Imperial College London
BSc/MSci EXAMINATION June 2020
This paper is also taken for the relevant Examination for the Associateship
ENVIRONMENTAL PHYSICS
For 2nd, 3rd and 4th Year Physics Students
01 June 2020: 10.00 to 12.30
Answer all sections of Part A, one question from Part B, and one question from Part C.
Marks shown on this paper are indicative of those the Examiners anticipate assigning.
General Instructions
At the top of each page of your answers, write your CID number, module code, question
number and page number. Scan and upload your answers to the Turnitin dropboxes as
described in the guidance documents in the Blackboard module for this exam. Upload
each answer to the dropbox provided for that specific question.
Your uploaded file name should be of the form CID ModuleCode QuestionNumber(s).pdf
For each answer you should prepare a coversheet which should be the first page of your
scanned answer. The coversheet should contain the following:
• your CID
• module name and code
• the question number
• the number of pages in your answer
You should not write your name anywhere on your answers.
You are reminded that Examiners attach great importance to legibility, accuracy
and clarity of expression.
c Imperial College London 2020 [Examination instructions continue
PO2.3 1 on next page. . . ]
While this time-limited remote assessment has not been designed to be open book, in
the present circumstances it is being run as an open-book examination. We have worked
hard to create exams that assess synthesis of knowledge rather than factual recall. Thus,
access to the internet, notes or other sources of factual information in the time provided
will not be helpful and may well limit your time to successfully synthesise the answers
required. Where individual questions rely more on factual recall and may therefore be
less discriminating in an open book context, we may compare the performance on these
questions to similar style questions in previous years and we may scale or ignore the
marks associated with such questions or parts of the questions. The use of the work of
another student, past or present, constitutes plagiarism. Giving your work to another
student to use may also constitute an offence. Collusion is a form of plagiarism and
will be treated in a similar manner. This is an individual assessment and thus should be
completed solely by you. The College will investigate all instances where an examination
or assessment offence is reported or suspected, using plagiarism software, vivas and other
tools, and apply appropriate penalties to students. In all examinations we will analyse
exam performance against previous performance and against data from previous years and
use an evidence-based approach to maintain a fair and robust examination. As with all
exams, the best strategy is to read the question carefully and answer as fully as possible,
taking account of the time and number of marks available.
Go to the next page for
PO2.3 2 questions
SECTION A
1. (i) State six UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and for each SDG, de-
scribe at least one way in which climate change can slow down the speed at
which it can be achieved. [6 marks]
(ii) Define what a lapse rate is. What is expected to happen to the tropospheric
lapse rate as the Earth’s climate warms and why? [6 marks]
4
(iii) The solar constant S0 , is given by: S0 = βσTSun , where σ is the Stefan-
−8 −2 4
Boltzmann constant (5.67 × 10 Wm K ). Briefly explain why, in reality S0
is not constant. If S0 = 1.37 kWm−2 , and by estimating TSun , calculate the
value of β and explain its physical origin.
If the distance between the Sun and Venus is 0.72 astronomical units (AU),
calculate the effective solar constant S0v at the top of the atmosphere of
Venus.
[8 marks]
(iv) (a) In 1973 the total energy supplied in the whole world was 71,000 TWh, and
54,000 TWh was used, of which 6000 TWh was from electricity. By 2015,
the equivalent numbers were 159,000 TWh, 109,000 TWh and 24,000
TWh (these numbers are rounded off). What explains the differences
between the three numbers on each of these two years? [3 marks]
(b) Assuming a constant year-on-year growth, calculate the annual growth in
each of these three values in the years 1973-2015. Interpret in bullet points
why these numbers differ. Suggest implications of the electricity growth
rate in the fight to combat climate change. [3 marks]
(c) Explain quantitatively, using bullet points and with the use of a carefully
labelled and annotated graph of a projected population curve the reasons
for growth in all these numbers. [3 marks]
Projections for energy use vary, but assume that global electrical power
requirements will increase from the present 19TW in 2020 by between
20 and 30TW by 2030. What percentage growth in energy needs (on
an annual basis) do the two extremes of the projected power increase
represent?
What percentage growth in energy needs on an annual basis do the two
extremes of that projected required power increase between now and 2030
represent? [3 marks]
(d) Assume that 280 ppm CO2 in the atmosphere equates to 586 × 109 tonnes
of C (the weight of CO2 is 3.7 times that) and that the increment to
the present level of approximately 410ppm comes from anthropogenic use
of hydrocarbons between 1900 and 2010. Further, assuming that the
proportion of energy in the various primary sources, and energy use per
capita does not vary between 2000 and 2050, estimate the atmospheric
CO2 concentration in 2050. Ignore the lifetime of the atmospheric CO2 .
[6 marks]
[This question continues on the
PO2.3 3 next page . . . ]
(e) Without detail, list in bullet points ways in which your approximation in
part (d) could be refined. [2 marks]
[Total 40 marks]
PO2.3 4 Please go to the next page
SECTION B
2. (i) (a) We can approximate the atmosphere operating as a Carnot cycle with ef-
ficiency η. By considering that in the long-term steady state the rate of
production of kinetic energy in the cycle will be balanced by frictional dissi-
pation, show that
" #1/3
(1 − αp )So
u=η ,
(4ρA cD )
where u is the mean near-surface horizontal wind speed, ρA the density of
air, and cD is a frictional drag coefficient. αp and S0 are the planetary
albedo and the solar constant respectively, and you may take the magnitude
of surface friction, F = ρA cD u 2 . State any assumptions that you make.
[7 marks]
(b) The Clausius-Clapeyron equation predicts that changes in saturation vapour
pressure des are related to changes in temperature dT via
lv es
des = dT
Rv T 2
where lv = 2.5 x106 Jkg−1 is the latent heat of vapourization of water and
Rv = 461Jkg−1 K−1 is the gas constant for water vapour.
Determine the change in vapour pressure of an air parcel, e, when its tem-
perature increases from 290K to 295K but the relative humidity of the parcel
remains constant at 70%. [You may take es = 1x105 Pa when T = 373 K].
Comment on the significance of your result. [7 marks]
(c) The Earth’s atmosphere has a longwave optical depth denoted by τ . If the
Earth’s surface has a temperature Ts and emits as a blackbody, provide an
expression for the amount of emitted longwave irradiance from the surface
that will reach the top of the atmosphere, Itr ans . Calculate Itr ans if τ = 2
and Ts = 290 K. What will be the main factor controlling τ ? Hence where
on the Earth might you expect τ to be largest? Do you think that this will
mean that Itr ans will be smallest or largest here? Explain your reasoning
carefully. [6 marks]
(ii) It is proposed to detect an unknown infrared absorbing aerosol (suspected of
emanating from an industrial plant), using an open-path continuous-wave laser
diode emitting collimated light at 880nm with a power of 50mW, and a large-
area silicon photodiode located 50m away. The specific absorption coefficient
of the aerosol, kA , is approximately 7m2 /g over the (infrared) wavelength range
of interest.
(a) Calculate the photocurrent, I0 , expected at the photodetector in the ab-
sence of any atmosphere. [You may assume that the photon to electron
quantum efficiency of the detector is 80%].
[This question continues on the
PO2.3 5 next page . . . ]
(b) Write down an expression for the optical depth due to the aerosol τA , for a
slab of atmosphere of thickness d, containing the aerosol at uniform density
ρA , and specific absorption coefficient, kA . By first determining the fraction
of photons transmitted, find an expression for the photocurrent, I, expected
at the photodetector in terms of ρA .
(c) When the detector is placed in a region where the aerosol is known to be
present, the average photocurrent obtained is 18 mA. Use this informa-
tion to estimate the aerosol density, ρA , in that region, clearly stating any
assumptions you make.
[10 marks]
[Total 30 marks]
PO2.3 6 Please go to the next page
3. To mitigate climate change, a large-scale afforestation project is commenced. The
project aims to create a radiative forcing of ∆Q = −1.0 Wm−2 over 50 years by the
removal of CO2 through photosynthesis. Before the project is undertaken, a typical
value of the outgoing longwave radiation (OLR) for the region is 160 Wm−2 and the
average surface temperature is 292 K. After complete afforestation (over 50 years)
the OLR reduces to 145 Wm−2 .
(i) (a) Estimate the Greenhouse Effect, G, for the region before planting begins.
(b) The total climate feedback parameter γ, for the region after afforestation is
found to be 2.1Wm−2 K−1 . Assuming that the forcing target associated with
the afforestation given earlier is met, estimate what the surface temperature
change will be due to the plant growth, hence calculate G for the region after
afforestation.
(c) A marked increase in cloud coverage in the region was also observed during
afforestation. By considering the net radiation budget at the top of the atmo-
sphere, how would you expect more cloud cover to affect the overall impact
on the surface temperature of the region? Would it make a difference if such
clouds were mainly low-lying compared to high-lying. Explain your reasoning
carefully.
[12 marks]
(ii) Now consider a volcanic eruption that sends a large amount of aerosol into the
stratosphere. The time evolution of the perturbation to the Earth’s surface
temperature in response to the eruption, dTs0 (t)/dt is given by:
dTs0 (t)
= (4πRE2 ∆Qext (t)/Cuo ) − λTs0 (t) (1)
dt
where RE is the radius of the Earth, Cuo is the heat capacity of the upper
ocean, λ = 1/ta (where ta is the climate adjustment timescale) and ∆Qext (t)
is the time evolving radiative forcing due to the eruption. The aerosol begins
to be removed from the atmosphere after the eruption at time t = 0 so that
∆Qext (t) = −∆Qo e −αt , where ∆Qo is the amplitude of the initial forcing and
α = 1/tr (where tr is the aerosol removal time scale).
(a) Describe what type of radiative forcing would be exerted by the eruption
and how this would impact on surface temperature, carefully explaining your
reasoning.
(b) Starting from equation (1), show that the time evolution of the surface
temperature perturbation, Ts0 (t), is given by:
[This question continues on the
PO2.3 7 next page . . . ]
Ts0 (t) = A∆Qo [e −λt − e −αt ]/(λ − α), where A = 4πRE2 /Cuo .
Use the equation for Ts0 (t) to calculate the surface temperature perturbation
expected after (a) 6 months and (b) 2 years given an initial radiative forcing
amplitude of 2 Wm−2 , a climate adjustment time-scale of 10 years, and an
aerosol removal timescale of 1 year.[Nb. The Earth’s radius is 6,400km, and
the specific heat capacity of the ocean, co is 4 × 103 Jkg−1 K−1 ]
[13 marks]
(c) With the aid of a diagram, explain what effect a stronger oceanic overturning
circulation would have on the climate adjustment timescale? [5 marks]
[Total 30 marks]
PO2.3 8 Please go to the next page
SECTION C
4. Write an essay on one of the following topics. The examiners are looking for clar-
ity, insight, an identifiable structure, and evidence of further reading in the chosen
subject. The examiners would not expect more than 3 sides of writing.
i) The role of nuclear power in mitigating against climate change.
ii) The role of the Antarctic ice caps in sea level rise.
iii) ”The people least responsible for climate change will pay the biggest price.”
Discuss.
[30 marks]
[Total 30 marks]
PO2.3 9 Please go to the next page
5. Write short notes on 4 of the following 6 topics. The examiners are looking for
clarity, insight, numbers, and evidence of further reading in the chosen subject.
i) Is CO2 worse than methane regarding climate change?
ii) Is eating beef bad for the planet?
iii) How long have we got to solve the climate problem?
iv) What drove the price of Photovoltaics down to where it is competitive with
subsidised coal? Where is that true?
v) Is nuclear fission power capable of solving climate change?
vi) Can carbon capture and storage technology make a real impact on climate
change?
[30 marks]
[Total 30 marks]
PO2.3 10 End of examination paper
