ENDOCRINE SYSTEM -- Hormones of the anterior pituitary gland --

- The second controlling system of the body, which consists * Growth hormone (GH) or Somatotropin
of endocrine glands that secrete chemicals called hormones. - It is secreted by Somatotropes, the most numerous
cells in the anterior pituitary
Hormones travel anywhere the blood goes, but they affect only those
-Target cells: Bone, muscle
cells that have receptors for them. They are called target cells for a
particular hormone. >General Effect:
- Increases rate of Mitosis/stimulates growth thus to
- Endocrine glands are ductless, that is, they do not have promote widespread tissue growth
ducts to take their secretions to specific sites. Actions:
- The endocrine system and its hormones help regulate 1. Protein synthesis
growth, the use of foods to produce energy, resistance to -tissue growth requires protein synthesis
stress, the pH of body fluids and fluid balance and -Enhances amino acid transport into cells
reproduction. 2. Lipid metabolism
-Increases use of fats for energy
- The stimuli that activate the endocrine organs to produce 3. Carbohydrates metabolism
hormones fall into 3 major categories:- -Has a glucose sparing effect, reduces the body’s
1. Hormonal - The endocrine organs are stimulated into dependence on glucose
action by other hormones. 4. Electrolyte balance
2. Humoral - The release of the hormone is stimulated by -GH promotes sodium, Potassium and Cl retention
changes in blood levels of certain ions and nutrients. by the kidneys, enhances Calcium absorption by the
3. Neural - Nerve fibers stimulate hormone release. small intestine, and makes these electrolytes
available to the growing tissues.
Endocrine system is composed of the following glands: >Regulation of secretion:
1. Hypothalamus -The secretion of Growth Hormone is regulated by
- Also recognized as a major endocrine organ, because it two releasing hormones from the hypothalamus:
produces several hormones. >Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH),
- The hypothalamus continuously receives or monitors which increases the secretion of GH.
information regarding the internal and external milieu via the >Growth hormone-inhibiting hormone (GHIH), or
nervous system. Somatostatin, which decreases the secretion of GH.
>Stimulus:
--Hypothalamic releasing and inhibiting Hormones that GHRH is produced during:
regulate the anterior pituitary -- - hypoglycemia
Hormone Principal effects -during exercise, high blood level of amino acid, the
TRH – thyrotropin-releasing promotes TSH and PRL secretion GH then secreted will ensure the conversion of
hormone amino acids into protein
CRH – corticotropin-releasing promotes Acth secretion Somatostatin or GHIH is produced during:
hormone
- hyperglycemia
GnRH – Gonadotropin-releasing Promotes FSH and LH secretion
PRH – Prolactin-releasing hormone Promotes PRL secretion
* Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) or Thyrotropin
PIH – Prolactin-inhibiting hormone Inhibits PRL secretion - secreted by pituitary cells called thyrotropes
Target cells: thyroid gland
GHRH – Growth hormone-releasing Promotes GH secretion
hormone
>Functions:
Somatostatin Inhibits GH and TSH secretion -Increases secretion of thyroxine and T3
>Regulation of secretion:
2. Pituitary gland (Hypophysis) - secretion of TSH is stimulated by thyrotroponin-
- Is approximately the size of a pea. releasing hormone (TRH) from hypothalamus
- A small but very important Endocrine gland at the base of - When metabolic rate (energy production)
the hypothalamus. decreases, TRH is produced.
- It secretes hormones that control many functions and is
itself controlled by hormonal secretions from the * Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
hypothalamus. - secreted by pituitary cells called corticotropes
-Target cell: adrenal cortex
2 major portion of the Pituitary gland ( Hypophysis): >Functions:
1. Anterior Pituitary Gland ( Adenohypophysis) - ACTH stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete its
2. Posterior Pituitary Gland (Neurohypophysis) – which is the hormones (cortisosteroids) especially cortisol, which
extension of the nerve tissue of the hypothalamus regulates glucose, fat and protein metabolism
- important role in body’s response to stress
>Regulation of secretion: >Regulation of secretion:
- Secretion of ACTH is increased by corticotropin- -Secretion of LH is also regulated by GnRH
releasing hormone (CRH) from the hypothalamus (gonadotropin-releasing hormone) from the
>Stimulus: hypothalamus
- CRH is produced in any type of physiological stress
situation such as injury, disease, exercise or -- Hormones of the posterior pituitary gland --
hypoglycemia (being hungry is stressful)
* Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
* Prolactin. - Also called vasopressin, because it causes
- PRL is secreted by lactotropes, which increase vasoconstriction in high concentration
greatly in size and number during pregnancy - Target cells: arterioles, distal renal tubules
- PRL level rises greatly in size and number during >Functions:
pregnancy, but it has no effect until after a woman - ADH acts on kidneys to increase water retention,
gives birth. Then it stimulates the mammary glands reduce urine volume and help prevent
to synthesize milk. dehydration(water is reabsorb into the blood, so as
- Target cell: breast urinary output is decreased, blood volume increased,
>Functions: which help maintain normal blood pressure).
- stimulates milk production by the mammary glands - Decreases sweating
>Regulation of secretion: - Causes vasoconstriction (in large amount)
- The regulation of secretion of prolactin is complex, >Regulation of secretion:
involving both prolactin-releasing hormone (PRH) - The stimulus for secretion of ADH is decreased
and prolactin-inhibiting hormone (PIH) from the water content of the body.
hypothalamus. - Any type of dehydration stimulates the secretion of
>Stimulus: ADH, to conserve body water.
- Estrogen and Progesterone - In the case of severe hemorrhage, ADH is release in
large amount and will cause vasoconstriction,
* Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) especially in arterioles, which will help to raise or at
- Is secreted by pituitary cells called gonadotropes. least maintain blood pressure.
- Target cells: ovaries and testes - Intake of alcohol inhibits the secretion of ADH.
>Functions:
In women (ovaries) * Oxytocin (OT)
-Stimulates the development of eggs and the - Target cells: uterus, breast
follicles that contain them >Functions:
In men (testes) - In childbirth, it stimulates smooth muscle of the
- TSH stimulates sperm production uterus to contract, thus contributing to the labor
>Regulation of secretion: contractions that expel the fetus. Promotes
- The secretion of FSH is stimulated by the contraction of myometrium of uterus (labor)
hypothalamus, which produces gonadotropin- - In lactating mothers, it stimulates milk ejection.
releasing hormone (GnRH) Promotes release of milk from mammary gland to
- FSH secretion is decreased by inhibin, a hormone flow down the ducts to the nipple.
produced by the ovaries or testes. >Regulation of secretion:
- The nerve impulses from the hypothalamus, the
* Luteinizing hormone (LH) or interstitial cell stimulating result of stretching of cervix
hormone (ICSH) - Stimulation of the nipple.
- Is also secreted by the gonadotropes In both sexes:
OT secretion surges during sexual arousal and orgasm. It may play a role in
- Target cell: ovaries and testes
the propulsion of semen through the male reproductive tract, in uterine
>Functions: contractions that help transport sperm up the female reproductive tract, and
(In women) in feelings of sexual satisfaction and emotional bonding.
-Stimulates ovulation ( release of an egg)
-Causes the ruptured ovarian follicle to become the 3. Pineal gland
corpus luteum (yellow body), the remainder of a - Target organ: Brain
follicle - Is a pine cone-shaped growth on the roof of the third
- LH stimulates corpus luteum to secrete estrogen & ventricle of the brain, beneath the posterior end of the
progesterone, hormones important to pregnancy. corpus callosum.
(In men) - It produces Serotonin by day and Melatonin at night.
- LH stimulates interstitial cells of the testes to - Child’s pineal gland is about 8 mm long and 5 mm wide, but
secrete testosterone after age 7 it regresses rapidly and is no more than a tiny
- Increased secondary male sex characteristics
shrunken mass of fibrous tissue in the adult. The shrinkage of - TH promotes alertness, bone growth and remodeling, the
an organ is called Involution. development of the skin, hair nails and teeth and fetal
- Pineal secretion peaks between the ages of 1 and 5 years nervous system and skeletal development.
and declines 75% by the end of puberty. - TH also stimulates the pituitary gland to secrete growth
hormone.
-- hormones secretes by the pineal gland --
-- Hormones of the thyroid gland --
*Serotonin * Thyroxine (T4) and Triiodothyronine (T3)
- a powerful vasoconstrictor that is found esp in the >Functions:
brain, bld serum and gastric mucus membrane. - Increases energy production from all food type and
*Melatonin increase rate of protein synthesis, which contribute
- a vertebrate hormone that is derived from to growth of the body and to normal body
serotonin, is secreted by pineal gland in response to functioning throughout life. stimulates metabolism)
darkness, and has been linked to the regulation of - Normal production of thyroxine and T3 is essential
circadian rhythms. ( 24 hrs period or cycles). for physical growth, normal mental development
Biological activity or functioning. and maturation of the reproductive system.
- the hormone produce by the pineal gland in >Regulation of secretion:
substantial amount - Secretion of T3 and T4 is stimulated by thyroid-
- The secretion of melatonin is greatest during stimulating hormone (TSH)
darkness and decreases when light enters the eye. - Decreased metabolic rate (energy production)
- Peak level of melatonin occurs at night and make
us drowsy, the lowest levels occur during daylight * Calcitonin
around noon. - It comes from C (calcitonin) cells, also called
- It influences mood parafollicular cells, found in clusters between the
-melatonin stimulates the onset of sleep and thyroid follicles.
increases its duration. - It is secreted when blood calcium level rises
- In human it is believed to coordinate the hormones >Functions:
of fertility and to inhibit the reproductive system - Decreases the reabsorption of calcium and
(especially the ovaries of female) so that sexual phosphate from bones to blood, thereby lowering
maturation is prevented from occurring before adult blood levels of calcium and phosphate, and also help
body size has been reached. maintain a stable, strong bone matrix.
>Regulation of secretion:
4. Thyroid gland - stimulus for secretion is hypercalcemia
- located on the front sides of the trachea, below the larynx.
- It is the largest endocrine gland 5. Parathyroid gland
- It weighs 20 to 25 g and receives one of the body’s highest - Target cells: skeleton
rates of blood flow per gram of tissue - There are 4 parathyroid glands: 2 on the side of each lobe of
- It is wrapped around the anterior and lateral aspects of the the thyroid gland. Each about 3-8 mm long and 2-5 mm wide.
trachea, immediately below the larynx - The hormone they produced is called parathyroid hormone
>Primary effect: or parathormone.
- Is to increase the body’s metabolic rate, thus
increases heat production. * parathyroid hormone
- It consist of two large lobes, one on each side of the trachea. >Function:
Its two lobes are connected by a middle piece called the - Is an antagonist to calcitonin, it raises blood
isthmus. calcium level
- The thyroid is composed mostly of sacs called thyroid - Inhibiting urinary calcium excretion
follicle lined by a simple cubiodal epithelium of follicular cells. - Maintain an inverse/opposite relationship between
- These cells secrete two main thyroid hormones – T3 serum calcium and phosphate levels, by promoting
(triiodothyronine) and T4 (thyroxine or tetrariodothyronine) phosphate excretion (so the phosphate does not
- Iodine is necessary for the synthesis of these hormones. combine with calcium and deposit into the bone,
- TH secretion rises in cold weather and thus help to thereby fostering normal excitability of nerves and
compensate for increased heat loss muscles.
- To ensure an adequate blood and oxygen supply to meet >Regulation of secretion:
this increased metabolic demand, TH also raises the heart - Secretion of PTH is stimulated by hypocalcemia
rate and contraction strength and raises the respiratory rate. - Secretion is inhibited by hypercalcemia
- It accelerates the breakdown of carbohydrates, fats, protein - Calcium in the blood is essential for the process of blood clotting
for fuel and stimulates the appetite. and for normal activity of neurons and muscle cells.
- Hypersecretion of parathyroid hormone results in removal of
calcium from bones.
6. Thymus gland *Adrenal cortex – makes up the outer shell
- Target cells: T lymphocytes - Is essential for survival
- Is located in the upper thorax, posterior to the sternum,
superior to the heart -- hormones secreted by adrenal cortex, Corticosteroid. The
- It is a member of both the lymphatic and endocrine systems. three group of corticosteroid are: --
- Like the pineal, it is large in infants and children, but
involutes after puberty. By old age it is composed mostly of A. Mineralocorticoids – they regulates sodium and potassium
fibrous connective tissue and fat. balance.
- It houses developing lymphocytes and secretes hormones - Zona glomerulosa only
that regulate their later activity. - act on the kidneys to control electrolyte balance.
- The principal mineralocorticoid is Aldosterone,
-- Hormones produced by the thymus gland are -- which promotes sodium retention and potassium
excretion by the kidneys.
*Thymosin - The release of aldosterone is stimulated by
*Thymopoietin humoral factors, such as fewer sodium ions or more
-Which promote the development and later activation of disease- potassium ions in the blood.
fighting blood cells called T lymphocytes. (T for thymus). > Regulation of secretion:
- The secretion of aldosterone is stimulated by
7. Adrenal gland decrease sodium, loss of blood or dehydration that
- two adrenal glands are located one on top of each kidney. lowers the blood pressure.
- Also called Suprarenal glands - The secretion of aldosterone is also stimulated by
- Each adrenal gland consists of two parts: increase blood level of potassium.

*Adrenal medulla – the inner core B. Glucocorticoids – regulates carbohydrate, fat and protein
- The cell of adrenal medulla secretes 2 potent hormones: metabolism. Helps the body to resist long-term stressors.
- Mainly zona fasciculata
-- 2 hormones secreted by adrenal medulla --
*Cortisol (hydrocortisone)
A. Norepinephrine (noradrenaline) - During stress, cortisol increases the use of fats and
- Is secreted in small amount excess amino acids for energy and decrease the use
- Its most significant function is to cause extensive of glucose. it is important because it conserves
vascular vasoconstriction in the skin, viscera and glucose for use by the brain
skeletal muscles ( that is , throughout the body), - it has an anti-inflammatory properties.
which raises blood pressure. *Corticosterone
>Regulation of secretion: - It seem to control the more unpleasant effects of
-stimulated by sympathetic impulses from the inflammation by decreasing edema
hypothalamus. - They reduce pain by inhibiting some pain-causing
molecules called prostaglandins.
B. Epinephrine >Regulation of secretion:
- Is secreted in larger amounts - Cortisol is secreted in any type of physiological
- It increases the heart rate and force of contraction stress situation:
(pounding heart) - Disease - Fear or anger
- Stimulates vasoconstriction in skin and viscera - Physical injury - Exercise
- Stimulates vasodilation in skeletal muscles. - Hemorrhage - hunger
- It dilates the bronchioles
- It decreases peristalsis C. Sex hormones/steroids – estrogen (female) and androgen
- Stimulates the liver to change glycogen to glucose (male)
- It increases the use of fats for energy - mainly zona reticularis
- It increases the rate of cell respiration - Adrenal estrogen ( estradiol) is of minor
>Regulation of secretion: importance to women of reproductive age, because
- The secretion is stimulated by sympathetic its quantity is small compared to estrogen from the
impulses from the hypothalamus. ovary.
- After menopause, the ovary no longer function and
- Epinephrine (Adrenalin) and Norepinephrine (Noradrenaline) are
both secreted in stress situations and help prepare the body for the adrenals are the only remaining estrogen source.
“fight or flight” (catecholamines) - Both adrenal androgens and adrenal estrogen promotes
- The secretion of epinephrine and norepinephrine is stimulated by adolescent skeletal growth and help to sustain adult bone mass.
sympathetic impulses from the hypothalamus, and their functions
duplicate and prolong those of the sympathetic division of the
autonomic nervous system. (sympathomimetic agents).
8. Pancreas 9. Gonads
- Is located in the upper left quadrant of the abdominal cavity, - The gonads are both endocrine and exocrine.
extending from the curve of the duodenum to the spleen - Their exocrine products are eggs and sperm
- The hormone producing cells of the pancreas are called - Their endocrine products are the gonadal hormones, most
islets of Langerhans ( the islets were named after Paul of which are steroids.
Langerhans, a German pathologist). There are 1-2 million isle - Gonads:
- The islet of Langerhans contains:
A. alpha cells – produce glucagon * female – ovary
B. Beta cells – produce insulin - Are paired, almond-sized organs located in the pelvic cavity.
C. Delta cells – produce the hormone somatostatin, which is
identical to growth hormone-inhibiting hormone from the -- hormones secreted by the ovaries --
hypothalamus. A. Estrogen
-Responsible for the development of secondary sex
-- hormones secreted by the pancreas--
characteristics in women (primarily growth and
* Glucagon maturation of the reproductive organs.
- Is a hyperglycemic hormone because it raises blood This include:
glucose concentration 1. growth of duct system of the mammary glands
- Target organ: Liver 2. growth of the uterus
>Function: 3. Deposition of fats subcutaneously in hips & thigh.
- Stimulates the liver to convert glycogen to glucose 4. The closure of the epiphyseal disc in long bones, and stops
- Stimulates the liver to make new glucose by of growth in height.
converting excess amino acid and of fats for energy.
- The over all effect of glucagon is to increase blood B. Progesterone
glucose level, and to make all types of food available - Acts with estrogen to bring about the menstrual
for energy production. cycle.
>Regulation of secretion: - During pregnancy, it quiets the muscles of the
- stimulated by hypoglycemia uterus so that an implanted embryo will not be
aborted and helps prepare breast tissue for lactation.
* Insulin
- Is called a hypoglycemic hormone because it * male - testes
lowers blood glucose level -The paired oval testes of the male are suspended in a sac,
>Function: the scrotum, outside the pelvic cavity.
- Increases the transport of glucose from the blood
-- Hormones secreted by the testes --
into cells by increasing the permeability of cell
membranes to glucose. A. Testosterone
- It stimulates cells to adsorb glucose and amino acid - steroid hormone secreted by the interstitial cells of
from the blood and especially stimulates muscle and testes
adipose tissue to store glycogen and fat. - stimulus for secretion is LH from the anterior
- Stimulates cells to store excess nutrients for later pituitary gland
use. - Testosterone promotes maturation of sperm in the
>Regulation of secretion: seminiferous tubules of the testes, this process
- stimulated by hyperglycemia begins at puberty and continues throughout life.
- At puberty, testosterone stimulates development of the
* Somatostatin male secondary sex characteristics. This include:
- It is secreted by delta cells when blood glucose and >growth of all reproductive organs
amino acids rise after a meal >growth of facial and body hair
>Function: >Growth of the larynx and deepening of the voice
- Decreases secretion of insulin and glucagon >The growth (protein synthesis) of the skeletal
- Slows absorption of nutrients in the small intestine muscles
>Regulation of secretion: - Testosterone also brings about closure of the epiphyses of
- The secretion of somatostatin is stimulated by the long bones.
rising level of insulin and glucagon. - It sustains sperm production and the sexual instinct
throughout life

B. Inhibin
- Secreted by the sustentacular cells of the testes
- The stimulus for secretion is increased
testosterone.