Health AND DISEASE
World Health Organization defines it as a “state of complete physical,
psychological and social well - being and not merely the absence of disease or
infirmity”
The factors which affect human health are:
(a) Genetic disorders
(b) Infections
1 (c) Lifestyle
Balanced diet, personal hygiene and regular exercise are very important to
maintain good health
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Minor changes are usually corrected by the body, which eventually returns to its normal state
A “normal” body state is measured with indicators such as pulse or blood pressure, using specific figures that
represent an average range signifying normal health
Age, gender, family history, environment, and levels of activity all influence an individual’s normal state
In general, maintaining homeostasis involves several different steps:
Avoid smoking, second-hand smoke, and environmental pollutants
Be physically active
Perform self-screening checks for cancer and have regular medical checkups
Eat 5 to 10 servings of fruits and vegetables per day
Limit alcoholic beverages
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Health AND DISEASE
How can we achieve good health?
i. Awareness
ii. Vaccination
iii. Proper disposal of wastes
iv. Control of vectors
v. Maintenance of hygienic food and water resources
Yoga has been practiced since time immemorial to achieve physical and
mental health
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Pathology - the study of changes to cells and tissues associated with disease
Disease causes either obvious or hidden changes to normal anatomy and
physiology
Disease - a term describing any deviation from the normal state of health or
wellness
It includes physical, mental, and social conditions
Disease leads to a disruption of homeostasis in the body
Health AND DISEASE
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Pathophysiology Vocabulary
Acute - Short-term - An acute disease lasts for a short time but develops quickly, with
marked signs such as fever and pain (such as in acute appendicitis)
Chronic - Long-term , usually causing more permanent damage - a chronic disease
involves intermittent acute episodes; example: rheumatoid arthritis
Communicable - Infections that can be spread from one person to another - Certain
communicable diseases must be reported to health authorities; an example of a
communicable disease is measles
Lesion - A specific local change in tissue that may be microscopic or highly visible
Example: blisters or pimples on the skin
Syndrome - A collection of signs and symptoms occurring together - Usually occurs in
response to a certain condition
6 Disease
Diseases can be divided broadly into the following two categories
depending on the modes of transmission
I. Infectious diseases which easily transmit from one person to another, e.g.
AIDS, common cold, etc.
II. Non-infectious diseases which does not transmit from one person to
another, e.g. cancer, diabetes, etc.
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Health AND DISEASE
Classification of Diseases
i. Congenital and hereditary diseases – Caused by developmental disturbances
such as chromosomal and genetic abnormalities - hemophilia
ii. Chronic diseases - Cause degeneration of various body parts, often as a result of
aging - certain types of arthritis and arteriosclerosis (hardening of the arteries)
iii. Metabolic diseases - disturbances in normal metabolic processes - thyroid
conditions, endocrine gland disturbances
iv. Inflammatory diseases - body reacts to injury or harmful agents with inflammation
- allergic reactions
v. Neoplastic diseases - Characterized by abnormal cell growth - benign and
malignant tumors
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Health AND DISEASE
Pathogens
Disease causing organisms
e.g. bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoans, helminthes, etc.
Pathogens enter the body by direct contact, contaminated food and
water, droplet infection, etc.
Pathogens multiply in body cells, interfere with normal vital activities, cause
morphological and functional damage.
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Infectious diseases can be divided into certain categories, based on the type of
pathogen
Bacteria
Bacteria are microscopic pathogens that reproduce rapidly after entering the
body
They can release toxins that damage tissues and cause illness
Eg Pneumonia, typhoid, diphtheria etc
Viruses
Smaller than bacteria
a virus invades a host cell, then replicates, producing hundreds and thousands
of new viruses that go on to infect more host cells
Eg common cold, polio
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Fungi
There are thousands of species of fungi, some of which cause disease in
human
Common fungal skin conditions include athlete’s foot and ringworm
Protists
single cell organisms cause disease in their host
They infect other organisms to survive and reproduce
Protist pathogens can also be parasitic and live in other organisms such as
mosquitoes
Protists cause malaria through mosquito bites
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Parasitic worms
also known as helminths, are large enough for people to see with the
naked eye, and they can live in many areas of the body
Some worms include:
Flatworms: These include tapeworms, which reside in the intestines
Thorny-head worms: This type of worm lives in the intestines
Roundworms: These worms can survive in the gastrointestinal tract and
lymphatic system
Eg Helminthic diseases - Ascariasis
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Some scientists believe that viruses are not living organisms
Some reasons for this include:
i. they do not have cells
ii. they cannot reproduce without invading a living cell
iii. they do not actively respond to changes in their environment
13 How do pathogens spread?
direct skin-to-skin contact during sex can lead to sexually transmitted
infections (STIs)
Coughing or sneezing
Microorganisms can also travel straight into the gut when a person
consumes contaminated food or water
Bites from infected insects eg mosquitoes with a viral infection can cause
Zika virus disease (transmitted primarily by Aedes mosquitoes)
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Diseased person
Physical Examination
Diagnosis of Disease (blood tests, endoscopy, X-ray etc)
Treatment
15 Prevention
Washing and drying the hands regularly
Keeping up to date with recommended vaccines
Vaccines stimulate the immune system to recognize pathogens, destroy them,
and prevent future infections
Keeping surfaces clean
Cleaning kitchens and bathrooms
Staying home when ill
Avoiding insect bites
Practicing safe sex
Getting medical advice
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Immunity
Immunity
Capacity of an organism to resist or defend itself from
the development of a disease
Immune system is spread throughout the body
Involves many types of cells, organs, proteins, and tissues
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The cells of the immune system originate in the bone marrow, where many of them
also mature
The immune system is the name used to describe the tissues, cells, and molecules
involved in adaptive immunity, or sometimes the totality of host defense mechanisms
The bone marrow is the site of hematopoiesis, the generation of the cellular elements of
blood, including red blood cells, monocytes, polymorphonuclear leukocytes, and platelet
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They then migrate to guard the peripheral tissues, circulating in the blood
and in a specialized system of vessels called the lymphatic system
The lymphatic system is the system of lymphoid channels and tissues (that drains
extracellular fluid from the periphery via the thoracic duct to the blood)
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Precursor cells
(hematopoietic stem cells present in the bone marrow
also known as pluripotent hematopoietic stem cells)
derive
All the cellular elements of blood
Such as:
red blood cells (transport oxygen),
platelets (trigger blood clotting in damaged tissues),
white blood cells
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Antigen
An antigen is any substance that can spark an immune response
an antigen is a bacterium, fungus, virus, toxin, or foreign body
But it can also be one of our own cells that is faulty or dead
Immunity
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Antibodies
Antibodies are special proteins that lock on to specific antigens
Antibodies are part of a large family of chemicals called immunoglobolins, which
play many roles in the immune response:
Immunoglobulin G (IgG)
IgM
IgA
IgE
IgD
Once an antibody has been produced, a copy remains in the body such as chickenpox
22 Structure of ANTIBODY
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Some of the main characters in the immune system:
White blood cells
also called leukocytes
circulate in the body in blood vessels and the lymphatic vessels that
parallel the veins and arteries
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Our white blood cells are stored in different places in the body, which are
referred to as lymphoid organs
These include the following:
Thymus — a gland between the lungs and just below the neck
Spleen —It sits in the upper left of the abdomen
Bone marrow — found in the center of the bones, it also produces red
blood cells
Lymph nodes —small glands positioned throughout the body, linked by
lymphatic vessels
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There are two main types of leukocyte:
1. Phagocytes
cells surround and absorb pathogens and break them down, effectively
eating them
2. Lymphocytes
Lymphocytes help the body to remember previous invaders and recognize
them if they come back to attack again
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Phagocytosis
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Lymphocytes begin their life in bone marrow
If:
stay in the marrow B lymphocytes (B cells)
go to the thymus T lymphocytes (T cells)
B lymphocytes —they spot the antigen, activate and differentiate into plasma cells,
secrete antibodies and alert the T lymphocytes
T lymphocytes — they destroy compromised cells in the body and alert other
leukocytes
30 Role of T lymphocytes
There are distinct types of T lymphocytes:
Helper T cells (Th cells) –
coordinate the immune response
Killer T cells (cytotoxic T lymphocytes) –
attack other cells
They are particularly useful for fighting viruses
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Types of immunity
Immunity
Innate Immunity Acquired Immunity
Passive Immunity
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(1) Innate immunity
Present from birth and is inherited from the parents
includes the external barriers of our body
such as the skin and mucous membranes of the throat and gut
It is non-specific
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Types of innate immunity
A. Physical barriers
Prevent entry of microorganisms in the body
e.g. skin, mucus coating of the epithelium lining the respiratory,
gastrointestinal and urogenital tracts
B. Physiological barriers
Prevent microbial growth in the body
e.g. acid in the stomach, saliva in the mouth and tears from eyes
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C. Cellular barriers
Phagocytose and destroy microbes
Eg. Some WBCs like Polymorphonuclear Leukocytes (PMNL), monocytes
and natural killer cells (type of lymphocytes) in the blood as well as
macrophages in tissues.
D. Cytokine barriers
Virus-infected cells, which secrete proteins called interferons. They protect
non-infected cells from further viral infection.
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(2) Acquired immunity
Not present from birth and develops during an individual’s life
time.
Pathogen specific and characterized by memory
When it encounters a pathogen for the first time, it produces a response
called primary response, which is of low intensity
Further encounter with same pathogen produces highly intensified
secondary response due to memory of the first encounter.
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Cell-mediated Immunity Humoral Immunity
This immunity mediated by antigen- This immunity generated by circulating
specific T cells antibodies or B cells
No formation of antibodies Formation of antibodies
Receptors are made used to identify Antibodies are made use to identify
antigens antigens
It can eliminate tumour cells and thus It cannot eliminate tumour cells
protects against cancer
It shows delayed response It is quick in response
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(3) Passive immunity
“borrowed” from another source
does not last indefinitely
Eg a baby receives antibodies from the mother
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Immunizations
introduces antigens or weakened pathogens to a person in such a way
that the individual does not become sick but still produces antibodies
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Immune system disorders
Types of immune disorder fall into three categories:
1. Immunodeficiencies
when one or more parts of the immune system do not function
Eg AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome)
Causes - age, obesity and alcoholism
Malnutrition (developing countries)
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2. Autoimmunity
Immune system mistakenly targets healthy cells, rather than foreign
pathogens or faulty cells
Eg Rheumatoid arthritis and Graves’ disease (overproduction of thyroid
hormones)
3. Hypersensitivity
Immune system overreacts in a way that damages healthy tissue
Eg Anaphylactic shock (results from a severe allergic reaction, causes
blood pressure to drop and narrows your airway, making breathing difficult)
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