 118 11 N21 50 105 54 N18 22 59 28
10 271 40 192 46 231 55 169 56 120 41 108 19 22 60 V^
20 274 10 195 16 234 25 172 26 123 12 110 44 23 62 \{
30 276 40 197 47 • 236 55 • . 174 57 . . 125 42 113 09 • 23 • • 63 A. •
li '
40 279 10 200 17 239 25 177 27 128 13 115 34 23 64 l\
50 281 40 202 48 241 56 179 57 130 43 118 00 23 65 23
7 00 284 09 S23 03 205 18 244 26 S14 47 182 27 NIO 24 133 14 N21 50 120 25 N18 24 66 22
10 286 39 207 48 246 56 184 58 135 44 122 50 24 67 IL
20 289 09 210 19 249 27 187 28 138 15 125 15 24 68 20
30 291 39 212 49 251 57 189 58 • 140 45 127 40 24 •

40 294 09
• .

215 20 254 27
•

192 28
• •

143 16 130 05 25
•
70 M
50 296 39 217 50 256 57 194 59 145 46 132 30 25
71
72
n **
',1
8 00 299 09 S23 03 220 20 259 28 S14 46 197 29 NIO 24 148 16 N21 50 134 56 N18 25 73 '\
10 301 39 222 51 261 58 199 59 150 47 137 21 25 74
•

[^
20 301 09 225 21 264 28 202 29 153 17 139 46 25 75 t
30 306 39 . 227 52 266 58 . . 205 00 . 155 48 . . 142 11 26 • 76 'I
40 309 09 230 22 269 29 207 30 158 18 144 36 26 77 '^,
'
50 311 39 232 53 271 59 210 00 160 49 147 01 2C 78
79 10
9 00 314 09 S23 03 235 23 274 29 S14 45 212 30 NIO 25 163 19 N21 50 149 27 f;i8 2Q
10 316 39 237 53 276 59 215 00 165 50 151 52 27 w •
20 319 09 240 24 279 30 217 31 168 20 154 17 2T SD, O
30 321 39 242 54 282 00
•
220 01 170 51 • • 156 42
. 27 • •

40 324 09 245 25 284 30 222 31 173 21 159 07 27 16

50 326 39 247 55 287 00 225 01 175 52 161 32 27
10 00 329 09 S23 02 250 25 289 31 S14 45 2^7 32 NIO 25 178 22 N21 50 163 57 N18 28 SD ([
10 331 39 252 56 292 01 230 02 180 52 166 23 26
20 334 08 255 26 294 31 232 32 183 23 168 48 28 15
do 336 38 257 57 297 02
•
235 02 185 53 171 13
.
28 •
• • •

40 339 08 260 27 299 32 237 33 188 24 173 38 28 Corr. <

50 341 38 202 57 302 02 240 03 190 54 176 03 29 HA d •
-
11 00 344 08 S23 02 205 28 304 32 S14 44 242 33 NIO 26 193 25 N21 50 178 28 MS 29
10 346 38 2G7 58 307 03 245 03 195 55 180 53 29
20 349 08 270 29 309 33 247 34 198 26 183 19 29 i h
30 351 38 272 59 312 03
• • 250 04 • 200 56 • • 185 44
• 29• • •
m
40 354 08 275 30 314 33 252 34 203 27 188 09 30 ^
50 356 38 278 00 317 04 255 04 205 57 190 34 30 10

12 00 359 08 S23 02 280 30 319 34 S14 43 257 34 NIO 2C 208 27 N21 5C 192 59 N18 30

"
1
 1
APPENDIX B 377

VI GREENWICH P. M. 1942 JANUARY 1 (THURSDAY)

GCT O SUN T 9 VENUS-4.* <f MARS 0.0 Ot JUPITER-2.2 O MOON
GHA Dec. GHA GHA Dec. GHA Dec. GHA Dec. GHA Dec.

A m
12 00 359 08 S23 02 280 30 319 34 S14 43 34Nr0 26 208 27 N21 50 192 59 N18 30
25'7
283 01 322 04 260 05 Sun- Moon- =
10 1 38 210 58 195 24 30
285 31 324 34 262 35
rise 1 rise '^
20 4 08 213 28 197 49 30
30 6 38 • • 288 02 327 05 • • 265 05 • • 215 59 • 200 15 • 30
40 9 08 290 32 329 35 267 35 218 29 202 40 31 N
50 11 38 293 02 332 05 270 06 221 00 205 05 31 h m m h m m
13 00 14 08 S23 02 295 33 334 36 S14 42 272 36N10 27 223 30 N21 50 207 30 N18 31 60 9 03 57 14 52 50
10 16 38 298 03 337 06 275 06 226 01 209 55 31 58 8 40 51 15 05 50
20 19 08 300 34 339 36 277 36 228 31 212 20 31 56 32 47 16 50
30 21 38 • • 303 04 342 06 280 07 •
• • 231 02 • • 214 45 • 31 54 19 43 26 49
40 24 07 305 34 344 37 282 37 233 32 217 10 32 52 8 08 40 34 50
50 26 37 308 05 347 07 285 07 236 03 219 36 32 50 7 59 38 42 49
14 00 29 07 S23 02 310 35 349 37 S14 42 287 37 NIC 27 238 33 N21 50 222 01 N18 32 45 38 34 15 58 49
10 31 37 313 06 352 07 290 08 241 03 224 26 32 40 •
22 31 16 11 50
20 34 07 315 36 354 38 292 38 243 34 226 51 32 35 7 08 28 23 49
30 36 37 • • 318 07 357 08 • • 295 08 • • 246 04 • • 229 16 • 32 30 6 56 26 33 49
40 39 07 320 37 359 38 297 38 248 35 231 41 32 20 35 24 16 50 49
50 41 37 323 07 2 08 300 08 251 05 234 06 33 10 17 23 17 05 49

15 00 44 07 S23 01 325 38 4 39 S14 41 302 39 NIC 27 253 36 N21 50 236 31 N18 33 6 00 22 19 49

10 46 37 328 08 7 09 305 09 256 06 238 57 33
20 49 07 330 39 9 39 307 39 258 37 241 22 33 10 5 43 23 33 48
30 51 37 • 333 09 12 10 • . 310 09 • 261 07 • • 243 47 • 33 20 24 25 17 48 48
40 54 07 335 39 14 40 312 40 263 38 246 12 33 30 5 03 27 18 05 48
50 56 37 338 10 17 10 315^ 10 266 08 248 37 33 35 4 50 29 15 48
16 00 59 07 S23 01 340 40 19 40 S14 40 317 40 NIO 28 268 38 N21 50 251 02 N18 34 40 35 32 27 47
10 61 37 343 11 22 11 320 10 271 09 253 27 34 45 4 18 36 40 48
20 64 07 345 41 24 41 322 41 273 39 255 52 34 50 3 55 43 18 57 47
30 66 37 • 348 11
• 27 11 • • 325 11 • • 276 10 • 258 18 • 34 52 45 48 19 05 46
40 69 07 350 42 29 41 327 41 278 40 260 43 34 54 33 53 13 47
50 71 37 353 12 32 12 330 11 281 11 263 08 34 56 19 61 23 46
17 00 74 06 S23 01 355 43 34 42 S14 39 332 42 NIO 28 283 41 N21 50 265 33 N18 34 58 3 03 72 34 46
10 76 36 358 13 37 12 335 12 286 12 267 58 34 60 2 43 95 19 47 46
20 79 06 43 39 43 337 42 288 42 270 23 34 S
30 81 36 • • 3 14 42 13 • • 340 12 • • 291 13 • • 272 48 • 34
40 M 06 544 44 43 342 42 293 43 275 13 35
50 86 36 8 15 47 13 345 13 296 13 277 38 35

18 00 89 06 S23 01 10 45 49 44 S14 39 347 43 NIC 29 298 44 N21 50 280 04 NIS 35 _,

Sun- Moon-
10 91 36 13 16 52 14 350 13 301 14 282 29 35 2 set 3 1
20 94 06 15 46 54 44 352 43 303 45 284 54 35 _

30 96 36 • • 18 16 57 14 • 355 14
• • 306 15
• 287 19 • 35
• •

40 99 op 20 47 59 45 357 44 308 46 289 44 35 N

50 101 36 23 17 62 15 14 311 16 292 09 35 k m m h m m
19 00 104 06 S23 01 25 48 64 45 S14 38 2 44 NIC 29 313 47 N21 50 294 34 N18 35 60 15 04 57 7 19 50
10 106 36 28 18 67 16 5 15 316 17 296 59 35 58 21 51 7 06 50
20 109 06 30 48 69 46 7 45 318 48 299 25 35 56 36 47 6 56 49
30 111 36 • • 33 19 72 16 • 10 15 • 321 18 • •• 301 50 • 35 54 48 43 46 50
40 114 06 35 49 74 46 12 45 323 49 304 15 35 52 15 59 40 38 49
50 116 36 38 20 77 17 15 16 326 19 306 40 36 50 16 08 38 30 50
20 00 119 06 S23 00 40 50 79 47 S14 37 17 46 NIO 30 328 49 N21 50 309 05 N18 36 45 28 34 14 49
10 121 36 43 20 82 17 20 16 331 20 311 30 36 40 45 31 6 00 50
20 124 06 45 51 84 47 22 46 333 50 313 55 30 35 16 59 28 5 49 49
30 126 35 . « 48 21 87 18 • • 25 16 . . 336 21 • • 316 20 • 36 30 17 11 26 39 49
40 129 05 50 52 89 48 27 47 338 51 318 45 36 20 32 24 22 49
50 131 35 53 22 92 18 30 17 341 22 321 11 36 10 17 50 22 5 08 48

21 00 134 05 S23 00 55 53 94 49 S14 36 32 47 NlO 30 343 52 N21 50 323 36 Nl8 36 18 07 22 4 54 48

10 136 35 58 23 97 19 35 17 346 23 326 01 36
20 139 05 60 53 99 49 37 48 348 53 328 26 36 10 25 23 40 48
30 141 35 . . 63 24 102 19 • • 40 18 • 351 24
• • 330 51 •
• 36 20 18 43 25 25 48
40 144 05 65 54 104 50 42 48 353 54 333 16 36 30 19 05 27 4 08 48
50 146 35 68 25 107 20 45 18 356 24 335 41 36 35 18 29 3 58 48
22 00 149 05 S23 00 70 55 109 50 S14 36 47 49 NIO 31 358 55 N21 50 338 06 N18 36 40 32 32 47 47
10 151 35 73 25 112 20 50 19 1 25 340 31 36 45 19 50 37 34 47
20 154 05 75 56 114 51 52 49 3 56 342 57 36 50 20 12 44 18 46
30 156 35 • • 78 26 117 21 • • 55 19 •
6 26 • 345 22• 36 52 22 • 49 10 47
40 159 05 80 57 119 51 57 50 8 57 347 47 36 54 34 54 3 02 46
50 161 35 83 27 122 21 60 20 11 27 350 12 36 56 20 48 61 2 52 46
23 00 164 05 S23 00 85 57 124 52 S14 35 62 50 NIO 31 13 58 N21 50 352 37 N18 36 58 21 04 73 41 46
10 166 35 88 28 127 22 65 20 16 28 355 02 36 60 21 24 96 2 29 45
20 169 05 90 58 129 52 67 50 18 59 357 27 36 S
30 171 35 •
93 29 132 23 • 70 21 •
• 21 29 • 359 52• 36 •

40 174 05 95 59 134 53 72 51 24 00 2 17 36
50 176 34 98 30 137 23 75 21 26 30 4 42 36

24 00 179 04 S23 00 101,00 139 53 S14 34 77 51 NIO 32 29 00 N21 50 7 08 N18 36

378 AIJi NAVIGATION

VII

Kxmnplc: Corr^Tt the following observed Hltitudt'N tiikcn »il u li.-i^rlit oi 2, ()(»(» f.-rt with the
-(•It hurizoii:

Sim (lowt-r liiiil>i Moon (upptT linili) .Iiipitor

Observed Alt t8°32' 19°5r S'SQ'
Refraction —I —3 —5
Scmidiamcter +16 - 1;,

Parallax 4.51
Dip -44 -44 -44

Corrected All 48"'03' 19''40' 7°50'

5. The narrow diagram on the A. M. side of the daily sheet shows the region along the
ecliptic circle within which the Sun, Moon and Planets are always found. The four bright stars
Aldebaran (a), Regulus (6), Spica (r) and Antarcs (d) are also near the Echptic and are shown
in the diagram except when they are within 5° of the Sun. The Moon is shown in its proper
phase. The five planets, Mercury 8 Venus 9 Mars c?", Jupiter 01 and Saturn b, are included
, , ,

e.vcept when they are within 5° of the Sun.

Example: At Sunset on Jan. 1, 1942, one finds from the diagram that the Full Moon is
rising in the East. Jupiter, Aldebaran, Saturn and Mars are above the Moon. Venus is in the
West about 40° from the Sun. At Sunrise, on the other hand, one finds Antares and Spica
about 30° and 75° respectively from the Sun, while Regulus is about 1.30° west of the Sun. The
position of the Vernal Equinox (T) is also shown on the diagram to aid in estimating approxi-
mate SHA. This shows SHA 9 = 39°.
6. The Polaris table found on the back of the flap gives for various values of the Locnl

Hour Angle (LHA) of the Vernal Equinox the correction which must be applied to an observed
altitude of Polaris to determine the latitude.
Example: The corrected altitude of Polaris found in §4 was 15°46'. If this observation
was made in longitude 99°27' W
at 12''16'"27' GCT, the observer's latitude is found as follows:
GHA T at 12" 10" 283°01' Corrected alt 15°46'
GHA T Int. of6-»27' 1 37 Corr. from table for LHA T . . +57

GHA T 284 38 Latitude 1G''43' N

Longitude W -99 27

LHA T 185»ir
Tables for finding the times of Sunrise, Sunset, beginning and ending of Civil Twilight,
7.

Moonrise and Moonset for latitudes between 60° S and 60° N are given on the P. M. side of
the daily sheets. The columns under Sunrise and Sunset give the local civil times of these
phenomena. The columns under Twilight (Twit.) give the duration of Civil Twilight. It is
assumed that morning Civil Twilight begins when the Sun is 6° below the horizon and ends at
Sunrise and that evening Civil Twilight begins at Sunset and ends when the Sun is 6° below
the horizon. The time of beginning of morning Civil Twilight is obtained by subtracting the
duration of Twilight from the time of Sunrise; the ending of evening Twilight is obtained by
adding the duration of Twilight to the time of Sunset.
Examples: Find the Local Civil Time (LCT) of Sunrise, Sunset, beginning of morning
Civil Twilight and ending of evening Civil Twilight in latitude 39° N on Jan. 1. Interpolations
between the values for latitudes 40° N and 35° N in the table give 7" 19" for the time of Sunrise and
jQh^gm fQj. j^jjg ^jjQg Qf Sunset. Similar interpolation for the duration of Twilight gives 30° for the
duration of both morning and evening Twilight; combining the 30° with the above times of
Sunrise and Sunset it is found that for latitude 39° N the
beginning of morning Civil Twilight is 7" 19° -30°= OMO" LCT
and endingof evening Civil Twilight is 16''4S° + 30°- 17''1S° LCT.
 APPENDIX B 379

8. Except for high latitudes, values for the approximate durations of Nautical Twilight
(beginning or ending when Sun is 12° below horizon) and Astronomical Twilight (beginning or
ending when Sun is 18° below horizon) may be obtained by multiplying the duration of Civil
Twilight by factors of two and three respectively.
9. The duration of Civil Twilight may also be used to compute the effect of height of the

observer on the time of Sunrise or Sunset. Half the duration is equivalent to a height of 32,000
feet and one-fourth to 8,000 feet.
Example: The time of Sunrise observed from a height of 32,000 ft. on Jan. 1, latitude 40°
N, be 16° earlier than on the ground.
will
10. The columns under Moonrise and Moonset give the Local Civil Time of these phenomena
for the meridian of Greenwich. Since the times of Moonrise and Moonset are considerably
later on succeeding days, it is necessary to interpolate for the longitude of the observer; the
lastcolumn (Diff .) is provided for this purpose.
Example: Find the time of Moonrise in longitude 95° W
and latitude 41° N on Jan. 1. By
interpolation it is found that the time of Moonrise for the meridian of Greenwich and latitude
41° N is 16*^08'°. From the Diff. column it is found that the time of rising will be 50™ later the
following day. Since 95° is about one-fourth of 360°, one adds 13™:
le^OS^H- 13™= 16''21™LCT.
11.The times of Moonrise and Moonset as given on the daily sheets are sometimes greater
than 24*'. This means that the phenomenon really occurs on the following day but the time
is For any given meridian the
given in this form to facilitate the interpolation for longitude.
time of Moonrise or Moonset is about an hour later (on the average) each succeeding day. If
then, on a given day, one of these phenomena occurs near midnight, the next one will occur
about 25 hours later which carries it over into the second day. For example, if the Moon
should rise at Greenwich at 23''10™ GCT on Jan. 10 it would rise at 24''10™ on Jan. which U
is O^IO™ on Jan. 12. Thedaily sheet would therefore give 24" 10™ for Jan. 11 and 0^10™ for Jan. 12.
In this case, there would be no Moonrise at Greenwich on Jan. 11. However, for a meridian 6"
east of Greenwich the time would be 15™ earlier or 23'"55™ on Jan. 11.
12. The LCT fouiul in the above example is the local time for the observer's local meridian.
GCT obtained from the LCT by applyuig the observer's longitude from Greenwich; the
is

longitude is first converted from arc to time and then added to the LCT for an observer in west

longitude or subtracted for an observer in east longitude.

Example: Change 16^21™ LCT in longitude 95° to GCT. W
Longitude 95° W
converted to time is longitude 6''20™ W;
16''21™ LCT-f6''20™=22Ml™ GCT.
13. The tables. Interpolation of GHA, Dip, Polaris, C 's Par. and Corr. HAC are the so-
,

called "critical" or "turning point" type; i. e., the values of the argument given are those for

which the function changes from one unit to the next. The value of the function is therefore
found to the nearest unit without interpolation. If the required value of the argument is one
of the printed values of the table, the upper of the two adjacent values of the function should
be taken.
380 AIH NAVIGATION

NA\ KiA riOXAI.

SIDEREAL HOUR ANGLE NO
0' 15* 3Cr 45* 6Cr 75* 90* 105* 120* 135* 150° 165° IfJO
90°
•-^ URSA
uiNon
,^
80°

V~. --.^^ '^

^ - trochtt
._
70'
CtPMtUS
N ^^•,
rtmin DRACO ^^^•''.
^,-''
60°
1 Aliut ..7--"-.
M„ar •- -

tftm.n
/ r

50"
>>

CYCNUS
o^r; ,*B ,-'
\ CANCS V£N*
40°
"^ ''
12 C*n Viens

^^
/vT. *
\
1

> HtRCULES
30°
/ •^'*'
a
PECASUS
•/>
20°
OELPHINUS
MtrMtb
«
« •
f /».«,.
10° Cn;f 9,
AII4.
vi«00 ,

AQUILA
•a \
0° VE
*•
"'•-^ .'*y-
AQUAHIUS
"•4 ,5,,^*. ", ophTu
->:
10° 9a
.'•{ ^t.BBA^
'•CAPHICO
S<».*«
ly,-*. '•,,
./>,^''\'
20°
HYOA.g
"'•<» convoi
Hunk,
Fcr^ilhiul
30°
/ SCO RPIO
SAOITI
^« *----••,
*-,
40"
•'•-*
a Indi <? > -r...,!
^ • r
, •-',
50'

*"
60°

70°
a TuCJiijr
'*^

^-'tbi
9
4
80°
\

9cr i

24" 23" 22- 21- 20- 19" 18- 17" 16" 15" 14" 13- 1

VE Vrrnal Equinox
SOU
RIGHT ASCENSION SIDEREAL HOUR ANGLE =
AC AuTuinn..! tqumon
 APPENDIX B 38J

SFAH C^HAKT
SIDEREAL HOUR ANGLE
-f 195° 210' 225° 240° 255° 270° 285° 300° 315° 330° 345° 360°

C*SSlOPEl«
Dubht
/ « o
V
"'^^
1 Meraii H„cht,3h *i
*;-"" d.r •^ 'S

URSA ~~~\i
MAJOR ».
-''' Mtnhahmn Capella

.TIC. K lAURICA'-
/ \ Algol •:>'""". HOMEOA
; PERStuS
•
a uvNCfs 4la \
.^GEMINI Nith
i
~l*
-.TAUJU.S_
,'*e
*« ARIES
^Shffitir,
?o
LEO '\ ~"
Aldebi Alijenib '

""^^
'^r,::J ^
Otxtbola

^^ " ^
Peoos,
10°
Betelgeux

^-^' ,*f ^'«J

CAN IS »-°.
1 "/! ORION
MINOR ',

^E \lt
""'\ C C T U S

w'^ «-----.

• 'v *v J
Benff-.i' "V^,
20
"•
/CANlSl
major| LEPUS
'
/ ERIOANUS
\ 1
< ®

AOGO V,
COLUMBA
*
^^'«-~-~-
/ ^/SxAj//"*
/ A 1
\

^PHXN.X
i,^ 50
•
-*:-*- lopus '._

^.-- •
— -•- '5</4/i

•x B„
•< .•«'
/*
/
*'"^ "'" -''
MVORUS
*=::rr.
~--*^

10- 9-

TH
360' -RIGHT ASCENSION (IN DEGREES) iof magnitudes: lit I'* • 2"<^ 9 3'^ '4'^ 5'
3S2 AIH NAVIGATION

NAVIGATIONAL STAR CHART

TIm" purposp of the Star Clmrt facing this page is to assist the navigator in identifying stars

for navigation. The stars of each constellation are connected by dotted lilies; the bright stare
are idontitird with their Greek letters and the principal common names. The
stars with their
Sidereal Hour Angle and declination of each star can be determined from the map by means of
the network of vertical and horizontal lines drawn upon it for this purpose. The SHA's are
measured (0° to 300°) from the vertical line passing through the Vernal Equinox at 0°. The
declinations are measured North and South (N 90° to S 90°) from the celestial equator which
is represented by a heavy horizontal line through the center.

The user of the star chart should be forewarned that the rectangular shape of the chart
A globe would give a better repre-
distorts the relative positions of the stars in the polar regions.
sentation, and an observer from the inside would see the constellations as they appear in the
sky. Then the SUA lines would converge at the North and South poles and the equator would
be in the form of a circle.
An observer's local meridian is easily located on the chart since it coincides wnth the vertical
line whose GllA is equal to his longitude. GHA is not given directly on the chart but may be
readily obtained from the SHA which is given. For any given instant GHA may be obtained
from SHA by adding the GHAT from the daily sheet:
GHA = SHA + GHAT
Conversely SHA = GHA -GHAT
Example: Locate on the chart the local meridian of an observer in longitude 110° W on
Jan. l,at ClO^GCT. Since his longitude is 110° W, the GHA of his meridian will be 110°.
From the daily sheet for Jan. 1 at ClO"" the GHAT = 193°. The SHA of his meridian will
therefore be 110°- 193°= -83° = 277°.
The identification of a star directly overhead; i. e., in the zenith, is easily made since the
point overhead is meridian and also has a Dec. equal to the observer's latitude.
on the local
Example: Assume that the observer in the above example is in latitude 40° N and that a
star in the zenith is to be identified. The SHA of the star is exactly equal to the SHA of the
local meridian and was found to be 277°. The star's Dec. is N 40° since the observer's latitude
is equal to the Dec. of a point in the zenith.

Examination of the chart in the region of SHA ^277° and Dec. = N 40° shows the brightest
star in the region to be the first magnitude star Capella. To verify, this region of the chart may
be compared in detail with the sky. One finds the conspicuous triangle formed by the three
magnitude stars Pollux, .iVldebaran, and Capella.
first

A
star to the North or South of the zenith is easily identified because its angular distance
from the zenith is equal to the diflterence between its declination and the observer's latitude.
Thus, in the above example, Rigcl (Dec. S 10°) would appear about 50° South of the zenith or
at an altitude of 40°.
The chart may also be used with the "Star Identification Table" in H. O. 214. The table is
used to convert an observed altitude and azhnuth into Dec. and LHA. Since LHA4-Long.=
GHA, the problem becomes that of the above example; i. e., identification from SHA and Dec.
The Eolii)tic, which if shown in the diagram on the daily sheet would be a straight line, is
represented on the chart by a curved dotted line. The four bright stars of the diagram are
easily found on the chart as they lie along the Ecliptic. The Sun, Moon, and planets may bo
plotted on the chart by means of their SHA and Dec.
Example: The daily sheet for Jan. 1, 0" GCT gives GHA 01=66°, GHAb = 64°, GHAT =
100°, and Dec. 01 = Dec. b = Nl2°. This gives SHA 01 =326°, SHAb = 324°. Plotting SHA
and Dec. plates them on the Ecliptic about midway between the Vernal Equinox and Aldebaran,
whicli agrees with the daily diagram.
 APPENDIX B 383

POLARIS (1942)

LHAT Corr. LHAT Corr. LHAT Corr. LHAT Corr. LHAT Corr. LHAT Corr.

357 55 -54 88 38 «- 128 21 179 34 270 37 310 17

00 -55 89 41 _£ 129 19
+ 14 181 49 + 55 271 40,+26 311 15
-15
2 16 90 43 130 18
+ 15 184 15 +
56
272 42;+ 25 312 12
-16
56 II
91 46' -24 131 IS
+ 16 186 56 +
57
273 42+^^
24
313 12
-17
92 48 132 18 + 17 190 21 + 58
274 42 + ^^ 314 12
-18
10 25 93
:-23
48' 133 16
+ 18 194 30 +
59
275 43+ 21 315
-19
12 -20
14 34
59
94 48' 22 134 13
+ 19 201 15 +
60
276 46 +
^f
316 12
'-GO
21 15 -01 95
:-2i
48" 135 12
+ 20 211 15
+ 61 277 47+20 317
-21
12 -22
31 15 -60 96
;-20
48' 136 15
+ 21 217 30 + 60 278 45+1^ 318 12
37 30 59 97 47' 19 137 17
+ 22 221 47 +
59
279 42,+
18
319 12
-23
41 25 98 45' •18 138 18
+ 23 225 00 +
58
280 42+ }I 320 12
-24
•58
44 41' 57 99 42' •17 139 18
+ 24 227 45 +
57
281 41 + tV 321
-25
15 -26
47 15' 100 42' •16 140 19
+ 25 230 13 +
56
282 41 + 322 17
49 dz\l 101 42"^^ 141 24
+ 26 232 30 + 55
283 39+^*}^
323
-27
22 -28
30 + 34 + 37 +
41' 14 27 54 13
52 02_§^ 102 142 234 284 324 27 -29
25 + +
54 03_^^ 103 39" 13 143 32
+28 236 53
285 12
325 31
+ 29 34 J ,,
12 +
55 57_^^ 104
;-i2
36' 144 34 238
52
286 32+11 326
-30
33 -31
40 +
1

30 + 10
34' 11 30
105 145
+ 31 240 mVil 287 327 36 -32
27 +
;

106 32" 10 146 49 241 40+fO 288 328 45 -33

57 + 25 +
32
61 05_^g 107 30' 147 243 16+g 289 329 53 -34
05 +
25' 33
62 39_!^ 108 •- 149 244 60 1 ^° 290 22 J^ 331 01 -35
64 13_g 109 21
7
150 13
+ 34 246 291 17 + 332 09 -36
+35 19+ J^
47+46
65 44_g 110 17" 151 21 247 292 13+ 333 20
67 12_|^ 111 15' 5
152 30
+36 249 16+12 293 10+ 334 31
-37
68 33 112 12' 4
163 41
+
37
260 39+|4 294 08 + 335
-38
42 -39
i-44
69 52' 113 08' 3
164 52
+38 261 03+
43 2 + 39 58+^1 295 336 54
-40
71 11' 114 04'
1
156 07 ,40 253 17+|2 296 03+ 338 09 -41
72 116 00" 167 254 297 339
30Z!? 22+^J 36+ J^ 01 28 -42
41 +
*^ 57""
73 115 67 168 255 62+^0 297 340 47 -43
75
48_|J
07_|g 116 65" 1
160 00
+ 42 257 07+^^ 298 53 342 06 -44
76 18 2^ 117 52 + 2
161 23 +
43
258 19+^° 299 48" 343 28 -45
77 30l?2 118 47" 3
162 46
+ 44 269 31 + ^^ 300 46~ 344 51
78 41 119 43" 4
164 10
+45 260 40+^5 301 44
""
346 19
-46
79 52
V(.
^V 120 38" 5
166 36
+ 46 261 49+^9 302 41 347 47
-47
81 OlI|^ 121 38
6
167 03
+ 47 262 303
-
36 - 7 349 15
48
+ 7 +48 67+^t -49
82 "**
09 -33 122 35 168 40 264 05+^^ 304 32 - 8 350 60
83 15 32 123 33' 8
170 19
+ 49 266 305 9
28 -10 352 30" 50
9 13+^f 51
84 20 -31 124 31 172 Ootf? 266 18+^^ 306 26 -11 354 17
28 + -52
10 45"^^^ 23+"*"
85 26 30 125 173 267 307 24 -12 356 04
86 31" 126 26 +
11
176 34
+
52
268 28 +
29
308 21 357 66
-53
87 36 -28
•29
127 24
12+ 177 30 +
53
269 33 +
28
309 19
-13 00
-54
128 21 + + 54 37 +
88 38
13
179 34 270 27
310 17
-14 -55
2 16
384 MH AM Via AT I OS

STARS

Alphabetical order Order of SHA

..™ 1 Mm BUA o... 1 SUA Dec RA N>me

* «
Acumar . . . 3.4 315 59 S40 32 14 32 N14 64 23 02 Markal.
Arhrrnar . . . . 1 o.« 336 07 S57 32 16 24 S29 56 22 54 Fomalhaul
. 2 1. 1 174 09 S62 47 28 62 S47 16 22 05 Al Nh'ir
1.6 255 55 828 54 34 40 N 9 37 21 41 Enif
Aldebaran . . .3 1.1 291 51 N16 23 50 08 N45 04 20 39 Deneb
Alioth . . 1.7 167 08 N56 10 54 44 866 55 20 21 Peacock
Al Na'ir . . . 2. 2 28 62 S47 15 63 01 N 8 43 19 48 Altair

Aliiilaiii . . . 1.8 276 41 S 1 14 77 05 826 22 18 62 Nunki

2.2 218 49 S 8 25 81 16 N38 44 18 35 Vega
2.3 126 66 N20 54 84 66 834 26 18 20 Kaus .Aust.
Alpheratr. . . . 4 2 2 358 39 N28 46 91 11 N61 30 17 66 Etaniin
Al Siiliaii 2.2 223 32 S43 12 96 66 N12 36 17 32 Ra.salaguc
Altair .... . 5 0.9 63 01 N 8 43 97 36 837 04 17 30 8haula
Antarea . . . .6 1.2 113 32 S26 18 103 14 816 39 17 07 8abik
Arclurus . . . . 7 0.2 146 45 N19 29 (109 22) 868 66 16 43 a Tri. Aust.

< ArKiiM 1.7 234 40 S59 20 113 32 826 18 16 26 Antares (<0

H<>ilntrix 1.7 279 30 N 6 18 120 46 822 27 16 67 Dschubl.n

beleleeux .8 0. 1-1. 2 271 59 N 7 24 126 66 N26 54 16 32 Alphccca
Canoputt . . . .9 -0.9 264 20 S62 40 (137 17) N74 23 51 Kochab
Capella . . . 10 0.2 281 54 N45 56 141 05 860 36 i: 36 Rigil Kenu
Capli . . 2.4 358 29 N58 50 146 45 N19 29 14 13 Arcturua
6 Oiitauri . 2. ri 149 11 S36 05 149 11 836 05 14 03 9 Ccntauri

$ Criui« . . 1.5 168 65 S59 22 159 28 SIO 62 13 22 Spica (c>

1.6 173 00 S56 47 169 36 N66 14 13 22 Mizar

Deneb . . . 11 1.3 50 08 N45 04 167 08 N66 16 12 61 Alioth

Dcnel> Kait. 2.2 349 60 818 18 168 66 869 22 12 44 /J Crucis

Doiicliola 2.2 183 28 N14 64 173 00 866 47 12 28 > Crucis
]>M>iiil>l>a . 25 120 46 S22 27 174 09 862 47 12 23 Acrux
Diil.hf . . . 12 20 194 67 N62 04 183 28 N14 54 11 46 Denebola
Knif .... 25 34 40 N 9 37 194 67 N62 04 11 00 Dubhp
2 4 91 11 N61 SO 208 40 N12 15 10 05 Regulus (61

Komalhaut . 13 1.3 16 24 S29 56 218 49 8 8 25 9 26 Alphur.l

Haiiial . . . 22 329 02 N23 11 (221 60) 869 29 9 13 •Miapldciflus
KaiiH AuHt. . 20 84 65 S34 25 223 32 843 12 9 06 Al Suhail
K(H-)ial> 22 (137 17) N74 23 234 40 859 20 8 21 < Argus
Marfak . . 1. 9 309 67 N49 39 244 33 N28 10 7 42 Pollux
Markah . . 2 6 14 32 N14 54 245 56 N 5 22 7 3« Procyon
Minplnciilds 1.8 (221 50) S69 29 256 65 828 64 6 66 Adhara
Mi/ar . . . 2 4 159 36 N55 14 269 21 816 38 6 43 Siriua
Niiiiki 2. 1 77 05 S26 22 264 20 S52 40 6 23 Canopus
lV.i<<.<-k . . U 2. 1 54 44 S6«i 55 271 59 N 7 24 5 52 Betelfieux
PoUriM 2. 1 (3.34 04) N88 59 27(i 41 8 1 14 5 33 Alnilani
Pollux . . 15 1.2 244 33 N28 10 279 30 N 6 18 6 •n H<llatrix
Procyon . . ir. 0.5 245 56 N-5 22 281 54 N45 56 5 12 Capella
](ii-i>ln»:iif . 2 1 •.Mi' .v. NI2 31. 282 04 S 8 16 5 12 Rigel
KeKuluK . . IT 208 40 N12 16 291 51 NI6 23 4 33 Aldebaran (<.i

KiK«-l . . 0. :» 282 04 S 8 16 .30<> hi N49 3 20 .\l:irf.ik

Kigil Kent. . 1<T 0. .3 HI 05 .S60 36 .{ 1 .5 hs\ S40 32 .iti A.aii.Ki

K<i. I.l.ah . . 2. 8 :<;i9 30 N59 •it. 329 02 N23 II 2 04 Hi.n.ul
Skl>ik 2.6 103 14 SIS 39 (334 04) N88 59 44 Polaris

Slinnln 1.7 97 3.5 s:i7 0-1 336 07 S57 32 36 Arhernar

.SIriuN . . . -1.6 259 21 SI6 38 339 30 N59 56 1 Uii. I.l.nl.
Spira . . . . 21 1.2 159 28 SIO 52 349 50 KI8 18 41 I>.n('l. Kail.
• 'I'ri. AiiMt 1. 9 ( 109 22) S(iS .S.S 35S 29 N58 50 o<. C'.ipl.

Vega >> 0.1 81 N38 358 N28 46 Alphcrat/

15 44 39

HH A »- 3<i 1 RA GJ A*-.(3H/LT+Sl lA^ J«n -Apr . 19»J

 APPENDIX B 385

CONDENSED EXPLANATION
(Sec also explanation on white sheets)

1. Eachdaily shoot f;ivos llio Greenwich Sun or Moon is observed a correction must be

Hour Angle ((iifA) siiul tliM-liiiaiion (Dec.) ol" included for semidiameter. Altitudes meas-
the Sun, Vernal E(|iiino.\ (T), throe planets, ured front the sea horizon must be corrected
and Moon, at ten-miniile intervals ol" for dip. Tables for dip and refnietion aie
Greenwich Civil Time (CJCT). The values given below. The corrections for semidiam-
for A. M. are given on the front of the sheet eter and parallax are given on the daily
and for P. M. on the back. sheets (see § 3).
2. The diagram on the A. M. side of the 9. The tables. Interpolation of GHA, Dip,
sheet shows the positions of the Moon, Polaris, C 's Par. and Corr. HAC, are the so-
planets, Vernal Equinox, and four stars, called "critical" type; i. e., the values of the
Aldebaran (a), Regulus (6), Spica (c), and argument are so chosen that the tabulated
Antares {d), with respect to the Sun. The quantity increases by one unit.
two ends of the diagram.are 180° from the Sun. 10. The error of an interpolated is GHA
3. The column to the right of the heavy never as great as 1'.8, and the average error is
line on the A. M. side gives the correction about 0'.5, except for those circumpolar stars
(C's Par.) of an observed altitude of the whose SHA's are enclosed in parentheses.
Xloon for paralla.x, the semidiamcters of the
Sun (SDO) and Moon (SDC) and the REFRACTION
quantity "Corr. HA C " explained- in §5. All observed altitudes must be corrected
4. The tables on the right of the heavy
for refraction. Subtract the correction given
line on the P. M. side of the sheet give for
below from the observed altitude.
various latitudes the times of rising and
setting of the Sun and Moon, and the dura- Obser ved altitude
tion of Civil Twilight. The second column Uci(;ht in feet
r'fers to the Sun. The third column (Twit.) 5» 10° 15° 20° 30° 46° M"
gives the duration of Civil Twilight. The
fourth refers to the Moon, and the fifth
10 5 4 3 2 ; 1
(Diff.) gives the niunber of mimites later
hi which the Moon will rise or set on the
5,000 8 5 3 2
10, 000 7 4 3 2
succeeding day (interpolation for longitude).
15,000 6 3 2 2
5. Two identical tal)les are given to inter-
20, 000 5 3 2
polate the tabuiatetl GHA's for intermediate
25, 000 4 2 2
values of the GCT:- one inside the front
cover for use with the A. M. side of the sheet 30,000 3 2 1

35, 000 3 2
and one on the back of the Hap for use with 1

40, 000 2 1 1
the P. M. side. This interpolation for the
Moon may introduce an error of V, which
may be eliminjitetl by applying the correction
given on the daily sheet, "Corr. HAC."
<3. The inside back cover gives the Sidereal Altitudes measured from the sea horizon
Hour Angle (SUA) and declination of stars. must be corrected for dip. Subtract the cor-
Two lists are given: one in alphabetical rection below from the observed altitude.
order, and the other in order of SHA which
i< also the order of (illA. Those values of
tl«e SHA which may be in error by more than
Upight
r
I
Corr ll«'leht Corr. Height Height I
Corr.

<»'.5 are enclosed in parentheses.' The GHA Ft. Ft.

160
Ft.
*20
• Ft.
1380
of a star is obtained bv adding its SHA to the 2 180 670
25
1460
i^
26
(illA T '
'
6 210 730 1540
7. On the front of the' flap is a star chart, 12 250 780 28
1620
:ind on the back of the Hap is a table for 21 280 840 1700
^l
31 310 900 1790
.•inverting an observed altitude of Polaris into ^l
43 350 960 f, 1870
latitude. Preceding the Hap is a detailed 58 390 1030 9..y 1960
explanation of the tables witli examples 75 430 1090 :::: 2060
(white sheets) 93 480 1160 2150
^J
114 520 1230 Y.Z 2250
8. All observed altitudes must be corrected 137 570 1310 i^ 2340
for refraction, ami those t>f the Moon for 162 620 1380
'^^
2440
paralla.x. If the, upper or h»\\er limb of the
.ScSG AIR NAVIGATION

STARS. 1938 JUNE 3

STARS, SUN and PLANETS — APR. 24
1939
. H A t.t I rit I'o.nt «( Arir«-(;.H A T
u 00 ->
lo"

Friday, June 3
»o- JO- 40» so"
«>

X oo" lo"
G
ao"
HA o(

JO"
SUN
40™ so"
SUNS

00 47 •«JJ |8| ^55 4« 258 19 260 49 263 20 00 180 24 182° 54' 18524' i«7°54' U)^ 25 9I 55 .V /3 JO
if.5 50 26H 20 270 51 273 II 175 51 27M 2 2 01 195 25 «97 55 200 25 202 55 205 25 20755 12 31
J.Ho 52 2H3 2J ^H5 51 2H8 24 2.JO 54 293 -'4

30H 14 30 Jf* 3256 35 26 37 56 40 26 4256

•"»S 55 2.»« 2S joo 50 JOl 2<l 3" 5 5<> _•;

Jio 57 3IJ iH 3'5 i« 31H 29 320 59 32 J .-I 15 45 16 47 5*^ 50 26 52 56 55^6 57 5*^ N ,1 42

16 60 26 62 SO 65 26 67 s^ 7026 72 56 12 43
31600 328 30 33' 01 333 3> 336 01 ii>^ 3--

341 02 343 33 346 03 34« a 35' 04 353 34

356 05 358 35 I o(> 3 36 6 06 8 37
II 07 13 3« 16 08 18 38 2.1 09 ^3 3'»
26 10 28 40 31 10 33 4' 36 M 3« 4--
M
GH A o( Fir4t I'oint of ARIES - GH A T
T. GO" lo" 20" JO* 40" 50"
41 li 43 43 46 13 48 43 5' «4 53 44
56 15 5« 45 61 15 63 4'' (>b lO 68 47 t . , , ,

7' 76 18 78 48 81 19 83 00 99 30 «02 01 1 104 31 \ 10702 109 3J 112 03

'7 73 47 4'»
86 19 «8 50 ()i 20 'M 5' 96 21 98 5-'
05 74 43 '77 >3 '79 44 182 14 184 44 187 15
roi ii 103 sz 106 2i 08 53 III 24 "3 54 06 189 45 192 16 194 46 197 16 '99 47 202 17
16 n 1.8 55 121 23 •'3 126 26 128 kh
1 5<>

PLANETS STARS, SUN and PLANETS — 1940 FEB. 5

Dec GH.A. of Fir^t Point o( ARIES-C H A r
Jupiter. -2 •0 T^ CO" 10" 20" 30" 40- 50-

31'
00 134 «» 136 139 01 •41* 3* 14402 14632
63 03 N. 8 42 June 3
01 14903 '5« 33 15404 15634 159 04 161 35
Arcturl '46 47 176 45 S 11 43
I
N' '9 30 02 16405 166 36 169 06 171 37 174 07 17637
I

6 59 11 4-
Folans 4'|N 88 5«
Vega
334
97 '3 n 42 STARS, 1940 JAN.-MAR.
I 8. .7|N3H'43 j

-18 187 27 1 42
STARS, SUN and PLANETS — 1940 NOV. 28 No. Name Mag. SH^ Dic.

GH A oj SUN SUN'S .

ao" 30" Dec. 7 Arctosus 0-2 14646 A'./9 2<)

16 Procyon 0-5 24557 N. 5 »3

183 02 '85 31 188 02 190 32 193 02 5.2/ 25 2-1 5S
«95 32 47 Polans 334 '8 . 3
91 58 95 18 97 58 100 28 102 58 105 28 21 23
107 58 no 28 "1 58 115 28 11758
122 58
21 23
GREENWICH P. M
125 28 127 58 130 28 '32 58 S 21 24
GREENWICH 1941 MARCH 3
A. M. 1941 MARCH 17

OCT SlJ..
OHA Dm. oL
147 00 S*6 42 131 17
324 35 34 02 S22 46l 10 149 30 133 47
327 OG .1032 i
20 1.S2 00 136 18
329 ,36 39 02 I

332 OG 41 .33 • I

357 .53 SI 23 354 40 64 03 S22 46 123 55 SI4 21 GREENWICH P. M

23 337 66 34 22
2 53 59
I

4 69 04
126 20
128 44 23 1941 MARCH 21
5 23 •
2 1 71 34 131 OH
42 53 SI 20 39 48 109 05 S22 45 OCT SUN T
15 OHA Dk. OHA
45 23 i2 111 35
.
47 53 44 48 114 OS It m . • 1

.50 23 .
47 19 116 36 17 00 73 11 NO 16 73 491
76 iS
I
87
90
;.4
24
SI 84 55
87 25
STARS 1941 MARCH 20
10 75 41
78 11 78 sol
92 54 89 56 30 80 41 • 81 20
I 95 24 '
92 26 40 83 11 83 51
Alphabetical order |

97 54 94 57
1
50 85 41 86 21I
II
100 24 97 27
Mh. . SHA Dec. 18 00 88 11 NO 17 88 5ll

19 00 !lu)2 .S4 SI lel 09 57I

GREENWICH P. M 0.9 63 01 N
.

8 4»
GREENWICH A. M.
Altalr
1942 APRIL 12 Antarea . (<D . . 1.2 113 S3 S26 18 1941 AUGUST 8
Arctama 0.2 146 45 N19 29
T
WH • Arffus 1.7 234 40 S59 19 OHA Dt. OHA
OHA Ok-
ncllatrii 1.7 279 30 N 6 18 k m . . ' • '

A-5^ 27 17 Belel(eni 0. 1-1. 2 272 00 N 7 24 2 00 208 36N16 18 346 12

14 M 29 47 N 8 35 Canopna -0.9 264 20 S52 40 10 211 06 348 42
351 12
10 32 17 f'^n^ 0.2 281 55 N45 56 20 213 36
20 34 47 1
30 216 06 • 353 43
X 37 17 • • Polaria X.1 (SS4 12) N88 59 40 218 36 356 13
« 39 47 Poliui 1.2 244 U N28 10 50 221 06 358 44,
» 42 IT 1
Procron 0.5 245 56 N 5 22 3 00 223 36NI6 17 1 14

RMiilagtie 90 87 N12 36 ~10 226 Ut,

it w 1 44 47 N 8 36' 2. 1
228 36 ^6^1
20
10 *'' '^ Re(ul.a . . (6) . . l.S 208 41 N12 It 30 231 t)6 8 45 •

x B

U
4B 47
v.«. O.I 81 16 N»8 44 40 233 36
X 5-.' 17 •
50 236 06
40 '
54 47 238 36N16 17 16 16
4 00 1

50 57 17

I'Atiucts Iroiii .\ir Ali nac coviMin^: ]>

 APPENDIX C
SOURCES OF INFORMATION
Write to For
Department
Civil Aeronautics Board, of General information. This organization
Commerce, Washington, D. C. has charge of the publication and dis-
tribution of aeronautical information,
airway bulletins, weekly Notices to
Airmen, the Civil Aeronautics Journal,
and general promotion work for avia-
tion. It also has charge of licensing
and registering aircraft, etc.
Civil Air Regulations (C.A.R.). Effec-
tive Nov. 1, Bureau of Air
1937, the
Commerce promulgated the famous
C.A.R. representing an enormous
amount of work on the part of govern-
ment officials. These regulations vi-
tally affect all branches of the aviation
industry and have become the airman's
''bible." The C.A.R. are published in
loose-leaf form with an efficient nu-
merical index system and should be
studied carefully by all persons affected
by these new regulations.
For the 1940-1941 program special bulle-
tins have been prepared by the Civil
Aeronautics Administration covering
both primary and secondary courses
under the C.P.T.P. as follows:
Flight Instructor's Manual, Civil Aero-
nautics Bulletin 5.
Digest of Civil Air Regulations for Pilots
{Civil Aeronautics Bulletin 22).
Civil Pilot Training Manual {Civil Aero-
nautics Bulletin 23).
Practical Air Navigation {Civil Aeronau-
tics Bulletin 24).
Meteorology for Pilots {Civil Aeranautics
Bulletin 25).
Aerodynamics for Pilots {Civil Aeronau-
tics Bulletin 26).
Pilots' Airplane Manual {Civil Aeronau-
tics Bulletin 27).
Pilots' Powerplant Manual {Civil Aero-
nautics Bulletin 28).
387
 388 AIR NAVIGATION

Pilots' Riidio Manual {Civil Aeronautics

lilt 1 1 (tin 29 j.
Ground Instructor's Manual (Civil Aero-
71/111 tics Bulletin 30 j.
Upon recjucst one's name will Ix' added to

the mailing list to he notified whenever

new airway maps or new editions there-
of are issued.The C'oast and Geodetic
Survey is the distrihutinp; agency for all
aeronautical charts issued by the Air
('orps and by the Civil Aeronautics
Autfiority.
U. S. Weather l^unau, Wasliin^iton, 1). C/. Weather charts. Weather bulletins.
The Weather Bureau cooperates w^ith
the Civil Aeronautics Authority in sup-
plying weather data to U. S. airways.
National Advisory Coniniittec for Aero- Technical reports. Technical notes.
nautics (XACA), Navy Buildinf!;, Over two hundred technical reports and
Washington, D. C. a large number of technical notes have
been published by the NAC'A covering
the latest developments in all branches
of aviation, including navigation.
These are supplied free on request, ex-
cept certain pamphlets which carry a
nominal charge.
U. S. Coast and (Jeodc'tic Survey, Wash- Department of Commerce Aeronautical
ington, 1). C. Charts. Nautical charts covering the
coasts and harbors of the United States.
Special Publication197, "Practical Air
Navigation." Upon request, one's
name wall be added to the mailing list
to be notified whenever new airway
maps or new editions thereof are issued.
The Coast and Geodetic Survey is the
distributing agency for all aeronautical
charts issued by the Air Corps and by
the Civil Aeronautics Authority.
Xaval Observatory, Washington, D. C. Time sers'ice and time signals for the
entire country. Radio time signals
are broadcast hourly, except 9 .\.m.,

11 A.M., 9 P.M.. and 11 p.m., K.S.T. or

75th-meridian time. Time signals are
also broadcast by other stations at
other times.
Bureau of Standards, Washington, I). C. Continuous time service (See Chap. XII).
Hydrographic Office, Washington, D. (. Xavy strip maps.
Xavigation tables.
"Radio Aids to Xavigation."
Cliarts (outside U. S.).
Great-circle Course Charts.
Pilot Charts of the Up|ier Air.

L
 APPENDIX C 389

Aircraft plotting she(3ts.

Star Finder.
Naval Air Pilots (restricted to naval
aviators).
Notices to Aviators.
Rand McNally & Company, CJhicago, 111. ''Standard Indexed Maps with Air
Trails" for each state, and also for the
United States.
Various instrument companies. Data on the material they supply, in-
cluding a description and directions for
use.
Heretofore no single agency has supplied government charts and publications
together with other required navigation equipment. Suppose a navigator plans a
long flight requiring maps, drift indicator, navigation watches, tables, sextant, Air
Almanac, radio equipment, meteorological data, special instruction, etc. Unless such
a person has had considerable experience, he would not know from what sources to
order the various items, and trouble and delay would result. In an effort to meet this
need, the firm listed below, having official agencies, will supply any of the items listed
above, in addition to the following items.

Write to For
Weems System of Navigation, Annapolis, Aircraft plotter (Department of Com-
Md. merce Type). Scales 1:1,000,000 and
1,500,000.
Skeleton navigation charts of the world.
Scale 1:5,000,000 (see Chap. IV).
Universal plotting sheet to scale 1:1,000,-
000 for use with the Aircraft plotter.
D. F. radio navigation charts of U. S.
"Navigation Note Book" with universal
plotting sheets facing ruled pages.
"Star Altitude Curves" (new three-star
edition).
Star charts.
Dalton Mark VII computer.
Dalton Mark VIII computer. (Alumi-
num circular slide rule.)
Dalton Type El-A computer.
Dalton Type El-B computer.
Dalton Model J computer.
Mark II, III, and IV plotting boards.
Sextants, second-setting watches, Gatty
ground-speed and drift meter. Drift
indicators, compasses, and any other
item of navigation equipment.
All government maps, charts, and
pubhcations.
Foreign maps and charts.
Instruction by resident and home-study
courses.
Consultant services.
IVM) AIH NAVIGATION

.\a\ifi;ati()nal and aviation texts.

" Radius of Action of Aircraft," Tornich.
Covers wind and radius of action
problems thoroughly as well as dead-
reckoning navigation.
''Instrument Flying." W'ecinsand Zweng.
Covers re(iuiremen1s for instrument
rating.
"Simplified CelestialNavigation,"
Weems and Covers celestial
Link.
navigation requirements for secondary
CPTP course.
 Index

Air currents, 230^.

causes of, 230
Abbreviations, 12 general circulation of, 233
Acceleration error, 58, 59 influence of mountain ranges on, 238
bubble sextant, 295 Air density, 195
turning error, 58 Air flow over mountains, 238
Adcock system, 98 Air masses, 240-245
Adiabatic cooling, 216 classification of, 241-242
Adiabatic lapse rate, 214 heating and cooling, 219
dry, 214 life history of, 240
moist, 215 properties of cold mass, 242, 243, 244,
of temperature, 225, 264 260
Adiabatic process, 214 of warm mass, 244, 260
Adjusted altitude line, 326 Air-navigation tables, 313
Advection, 265 Air pilotage, 71-89
fog, 260 getting lost during, 72-73
Aerial navigation symbols, 32 overland flying, general rules for, 71-72
Aerology, 265 preparation for, 71
Aeronautic radio stations, designation of, procedure in flight, 72
95 selection of landmarks, 75

Aeronautical charts, 27-29 use of bearings, 73-75

of ranges, 73
great-circle, 27
index to,28 Air pockets, 265
magnetic, 27 Air pressure, 195
planning, 27 illustration, 195
radio D/F, 27 Air speed, 115
regional, 27 Air-speed indicator, 133
sectional, 27 Air-speed meter, 191
Aeronautical lighting, 76 Air temperature, 195
characteristics, 78 Aircraft, icing on, 228
ranges, 79 light requirements of, 81
requirements, 81 Aircraft compass, 7
Aeronautics, National Advisory Com- Aircraft phone, 91
mittee for, 388 Aircraft plotter, 37
Agonic lines, 46 illustrated, 38
Aids to navigation, 78, 82, 90 laying course, 37
Air, heating and cooling of, Mark II, 37
over land, 217 measuring course, 37
over oceans, 218 measuring distance, 38
mixing of, 224-225 paralleling line, 38
Air Almanac, 275, 304 Aircraft radius-of-action formulas, 368
Air Almanac, British, 304 Aircraft sextant, 288
Air Commerce Act [Sec. b{g)], 82 acceleration error, 291, 295
391
31)2 .1//.' .\.\ \ KlATKfX

Aircraft sextant alt it udc corrections,

, 20(1 Ascension, right. 273
adjustment. 201
l)ul)l)le Astrograph, 313
errors, 293 Astronomical triangle;. 2S3
index-error adjustment, 29') illustration, 283
Link avera^in^, 292 solving, 283
principle of, 2.SS Astronomy, elementary. 275
Air|)lane headlight, S2 not(;s on, 275
Airport. 79 Atlantic crcssing. 351
Airp(»i-t 79
list iiiK'^. first, 354
Awporl location beacon. 81 first non-stop. 351
Airport obstruction ligld. <S1
Atmosphere, 194
Airway Ix'acon, SO, 81 circulation of, 235. 205
Airway obstruction li^lit, 81 composition, 195
Airways, federal aids to, 78 heating and cooling of, 217
lijrhtinfT. SI
Atmospheric pressure, 195
navi|i;at ion alonjj;, 83 Aural radio beacon, 92
iuivi{2;atio!i on, 78
Autumnal equinox, 273
operation of, 79 Averaging ])ub})le sextant, Link, 292
radio aids, 82
Aviation nuips and charts, 23
Aleock-Hrown first non-stop Atlantic
American, 27
crossing, 354
international, 20
Almanac, XautiraL 275. 304
Aviator's dead-reckoning tables, 361
Almanac, Air, 275, 304
Aviators' speed-time-distance table, 303
Altimeter, 132-133. 2(55
Avigation, definition of, 1

yMtitude, and azimuth, coordinates, 274

Axis of the earth, 5,
circl(>s of eciual curves, 283, 333, 334,
definition, 6
33(), 337, 338
illustration, 5
of Sim, 335
Azimuth, 271
illustration, 335
definition, 8
Altitude curves, 333-337
by Ogura's table B, 321
Altitudes of Polaris. 339
Rust's diagram, 315, 318, 323
339
lindinjr la-titude.
Alto-eunuilus. 200. 203
illustration, 203
B
Alto-stratus cloud, 200, 202
illustration, 202 Backing, 205
American Practical Xdvigalor, 17 Balloon, light requirements for, 82
Anemograph, 205 Bank-and-climb gyro control unit, 185

Anemometer, 205 illustrated, 186

Aneroid barometer, 133, 205 Bank-and-turn indicator, 191

Angle, conversion, 104, 120, 300 lianking, etTect on compass, 59
Anti-cyclone, 254, 255, 205 Bar magnet. 43
Aperiodic comj)ass, 50, 51 Barograph. 205
illustration, 50. 51 Barom(>t(T, 205
Apparent motions ol" heavenl}- bodies, 275 an(M*oid. 2()5

Approach light, 81 Basic A(>ronautical Maj) of World. 20

Arctic air, 205 Bausch Ivomb, 292
«.<t

Arctic fog. 208 Beacon, airport location, 81

Arctic smoke. 205 airway. 80
ArioH, first point of. 273 radio nuirker, 78
Artificial liori/on. 1!)1. 271. 291 r.adio range. 78. 99
8perry, 170, 177 rotating, 78
 INDEX 393

Beacon, standard installation airways, Celestial meridian, 271

80
illustration, Celestial navigation, 2, 26, 269^.
Bearing, compass, 8 choice of methods, 312
'

definition of, 8 . comparison of methods for, 312, 354,

intercept, 9 358
magnetic, 8 distance limits, 150
Radio, 90 equipment, 288^.
relative, 8 examples by various methods, 359
use of, 74 introductions to, 269
Bearing plate, 136 limits of accuracy in, 287
Bearings or drift lines, fixing position by, methods of, 312
74 polar, 340
Beaufort's scale of wind force, 199 illustrated, 342
Bellini-Tosi System, 98 theory of, 282
beacons, 94 Celestial poles, 271
night effect, 98 Celestial sphere, 269
Bentley, Major E. C, 336 Centigrade scale, 197
Big Dipper, 306, 307, 311 conversion of Fahrenheit, 198
Blind flying, actual experiences, 171, 172 Characteristics of aeronautical lights, 81
definition of, 2 Chart, colored, 31
discussion of, 171 colors, 34
instruments for, 173 features, 15
landing, 192 gnomonic, 19
physical reactions to, 172 gradients, 34
rules for, 192 -
great-circle, 19, 27
training for, 188 hachures, 33
Blind landing, 192 Mercator, 16
Lorenz system, 99 polar, 18
Blizzard, 265 reading, 29
Boundary lights, 80, 81 special, for aviators,27
Bowditch, Nathaniel, 17 star,306
Breeze, land and sea, 235 systems of projections, 15
Bridges, lights for, 82 Universal plotting, 24
British Air Almanac^ 304 Charts, 14, 388
Brownell-Weems Star Finder, 305 basic aeronautical, 20
Bubble correction for sun, stars, and coordinates, 29
planets, 371, 372 cultural features, 31
Bubble sextant, accuracy of, 291 definition of, 15
error in, 293 folding, 40
practical adjustment of, 343 foreign, 19
Bumpiness, 239, 265 general aeronautical, 23
Bumstead sun compass, 69 handling in air, 29
Bureau of Standards, 388 international, 19
Buys-Ballott's Law, 265 international aeronautical, 20
itinerary, 20
Lambert projection, 104
local aeronautical, 23
Calm, 199 reading of, 29
Carrier, moving, returning to, 121 reliefs and contours, 33
Cassiopeia's chair, 312 scale, 29
Ceiling, 197, 211 distortion, 23
Celestial coordinates, 273 illustrated, 31
394 AIR NAVIGATION

('hiirls, skeleton n;ivi>:;;iti()ri, 2.'i Commission.'^ for the discovery of the

symbols, 31 loiiKitude at sea, 300
systems of projection, lo Compa.ss, 7, 41-70, 131
types in use, 27 acceleration error, 59
r.S. jioronautical regional, 343 adjustment of, 02
r.S. aeronautical sectional, 343 aircraft magnetic, theory, OC)

use of colored, 31 bearing, 8

water features, 31 cathode-ray, 68-69
where obtained. 388 comp(;nsation, 66-07
W'SN navigation, 23 course, 8
Checking position, importance of, 72 earth-inductor, 07-68
Ciioice of methods for celestial naviga- error, 60
tion, 312 gyro type, 8
Chronometer, causes of error, 300 gyroscopic, 70
Harrison type, 300 history, 41
history of, 299 magnetism, 42
ratinjr, 301 needle and pivot, illustrated, 59
(
'ircle, Kreat, definition, 5 non-magnetic, 69
small, definition, 6 problems, 70

Circles, of altitude, 271

rose, 8
sun, 69
of equal altitude, 283
testing ground, 62
hour (declination), 271
theory, 41
vertical, 271
turning-error diagram, 60
Cirro-cumulus, 200, 202
('ompass readings, converting, 05
illustrated, 202
rules for, 65
(
"irro-stratus cloud, 200
Condensation, 265
illustrated, 201
level, 220
Cirrus cloud, 200
Conformal conic (Lambert) projection, 15
illustrated, 201
Constellations, 305
Civil Aeronautics Board, 387 appearance and names of principal con-
information supplied by, 387
Civil time, 276
stellations Latitude 30°-50°N, 307
Latitude 35°S, 309
\
Classification of clouds, 200 times visible, north latitude, 306
Climb, rate of, indicator, 130 Trsa Major (Big Dipper), 311
(
'locks {see Timepiece) Contours, 33
Cloud formation, 248, 251 Convection, 220/., 265
(
'loud forms, 190 Convergence, 265
Cloudburst, 20.')
Convergency, 102
Cloudiness, 197, 211 Conversion angle, 104, 126. 360
( louds, abbreviations for, 200 Coordinates, chart, 29
classifications of, 200 systems of, 273, 274
illustrated. 201-208 Coriolis correction, 299
types of, defined. 220-222 Correction, for earth' rotation. 371
illustrated. 223 for height, 371
Coast and (leod(>tic Survey. 388 for pressure, 371
radio direction-finding ciiarts, 27 for temperatures, 371
Col. 245, 240. 255, 205 Course, 8
(
'old :iir ?nMSs. 241 angle, 36
properties of. 212 definition of. 8
Cold front. 2t)5 great -circle, 8
(olored maps, 31 Mcrcator, 9
 INDEX 395

Course, plotting, 37 Dead reckoning, tables, 361

Course and bearing, 35 theory, 113-129
and distance plotting, 35 triangle of velocities, 116
and track, 35 value, 113-114
Course-correction table, 364 weather information, 156
Course errors for distance off course, 367 wind and allied problems, 114^.
Courses, plotting, 34 Dead-reckoning equipment, 131, 132,
Mercator chart, 34 133, 136, 137, 144-149
Coutinho south Atlantic crossing, 355 Dead-reckoning formulas, 370
Cumulo-nimbus cloud, 200, 204 Dead-reckoning tables, 361
illustrated, 205, 206 Declination, circles of, 271
Cumulus cloud, 200, 204 and hour angle, 274
illustrated, 204 Definitions, and abbreviations for celes-
Curves, altitude, 333 tial sphere, 269-273
application, 334 dead-reckoning, 115
finding destination by, 338 of meteorology, 264-268
precomputed, for making landfall, 336 for navigation, 2, 8
"Star Altitude Curves," 333 of units of distance, 11
for two bodies, 336 Deflecting force of earth's rotation, 231
Cyclone, tropical, 253, 254, 268 Degree, definition of, 6
Departure, definition of, 7
illustration of, 7
Department of Commerce, information
Dalton computer, Mark VII, 139-144, furnished, 387
342 Depression, development of, 249
Model G, 145-147 traveling, 247
Model J, 147 Designations of U.S. aeronautic radio
Type E-IA, 144-145 stations, 95
Dalton plotting boards, 149 Deviation, 9 /

Damping of liquid compass, 47 analysis of, 61

Date, Greenwich, 280 correction for, 153
Day, civil, 276, 277 curve of, 57
sidereal, 276, 277 magnetic, 55
solar, 276, 277 rules for applying, 57
Dead reckoning, accuracy, 150 Deviation card, 153
computations, 137, 138 Deviation table, preparation, 63
1, 115
definitions, recording and using, 65
great-circle sailing, 124 Dew, 266
ground speed, determination of, 127 Dew point, 266
incorrectly determined, 129 Diagram, Rust's, 315
importance of the wind, 114 time, 277
interception, 121 Difference, of latitude and longitude, 6
letdown procedure, 161 Dip, 297
Mercator sailing, 125 angle of, 46
methods, 124 Direction, definition of, 7

moving base and relative wind, 121 wind, 156

position, identification, 155 Direction finder, 84, 98, 108, 109
record of, 151 Direction gyro, control unit, 185
practice, 150^^. illustrated, 186
preliminary work for, 152 Directional gyro, 137, 191
problems, 157-170 Directional radio, 91
suitable charts, 151 Dispatchers, 83
'Mi] AIL' \ A \ ICAT/OX

Distance. (Idiiiit ion. <) ll(juisignal beacons. 92

limits for naxi^at ion, 3 I'lrrors, acceleration and turning. 5K (il

olT-cours.-. table ol". 'M\7 compass, 53

polar-, 272 index-error adjustment, 295
rlmnil. line. 9 in radio direction finding, 101-102
cliait illustiatinj^, 1 1 sextant. 293
unit> ol. 11

I )istmliances. traxclin^. 2 l-V/".

1 )i\'er^ence, 2()()
Fahrenheit scale, 266
Doldrums. 233. 2(W)
Fathom, definition of, 11
Dole race, 35.')
First Atlantic crossing, 354
Draftinji; machine. 39
non-stop, 354
universal. 39
Fix, by bearings, 73
Drift, 3()2
by position lines, 332
allowance for wind, lOS
running, 285, 286
Clatty indicator, 132
Fixed base, operations from. 123
measiirijifj; ground speed hy, 134
Flare, parachute, 82
table, 3()2
Flashes of aeronautical lights, 76-78
Drift an{j;le, 115
Flight analysis, 84
Drift indicator, (latty j)erisc()i)ic, 343
Flight plan, 87
Drift lines, 137
Flight schedule, 83
Drift sifrhts. 131
Fog, 226-227
l)ri/,/.le. 20(). 210. 211. 2()()
advection, 207, 260
Dust. 209
arctic smoke, 208
Dry-a.liahatic coolinfr. 21(). 221
formation of, 206
Dry-adiabatic Jajjse rate, 217
ground, 208
1 )\iianiic cooling. 2()()
ice, 208

radiation, 207
visibility, 206
Fohn, 266
I'.art h. axis of. 5, (>

Folding charts, 40
definitions, (i

Force, deflecting, 231, 232

magnetic field of. 4 1

Forecasting, 262-264
magnetic iK)les of, 44
Foreign charts, 19
rot.ational effect, 299
Formidas dead reckoning, 370
for
shajx' of. 5
for radius-of-action problems, 368
i'iarth-inductor compass, (17
Friction layer, 266
l-:clii)tic, 273
Front, 245
I'ilapsud time clock, 135
cold, 263
illectric deviation, 104
occluded, 262
Mngineers, I'.S. Army, 82
polar, 246, 252
liphcnieris. lunar, 304
lApuilor. celestial, 271
warm, 263
wind variations and, 252
definition of, 6
Frontal zoiu\ 246, 247
illustration, 5
Frontogenesis, 245
M(|uat()rial air, 2()()
Frost, in air, 208
I'!(luinoctial. 271
glazed, 266
iMjuinoxes. 273
Kcpiipment, celestial, 2SS-331
dead-reckoning, 130 149
sources of information on. 3S7 390 Cale, 266
summary of, 130 Clattv, Harold, 132
 INDEX 397

Gatty, drift indicator, 132 H

periscope drift indicator, 343
Geographical mile, 11 Hachures, 33, 34
Geographical position of heavenly bodies, Hail, 210
.274 soft, 210

Geostrophic wind, 232, 233 Hailstorms, 224

Gillmer flight computer, 147-148 Hawker and Grieve, 354
Glazed frost, 266 Haze, 209
Glide-path beam, illustration, 100 Heading, 115
Gnomonic projection, 19 compass, 9
Goerz sun compass, 69 definition of, 8
Goniometer, 98 magnetic, 9
Gradient, 266 Heavenly bodies, apparent motion, 275
pressure, 232, 233, 266 High, 266
wind, 266 "H. O. 205," 90
Gradients, 34 ''H. O. 206," 90
Great circle, course, 8 "H. O. 214," 313, 322
trigonometrical calculation of, 125
Hoarfrost, 266
definition, 5
Homing bearings, use of, 107-109
illustration, 5
Homing devices, 97
Great-circle sailing, 124-125
Horizon, artificial, 271
vs. Mercator flying, 125
bubble, 291
conversion, 126
celestial, 270
Greenwich civil time, 278, 279
cloud, 291
Greenwich date, 280
gyroscopic, 291
Greenwich hour angle, 272
pendulous, 291
interpolation of, 374
Sperry artificial, 176, 177
Ground position identified, 155
illustration, 177
Ground speed, 115
Horizontal magnetic force, 46
determination in flight, 127
Horse latitudes, 266
navigation errors caused by, 129
Ground-speed and drift table, 362 Hour angle, 272
Ground speed in per cent of air speed, 365 and declination, 274
Greenwich, 272, 274, 374
Gust, 266
local, 272, 281
Gyro, directional, 137, 185, 186
relation to sidereal time, 273
horizon, 291
time and, 276
Gyro compass, 70
Gyro control, illustration, 187 Hour circles, 271
mounting unit, 187 Humidity, 198
servo unit, 187 relative, 225, 267
speed valves, 187 specific, 225
Gyro turn indicator, 135, 175, 176 Hurricane, 266
Gyropilot, nerve system, 185 Ilydrographic Office, 388
how used, 188 "H. O. 205," 90
Gyroscope, 173-176 **.H. O. 206," 90
applications in aircraft instruments, "H. O. 214," 313
175 sample page from, 322
Gyroscopic compass, 70 Hydrometeors, 209-211
Gyroscopic horizon, 291 Hygrograph, 266
Gyroscopic instruments, 175 Hj'grometer, 266
Gyroscopic pilot, 179-185 hair, 198
398 MU SAVldATIOS
Inversion, 22.J, 22(i, 239, 240, 2(57
Isallohars, 207
Ice toK, 2().S Isobars, 232, 233, 2.^)7, 203, 2()4, 207
Ice formation on aircraft, 22S, '2'M) Lsogonic line.s, 40
computed intensity of. 230 Isotherm, 24.'), 202, 207
Ice needles. 2().S

Identification of linlits, 71)

of starsand |)lanets. 30')

Illuminated wind indicatoi-, Si Jensen aircraft computer. 13S. 139

lllyne Star Chart. 30.") illustration, 140

Index correction, 29() .Jupiter, 30.5

Index map, 21, 22

jiciieral aiToiinut ical, 21 K
local aeronautical. liurope, 22
Indicator, air speed, 133-13') Kilometer, definition of, 1

hank and clinih. IS") 1S() Knot, definition of, 1

hank and twin. \\)\

Catty drift, 132
gyro turn. 135
illuminated wind, 81 Lallemand projection, 20
rate-of-climh. 13() Lambert charts, 104
wind, 81 Lambert conformal conic projection, 18
Induced nui{2;neli.sm, 13 illustrated, 17, 18
polarity of, 43 Land and sea breezes, 235
Induction in hard and soft iron, 43-44 Landing, blind, 9&-101
Inductor coiii])ass, (iT Landing-area flood light, 81
theory of. (i? Landing field, approach lights, 81
Information and (MiuipnuMil. ;iS7-390 intermediate, 79, 80
Instal)ility, '2i\i\ Landmarks, selection of, 75
conditional, 2I() Lapse rate, 214, 207
illustration, 213, 21.') Latent heat, 214
total, 21() Latitude, definition of,

Instruments, dead-reckouiiiji. 130 illustration of, 5

Intercept hearinji;. 9 Lightning, 224
headinfi;. 9 aeronautical, 70. 78. 79, 81
track, 9 Lights, aircraft navigation. 81-82
Interce])t ion of aircraft and ships. 121, airport, 81
122 airway, 81
Intermediate landing lields, 79 SI alternating, 70
International aeronautical charts. 20 ai)proach, 81
International chart of the world, 19 brilliancy of, 78
Internation;d ( "oniniission fof Air N;i\i- characteristics of, 78
gation, 213 condiination, 70
International (l.it(« line. 2S() course, 78
International M,ip ('oniinittcc of th(> fixed, 70. 78
World. 19 flashing, 76
Internation;il Mctcon)lo^ic:ii ( )ijj:;ini/;i- flood. 81
tion. 21 1 flying. 81, 82
weather code, 211
Intern.Mt ional identification of. 70
interpolation for CIIA, 371 luminous and geographic range of, 79
table, 371 navigation, 70
Inverse scjuare law, 11 obstruction, 82
 INDEX 399

Lights, occulting, 76 Lunar day, 276

period, 78 Lyon computer, 149
private beacon, 78
ranges of, 79 M
Limit of accuracy, for celestial naviga-
tion, 287 Mackerel sky, 267
for dead reckoning, 150 Magnetic compass, 47, 191
Lindbergh, New York-to-Paris Flight, aperiodic, 50
150, 355 illustrated, 48-51
1933 south Atlantic flight, 356 compensating device, 47, 50
Line, course, 9 errors, 53, 66
lubber's, 50 expansion chamber, 47
rhumb, 9 liquid, 49
Line squall, 267 lubber's line, 47
cloud, 205 magnetic needles, 47
Line of position, 284, 332 mounting, 52, 66
advancing or retarding, 333 observer's, 51
assumed position, 336 types of, 50
corrections, 341 vertical dial steering, 51
in flight, 348 Magnetic course, 8
by star altitude curves, 330 Magnetic deviation, 55
"Line of Position Book," 313, 315, 349 analysis of, 61
instructions for, 315-323 curve 57
of,

sample pages, 316, 317 illustrated, 56

solution by, 349 rules for correcting, 58
Lines of force, 42 Magnetic 42
field,

magnetic, 42 of earth, 44
Lines of magnetic declination (variation), forces in, 42
illustration, 45 Magnetic induction, hard iron, 43
Lines of position plotted, 285, 319 polarity, 43
by azimuths, 286 soft iron, 43
discovery of, 284 Magnetic lines of force, 42
fix by, 285 Magnetic needles, 48
limit of accuracy of, 287 Magnetic poles, earth's, 44
Link averaging bubble sextant, 292 Magnetic variation, illustrated, 53, bb
errors, 293 rules for correcting, 54
photograph, 293 Magnetism, of aircraft, 46
Link celestial-navigation trainer, 359 blue poles, 41
Link sextant, 346 red poles, 41
collimator, 294 Magnitudes, star, 311
Link timer and sextant, 346 Map, colored, 31
Link trainer, cockpit, 190 coordinates, 31
described, 191 cultural features, 15
illustrated, 189 definition, 15, 29
instruments, 191 handling and reading, 21, 22, 29
Local hour angle, 281, 283 illustrated, 28, 30
Log sheet, pilot's navigational, 88 international, 19
Longitude, definition of, 6 navy strip maps, 29
difference of, 6 projections, 15
illustrated, 5 Rand McNally and Co., 389
Lorenz system of blind landing, 99-101 reliefs and contours, 33
Low, 267 scale of distance, 29
400 WA' AM VICATIOS

Map, synihols. :n . \V1 Meteorology, storm. 199, 268

wattT features on, \\\ temperature, 196, 197. 198
Mare. St. Ililaire method. 2s:) typhoon, 253
Mark \II aircratt (•oiiii)uter. 139 lU velocity equivalents to Beaufort's scale
Marker i)eaeoii, 91. liH of wind force, 200
Mas.-^es, air. 210 21.") visibility (see Visibility)
Mean i)re.s.sure, in .\iigust, 234 weather analy.sis, 257, 262
in Fel)ruary, 23 I Beaufort's scale of, 199
Mercator hearings. coiucrtiiiji; radio wind. 198. 2.30
I)earings to. 102 zones, frontal, 246, 247
Mercator chart , 31 Meter, air-speed, definition
of, 133-135
illustrated, 31 Methods, of converting observations intf)
practical const iiicl ion,
positions. 312-330
.showing curxcs of (•(111 ,1 hvArxu^ importance of mastering. 4
(illustrated 1, 10.")
uses of, 2
Mercator course, definition of, 9
Mile, geographical. 1

Mercator flying \s. great-circh ying. 12.")

nautical, definition of, 1 1

Mercator i)lotting sheet for use with

statute, definition of, 1

"Star .Mtitude Curves," 331

Mileage chart, Columbus to Newark. 86
McM'c.ator projection, 15
Mist, 206, 210, 267
M<Midian. altitude, 339
freezing, 210
iUust rated. 310
definition,
Moist-adiabatic, cooling, 2 It), 221
()

prime, 278 Moisture content, 216

6,

Meridians, dc^fiiiition of. G

Monsoons, 234, 235, 267
illustration, .")
^Monthly star-identification table. 308
Meridional parts and length of 1° of
Moon, position lines by, 286
longitude* and latitude, 369
Moon sight, sample solution, 320
Met(T, definition of. 1
Mountain ranges, influence of. on air

Meteorograi)h, 2(57 currents, 238, 239

Meteorological elements, 19G Moving base and relative wind, 121

Meteorological frequency tables, 213

Meteorological observations. 213 X
Meteorology, 2
analysis, weather, 2.')7-2()2 N-A system of ratlio-range beacons. 92
ant icvclone, 2.')4-2.").") Nadir, 270
applied, definitioi\ of, 2 National Advisory Committee for Aero-
atmosphere (sec .\tmosphere) nautics. 388
liuy.s- Ballot's law, 2().') information supplied by, 388
chart. s>noptic. 2()<S Nautical mile, definition, 11
definition of, 2 Naval Obser\atory, 388
forecasting, 2()2 2(')l Navigation, 192
glossary. 2(>4 2()S charts, WSX. 21. 25
introduction. 191 definition of, 1

map, weather. 2.")7

distance limits for \arious methods,
mass, air (.see .\ir m.a.s.ses) 3
meteorogr:»ph. 2()7 along establislunl airways, 83
millibar. 197 in flight, 344
moistiire content of the air. 210 flight Link Sextant and timer,
to test
pressure, atmospheric, 197 346
illustration,
radiation. 21 great circle computations bet'ore flight,
fog. 207 124-125

1
 INDEX 401

Navigation, radio, 102^'. Pilot balloon, 267

345
test flight as plotted, Piloting, definition of, 2
uses of each method, 2-4 in flight, 72
Navigation auxiliary tables, 371 importance of checking position in, 72
Navigation equipment, celestial, 288- in preparing for a flight, 71, 72
331 rules for, 71, 72
dead-reckoning, 130-149 Pitot tube, 135
sources of information on, 387-390 Planets, identification of, 305
Navigation lights, 76 navigation by, 305
illustration, 77 Plotter, aircraft, 37, 38
Navigation methods, 1, 124 Plotting on chart, 34, 124
"Navigation Notebook," 26 Plotting charts, 24-26
Navigation tables, air, RAF, 313 aircraft, 26
Navigation triangle, 282 universal, 25, 26
Navy strip charts, 29 Plotting courses and distances, 125
index, 30 Plotting lines of position, 319
Needles, magnetic, 48 illustration, 106
Nephoscope, 267 Polar air, 267
Nimbo-stratus cloud, 200, 204 Polar distance, 272
Noonan, Frederick J., 359 Polar front, 267
Northerly turning error, 58 Polar stereographic projection, 15, 18
No-wind position, 115 Polaris, latitude by star altitude curves,
326, 327
O tabulation in almanac, 383
Poles, celestial, 271
Observations, methods of converting into magnetic, the earth's, 44
positions, 312-330 Position, converting observations into,
Obstruction lights, airport, 82 312-330
Obstruction marker, 82 how identified, 155-156
Occlusion, 267 importance of keeping record of, 151
Octant, 288 by radio, 106-107
Official International Conference, re- Position lines, by azimuths, 286
garding charts, 19 plotting on chart, 285
Ogura's table B, of azimuths, 321 plotting from long-distance radio bear-
Operations, from a fixed base, 123 ings, 106-107
from a moving base, 121 Post-Gatty Round-the-world flight, 356
Orientation, radio-range, 93, 94 Potential temperature, 267
Orion, 312 Potentiometer, 97
Orographic rain, 267 Practice of dead reckoning, 150^.
Ozone, 267 Precipitation, 197, 210, 267
frontal, 210
Precomputed altitude curves, 333
Preparation for a fhght, 71
Pan American Airways, 356-359 Pressure, air, 196, 197
Adcock direction finder, 98 changes, 196
Parachute flare, 82 gradient, 232, 233, 266
Parallax, 297 millibar, 197
Parallels of latitude, 6 unit of, 197
illustration, 5 Prime meridian, 6, 278
Pelorus, 136 Prime vertical, 271
Petterssen, Dr. Sverre, 194 Procedure for weather forecasting, 264
402 AIR NAVIGATION

I'rojcction, jijnonioiiic, \\) Radio-range beacons, orientation. 93

Lalleniand, 20 theory of aural type of, 92
Lambort conforinal conic, 17 Radio .signals, 91
polar steroograj)liic, IS Radiotelegraphy, 91
scalo distortion, IS Radiotelephony, 91
systems of, 15 Radius of action of aircraft, formulas, 368
Projections used in construction of WSX problems, 120, 157-170
charts, 14 "Radius of Action of Aircraft," by Mary
Tornich, 123
Q Rain, 209
freezing, 210
(Quadrant, 288 Rand xMcNally and Co., 389
Quadrantal error, 97 Range of lights, 79
Ranges, use of, 73
Rate-of-climb indicator, 136, 191
Rating of watches, 301-303
Radiation, solar, 218 lieceiver, rotatable loop, 96-97
Radiation fog, 207 Recording })arograph, 265
Radio, Adcock system, 98 Records, importance of, for positions, 151
advantages and disadvantages, 95, 96 sample, 151
as aid to navigation, 82 Refraction, 297
aircraft radiotelephone, 110 in sextants, illustration. 297
aural beacon, 92 Regional charts, use of, 34
l)eam, 100 Relative bearing, 8
l)eam type, 100 Relative wind, 121
bearings by, 106-109 Relative bearing lines, 137
Hellini-Tosi system, 98 Reliefs and contours, 33
blind landing by, 98-101 Rhumb line, 9-10
conclusion, 112 definition of, 10
directional, 92 distance, 9
errors in direction finding, 101-102 Ridge, 267
flying course by, 93 Right ascension, 273
homing bearings, 107-109 and declination. 273
homing devices, 97 and hour angle, 273
indirect homing, 110 Rose, compass, 147. 148
influence of, on keeping time, 303-304 Rotation of earth. 299
Lorenz system, 99-101 Running fix. 2S6
marker beacon, 94, 191 Rust, azimutli diagram. 315. 318
plotting position by, 106
position finding by, 2
l^rinciples of, 91
techniciue of radio navigation, 102-112 Sailing. great-circl(\ 124. 125
convergency, 102 St. Hilaire's methoil. 285
conversion angl(% 103 218
Salinity,
curves of ec^ual bearing, 104 Sandstorm, 209
electric deviation, 104 Scale of distance, 29, 31
Radio bearing charts, 90 illustrated, 31
Radio compass, 91, 191 Scale of wind force, Beaufort's, 199
Rjidio-compass station. 1 10 Scales, for charts, 39. 31
Radio position finding, definition of. 2 temperature, 197, 198
Radio-range beacons, 92 Schedule sheet, TWA, 85, 86
operation. 92 Scliellar. 98
 INDEX
403
Scud, 268
Sperry artificial horizon,
Sea breeze and land breeze, 235 illustrated, 177
Sperry gyro-pilot, 18,5-188
Second-setting watch, 301
Sphere, celestial, 269
hour and minute hands of, 301 definition, 5
illustrated, 302
illustrated, 5
rating of, 301, 303
Spherical triangle, 313
Second World War, 359
solution of, 320
Sectional chart, portion of, 28
Squall, line, 267
Sectional charts, course and bearin S^'
cloud, 205
35, 36
wind, 205
measuring course, 36
Stability, 213, 215, 268
use of, 34
Semidiameter, 298 illustrated, 215
Sensitive altimeter, 191 Standard time, 279
Sextant, 288 Star, line of position by sight, sample
acceleration error, 295 solution, 319, 320
aircraft, 291 "Star Altitude Curves," 313, 323
averaging, 292 adjusted altitude of, 326, 329
disadvantages of, 291 graphical representation of, 324
errors,293 mercator chart template to use with
Link averaging bubble, 292 331
optical principles of, 288 other methods of using, 326-330
parts, 290 practical use
of, 326
principle, 290 sample sheet, 327, 329
types of, 292 Star chart, 381
Showers, 211 Stars, altitude curves, 323-330
Sidereal day, 276 charts, 305, 306, 307
Sidereal hour angle, 273 constellations of, 305-311
chart, 380 identification of, 305
Sidereal time, 325 Illyne's, 308, 309
Sights, drift, 131 magnitudes of, 311
sextant, 291 and planets for navigation, 305
Signals, radio-beacon, 92, 93 projected on celestial sphere, 305
radio time, 303, 304 tabulation in almanac, 384
Sleet, 210 Stations, for broadcasting weather in-
Small circle, definition of, 6 formation, 111, 112, 255
illustration, 5 designations of aeronautic radio, 95
Smoke, 209 radio-compass, 110
Snow, 210 use of those not on route, 109
granular, 210 Statute mile, definition of, 11
Soft hail, 210 Steering, 9
Solar day, 276 Storm, 199, 268
Solar system, relative to
universe, 274 Strato-cumulus, 200, 204
275 illustrated, 203
Southern Cross, 312
Stratosphere, 228, 229, 268
Specific humidity, 268
Stratus, formation of, 226. 227, 228 '>38
Speed, air, 115, 116-117 206
ground, 115
Stratus cloud, 200, 206
by tables, 362, 365
illustrated, 208
Speed indicator, 133-135
Strip charts, 29
Speed timer, illustrated, 131
index, 30
Speed-time-distance table, 363
navv, 29
404 Alii \.\ Via AT I OS

Sul)|)(M-inaii(Mit inn^iict ism, 57 Time, radio signals. 303-304

Siihsidcnco, 2()S reckoning, methods of. 275

Sul)S()l;ir position, 274 sidereal. 27()

Sul)stolhir position, 27 I standard and /-on(\, 279
Subtropiciil anticycloiu's. 2',V^, 2:^."), 2 K) 276
iHiits of,
265 Time diagram, 277
Sumner, Thomas II., discoxcrcr of lines 'i'ime-speed-di.stance table, 363
of position, 28 Timekeeping, influence of radio on, 303
Sun, mean, 27f) Timepiece, history of, 299
Sun compass, Hunistead, 69 influence of radio on, 304
Goerz, 69 rating of, 301
Symbols, 13 record of, 301
chart, 32, 33 second-setting, 301
cultural features. 33 watch, 135
water featur(\s, 33 Timer, speed, 131
Synoptic chart, 268 Tompion, Thomas, improved chronom-
sample, 261 eter, 300
Systems of coordinates, 273-274 Tornado, 254, 268
Track, definition of, 9, 115
T Trade winds, 233, 268
Trainer, Link, 189, 190, 191
Table, conversion anjijie, 366 Training, preliminary. 4
course correction, 364 Transit, inferior, or lower, 275
course errors for distance olT course, superior, or upper, 275
367 Transmission lines, lights for, 82
dead reckoning, 361 Transoceanic planes, navigation on sclud-
ground speed and drift, 362 ule, 356
ground speed in percentage of air Traveling disturbances, 245^^.
speed, 365 Triangle, astronomical, 313
speed-time-distance, 363 solution of navigation, 313
Weems, 313, 315-323 of velocities, 116-117
Tabulation of Polaris in almanac, 383 problems, 117-121
of stars in almanac, 384 Tropical cyclone, 253, 254
Tail bearings, use of, 107 Tropopause, 228, 229, 268
Telephone, aircraft radio, 91, 110, 111 Troposphere, 228, 229, 268
Temperature, of air, 196, 197, 198 Trough, 268
variations of, 213 of low pressure, 252
instability, 213 Turbulence. 226, 236. 237
stability, 213 mechanical. 236
Toniperature-height curve, 216, 217 and obstacles, 237
illustrations, 218, 219 thermal, 236
Terrestrial triangle, 274 Turn-and-bank indicator. 191
Thermal instability, 254 Turning errors, 58, 59
Thermograph, 268 TWA navigation-schediil(> sluM>t, 85, 86
Thermometer, 197, 198
Thunder, 268 XT
Thunderstorm, 224
Time, civil, 276 U.S. a(M-onautical ciiarts i.srr Aeronautical
diagrams, 277 charts!
at ditVerent meridians, 278 r.S. Coast and (leodi'lic Survey. 3SS
(;(T and dat(\ 2X0 information sup|)lied by, 388
kinds of, 276 r.S. Hydrographic Ofhce, 90. 388
 INDEX 405

U.S. Naval Observatory, 388 Weather bureau, information supplied

U.S. Weather Bureau, information sup- by, 388
plied by, 388 regulations, 262
Universal drafting machine, illustrated, Weather Bureau Circular N1939, 259
39 Weather code, international, 211
Universal plotting chart, 24, 25, 26 Weather forecasting, 262-264
Ursa Major, 311 relation of, to visibility, 212, 213
Weather reports, 255-262
symbols, 255, 256
Weather service or information, 83
Vapor pressure, 268 Weather symbols, 255, 256
Variation, 9, 53
Wedge, 255, 268
compass, effect on, 53 Weems, Lt.-Comdr. P.V.H., "Line of
illustrated, 53 Position Book," 315-323
lines of equal, 45 "Navigation Notebook," 26
magnetic, 53 "Star Altitude Curves," 313, 323, 327,
temperature, 213-215 329, 331

Veering, 268
Weems, information supplied by, 389, 390
Second-setting watch, 301
Velocity, problems, 117-121
Universal Plotting chart, 26
triangle of, 116-117
Weems System of Navigation, 389
Venus, 305
Vernal equinox, 273
WSN charts, 23
form for navigation data, 25
Vertical, prime, 271
Lambert, 18
Vertical circles, 271
Mercator, 15-18
Vertical-dial compass, 51
"Navigation Notebook," 26
illustrated, 52
projections used, 23
''Vertical-radiator" aerial system,
scale distortion, 23
Visibility, 197, 211, 268
stereographic, 18
tables of, 212, 213
Universal plotting chart, 24, 26
V-shaped depression, 268 230-232
Wind, 114,
cause 230
of,
W circulation of, 233
correction for wind drift, 148
Warm air masses, 244
diagram, 123
Warm sector, 268
direction, 115, 156, 196, 198
Warner course-distance-conversion table,
by Beaufort's scale, 199
371, 373
velocity, 198
Watch, 135 doldrums, 233
history of, 299 drift of, 148
influence of radio on, 303, 304 effect of earth's rotation on, 231
rating of, 301 force of, 231
record of, 301 geostrophic wind, 232, 233
second-setting, 301 importance of, 114
Water features on maps, 31 indicator of, illuminated, 81
Waterspout, 254, 268 influence of mountain ranges on, 238
Waves, stable, 250 land and sea breezes, 235
unstable, 250, 254 monsoons, 234-235
Weather, 197 pressure gradient, 232, 233
analysis, 257-262 relative, 121
average, 2 speed, 115
Weather bureau, 83, 388 squalls, 236
406 AIR NAVIGATION
'

Wind, trade, 233 Z

velocity, 157
jind weather iiifonnatioii, 156, 157 Zenith, 269
Winds, 9 Zenith distance, 271
Wireless, two-way, 191 Zero zone, 279
Zone description, 280
Y diagram, 279
Zone time, 279
Yancey, Capt. Lewis A., 359 Zones, frontal, 246, 247
T>a^
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