UNIT-I

FIBER-OPTICS
INTRODUCTION:
 Fiber optics is a branch of physics which deals with the transmission of light through transparent fibers of
glass or plastic.
 These optical fibers can carry light over long distances.
 Optical fiber lines have many advantages over wire lines.
 An Optical fiber is a long thin transparent materials made up of glass or plastic.
It carries electromagnetic waves from one end to another. It acts as a wave guide.
STRUCTURE OF AN OPTICAL FIBER:
 Optical fiber is a very thin and flexible medium having a cylindrical shape consisting of
five sections. (i) The core (ii) The cladding and (iii) Buffer coating (iv) Strength membrane and (v)
protective outer jacket.
 The central cylinder having higher refractive index n1 is called core and is surrounded by a layer of
material having lower refractive index n2 called clad.
 The core and clad are made up of same material glass or silica.
 The refractive index of the core (n1) is slightly greater than that of cladding (n2). n1>n2
 Hence the core acts as a denser medium which is about 50µm of diameter and always transmits the signal
through it.
 The clad is about 120 µm of diameter and always reflects the light back into the core so to retain the signal
in the core.
 The cladding is surrounded by a layer called buffer coating which protects the fiber from moisture and
abrasion.
 It is made up of thermoplastic material for tight buffer which provides a smaller bend radius, smaller
overall diameter and resistance against crushing.
 It also consists of a gel material for loose buffer which offers a high degree of isolation from
external mechanical forces.
 The strength membranes are made up of steel or Kevlar which protects the fiber from stretching
during installation and also from expansion and contraction due to the temperature changes.
 In order to protect the fiber from moisture and temperature conditions a protective cover called
outer jacket is provided.

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PRINCIPLE: Optical fiber works on the principle of Total Internal Reflection (TIR).
Critical angle ( ): It is defined as the angle of incidence in the denser medium at which
the angle of refraction is 900.
Total Internal Reflection:
When the light ray enters from a denser medium to rarer medium at an angle greater than
critical angle, the light gets Totally reflected. This phenomenon is called TIR.

Let a light ray enters from denser medium to rarer medium

a) When , it is refracted in to the rarer medium.
b) When , it traverses along the interface so that angle of refraction is 900.
c) When , it is totally reflected back in to the denser medium.
 According to the snell’s law the basic law of refraction,
n1sinθ1 = n2sinθ2
n1sin = n2sin900

Sin =

 Let the refractive indices of core and cladding are n1 and n2 n1>n2.
 A light ray ‘AO’ incident at an angle ‘ ’ with the axis of the fiber. The ray enters the core at ‘O’ with
certain refraction. The angle of refraction is ‘ ’.
 The refracted ray passes along ‘OB’ and strikes the core-cladding at ‘B’ with an angle
greater than critical angle. Then the ray undergoes total internal reflection.
 Thus strikes at ‘C’ and undergoes total internal reflection. Thus the ray traverses from one end to other end
due to multiple reflecti0ns.
 Hence they are used as optical wave guides.

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ACCEPTANCE ANGLE AND ACCEPTANCE CONE:

 Acceptance angle is the maximum angle of incidence at the end face of an optical fiber
for which the light ray will propagate within the optical fiber.
 All these rays within the core will suffer total internal reflections and enter in to the
core. The other rays refracted to the cladding and are lost.
 The light ray is entered from a medium of refractive index n0 in to the core. The ray OA enters the fiber at
an angle to the axis of the fiber.

 Let the refractive indices of core and cladding are n1 and n2.
 The ray refracts at an angle and strikes the core-cladding interface at angle
 If , the light ray gets totally reflected.
According to Snell’s law, n0 sin θi = n1 sin
n0 sin θi = n1 sin (90- ) ( )

sin θi = cos

 when , θi=(θi)max then sin(θi)max = cos ----------- (1)

we know that cos = = ( since Sin = )

 Now equation ------ (1) becomes, sin (θA)= = .

This maximum angle is called Acceptance angle.

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ACCEPTANCE CONE:
 The light rays contained within the cone having a total angle 2θA are accepted and transmitted along the
fiber. Therefore he cone is called acceptance cone.
 Light launched with in this cone will be accepted and propagated in the core by TIR.
NUMERICAL APERTURE:
 Numerical aperture represents the light gathering capacity of an optical fiber.
 It is defined as the sine of the maximum acceptance angle. i.e., NA= sin θA
 Let n1, n2 and n0 be the refractive indices of core, cladding and the medium from which the ray is incident.

 Numerical aperture of an optical fiber can be defined as NA= sin θA =

 If the fiber is surrounded by air i.e., n0=1 then NA=

Relation between NA and :

 Let us introduce a fractional index change .
 It is the ratio of changes in the refractive indices of core
and cladding to the refractive index of core. i.e.,

= = n1

We know that NA= = =

NA = (As n1 ≈ n2 , n1+ n2 = 2n1 )

NA = = n1

NA = n1
i.e. The numerical aperture of a fiber is depend upon refractive indices of core and cladding materials and is
not a function of fiber dimensions.
Range of NA 0.13-0.5
TYPES OF OPTICAL FIBERS:
Based on the refractive index of the core, optical fibers are divided in to two types.
(i) Step-index optical fibers (SI)
(ii) Graded-index optical fibers (GI)
 When a light ray is launched at one end, the light propagates through the fiber core in
different paths. Each path is called as a mode.
 Depending on the mode of propagation, step-index fibers are divided in to two types.
 They are single mode and multimode step-index optical fibers.
STEP-INDEX OPTICAL FIBERS:
 In these optical fibers, the refractive index is uniform throughout the core and undergoes a step change at
the core-cladding interface.
 The number of modes that a fiber allows depends on the diameter of the core.
 Since the index profile is in the form of a step, these fibers are called step-index fibers.

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 Depending on the mode of propagation, step-index fibers are classified in to two types.
SINGLE MODE STEP-INDEX OPTICAL FIBERS:
 The refractive index is uniform through out the core.
 It has very small core diameter about 8 to 10 m. And cladding diameter is 60to70 m.
 Only one path is available for the propagation of light.
 The transmission of light is due to Total Internal Reflection.
 The difference between n1 and n2 is very small. It has low Numerical Aperture.
 These are mainly used in Submarine cable system.

MULTIMODE STEP-INDEX OPTICAL FIBERS:

 The refractive index is uniform throughout the core.
 It has large core diameter about 50 to 200 m. And cladding diameter is 100 to250 m.
 Many paths are available for the propagation of light.

 The transmission of light is due to Total Internal Reflection.

 The difference between n1 and n2 is more. It has large Numerical Aperture.
 These are mainly used in Data Link system.
TRANSMISSION OF SIGNAL THROUGH STEP-INDEX OPTICAL FIBERS:
 Generally digital signals are sending through the fiber. In multimode Step-index fiber,
there will many modes for propagation.
 As the refractive index is uniform, all the rays travel with same velocity.

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 Consider three light rays (1), (2) and (3).
These pulsed signals travel in different paths.
Propagation of signals
Hence at receiving end, only the ray (1) which
travels along the axis reaches first while
the other rays (2) and (3) taking longer paths
reach after some time delay.
 Thus output signal become broadened.
This is called Intermodel dispersion.
 This dispersion can be overcome by using Graded index fibers.
GRADED INDEX OPTICAL FIBERS:
 The refractive index of the core is not uniform and varies radially.
 The refractive index is maximum along the axis and decreases radially as they move
towards the cladding.
 The variation of refractive index of the core (n) with radius (r) is given by

Where n1 --- Refractive index at the core center.

a --- Radius of the core.

Grading profile index number.

 Because of varying refractive index across the core, the light rays are bend and
converge repeatedly at points along the cable. This is called Self Focusing effect.
 The propagation of light rays is due to continuous refraction in the core.
 The light rays propagating in the form of helical rays. These have moderate
Transmission loss.
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TRANSMISSION OF SIGNAL THROUGH GRADED-INDEX OPTICAL FIBERS:
 Let us consider a signal pulse traveling through Graded Index fiber in two paths (1)
and (2). The ray (1) is traveling shorter distance as it is moving along the axis.
 The refractive index is maximum along the
axis, so it travels with small velocity.
 The ray (2) travels with high velocity since
refractive index is low.

 Though it travels more distance it reaches the end at the same time as that of ray (1) because of
high velocity.
 Hence Inter-model dispersion can be avoided.
Notes: 1. V-number of a fiber indicates the number of possible propagation modes in the

Core.

2. The relation between NA of Step-index and Graded-index fibers is given by

STEP-INDEX FIBERS GRADED-INDEX FIBERS
1. 1. The refractive index of the core is 1. The refractive index of the core is
uniform throughout and undergoes Not uniform and is varies from the axis
step change at the cladding interface. to the cladding.
2. 2. The diameter of the core is about 2. The diameter of the core is about
3. 100 m in multimode and about 50 m in multimode.
4. 10 m in single mode. 3. The light rays propagating in the
5. 3. The light rays propagating in the form helical rays and follows like spiral
6. form meridional rays. Manner.
7. 4. Signal distortion is more. Due to this
4. 4. Signal distortion is low because of self
8. output signal is broadened.
5. focusing effect. All the light rays reach
9. 5. Attenuation is more.
6. the end at same time.
6. Numerical Aperture is more for
7. 5. Attenuation is less.
MMSI But for SMSI it is very less.
8. 6. Numerical Aperture is less.
7. Band width is 50 MHZ for MMSI and
9. 7. Band width is about 200 MHz to
it is > 1000MHz for SMSI.
600MHz.

ATTENUATION IN OPTICAL FIBERS:

 The transmission loss or attenuation in an optical fiber is very important in the optical fiber
communication. Different mechanisms are responsible for the signal attenuation.
 Due to attenuation, the output power is always less than the input power.
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 It is a function of fiber materials, wavelength and length of the fiber.
 The attenuation coefficient of the signal is given by

dB/Km where L is length of the fiber.

FEATURES (OR) ADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL FIBERS IN COMMUNICATION:

1) Extreme Bandwidth:
 The transmission bandwidth of co-axial cable is up to 500MHz where as in fiber cables it is large as
105GHz.
 Thus the information carrying capacity is more.
2) Small size and weight:
 Since fibers are very small in diameter, the space is occupied is small.
 They are light in weight, so can be handled more easily.
3) Lack of cross talk:
 In copper cable communication, signals move from one circuit to another.
 This cross talk is negligible even many fibers are cabled together.
4) Low transmission loss:
 The transmission loss is very less (0.2 dB/Km) compared to copper cables.
 For long distance communication, fibers are preferred.
5) Low cost:
 Since fibers are made up of silica which is available in Earth’s crust. So these are less expensive.
6) Longer life span:
 The life span of fibers is 20 to 30 years but life span of copper cables is 15 to 20 years.
7) Much safer:
 As light is used but not electricity, it is much safer than copper cables.
8) Ruggedness and Flexibility: The fiber cables can be bend twisted without damage.
Note: Thus the optical fibers are dielectric waveguides which transmit the optical signals
through them with very low attenuation.

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF AN OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION (OR)

FIBER OPTIC COMMUNICATION:
 Thus the optical fibers are dielectric waveguides which transmit the optical signals through them with very
low attenuation.
 Thus the fiber communication system plays dominant role throughout the world.
 The important components of this system are
1. Transmitter 2. Receiver and 3. Transmission path
 Transmitter consisting of optical source, input signal and modulator.
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 Receiver consists of optical detector, demodulator and output display unit.
 Optical fiber acts as transmission path.

Transmitter:
 It consists of input signal, optical source and modulator.
 Input signal is the information signal to be transmitted.
 It has sufficiently less energy due to low frequency.
 Optical source provides high frequency light signals called carrier.
 Modulator combines the low frequency input signal with high frequency carrier.
Transmission Path:
 The modulated signals from the modulator are coupled to the fiber optic cable which acts as transmission
path.
Receiver:
 It consists of optical detector, Amplifier, demodulator and output display unit.
 The light emerging from the other end of the fiber cable is given to an optical detector.
 Optical detector converts the light signals in to electrical signals.
 Amplifier amplifies the signal to high strength. The amplified signal is given to demodulator which
decodes the signal to get original information.
 These signals are given to display unit like CRO.
 The optical sources are semiconductor Laser diodes and LED.
 Input signal: When we are talking the diaphragm will vibrate and thereby electrical signals are
produced.
 Encoder: It converts input electrical signals into digital signals.
 Source: LED or Semiconductor Laser is used as source. According to input signals the source will
on and off. Thus the digital signals are converted into optical signals.
 Source To Fiber Connector: Source is connected to optical fibre through source to fibre
Connector.
 Optical Fibre: In Optical fibre the signal travels from transmitting end to receiving end by total
internal reflection.
 Fibre To Receiver Connector: Through fibre to receiver connector the optical fibre is connected
to receiver.
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 Detector Or Receiver: In Detector PIN diode or Photo diode is used to convert the optical signals
into digital signals.
 Decoder: Digital signals are converted into electrical signals.
These electrical signals are fed to the receiver. Thereby the diaphragm moves
according to the signals. Thus the receivers can here the speech.
Thus the optical communication system works.

APPLICATIONS OF OPTICAL FIBERS:

 Optical fibers are used in telecommunication. More channels can be sent through the optical fiber cable.
 The loss of energy during transmission is less.
 Optical fibers can carry information to several kilometers.
 In the engineering field, they are used as sensors.
 Fiber optic sensors are used to measure displacements, pressure, temperature, liquid level and chemical
composition. The fiber fiber optical sensor system is given below

In Medical Field:
 Fiber scopes are used in Endoscope applications.
 These instruments used to view internal parts of body without performing surgery.
 Fiber optic endoscopes are classified on desired applications.
 Gastroscope to examine the stomach. It is used to destroy tumors.
 Bronchoscope to view the upper passages of lungs.
 Arthoscopy to study the small spaces within joints.
 Laser guided by the fibers to correct defects in vision.
 Peritone scope is used to examine the lower parts of liver and gall bladder.
FIBER OPTIC MEDICAL ENDOSCOPY:
Optical fibres are used in the fiberscope which is used in the medicine to know the Functioning of
inner organisms without doing operation (which is called endoscopy)
 This instrument transmits images from food path, stomach, intestines, heart and lungs through a long
flexible fiber.
 This technique also used to inject fluids in to the body.

FIBRE OPTIC SENSORS:

1. Temperature sensor.
2. Micro Bending Displacement Sensor
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 3. Fibre Optic Sensor of Stress or Force

3) Optical fibres are used in Fibre optic sensors which convert input pulses into optical pulses.

NUMERICALS:

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Solution:

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