Unit 20

Survey Method
Contents
20.1 lntroduction
20.2 Rationale of Survey Research Method
20.3 History of Survey Research
20.4 Defining Survey Research
20.5 Sampling and Survey Techniques
20.6 Operationlising Survey Research Tools
20.7 Advantages and Weaknesses of Survey Methods
20.8 Conclusion

I
1
Learning Objectives
It is expected that after reading unit 20 you will be able to Proceed with

I organising a mini research project in terms of preparing for data collection

*:* Work out the relevance of survey method of data collection for
your research
*t' Spell out the techniques of carrying out a survey i n your own
research \

*t' Gain confidence in pointing out benefits and weaknesses of the

survey method to be used by you in your research.

20.1 Introduction
In Block 5 you acquired, whenever required, the skills of carrying out
statistical calculations for arriving at significant results from the data
collected during research. The question arises as to how do you collect
data? What are the different ways of gathering relevant facts regarding
the subject of your research?Unit 20 is about one of the ways of collecting
facts and figures pertinent to yoir research. The unit begins with the
question of why should one use the survey method of data collection?
I

, Next, it goes into the historical background of survey research and

i explains what is survey research. It mentions the practice of sampling in

data cotlection but does not go into i t s details because Unit 15 in Block 5
and Unit 21 in Block 6 deal with the subject of sampling in ample detail.
f

The unit discusses how to actually carry out a survey and outlines the
! advantages and weaknesses of survey research.
Unit 20 Is only an introductory note on the important subject of survey
I method. Units 21,22 and 23 provide you with full details of survey research
so that you may actually carry out a survey as part of your mini research
project, a requirement for completing MSO 002. 1 hope that you have
I selected a topic for your research project and identified i t s methodology.
Quantitative and
Survey Methods 20.2 Rationale of Survey Research Method
Social science research techniques are often classified into two categories,
namely, qualitative and quantitative. Qualitative research enables us to
understand the subtle aspects of social relations. They are particularly
useful when one is interested in probing a specific question in depth, i t s
meanings and their different interpretations. However, qualitative
methods also have their limitations. They are, for example, more suitable
when research is being carried out in a small setting or is focused on a 1
specific group or community. Qualitative research methods are not very
useful when we need to know about macro phenomena, such as the
demographic structure of a population or the extent and nature of
poverty or disease.
Quantitative methods or survey research enables us to study these
questions i n a more comprehensive manner. Depending upon the
requirement, survey research can be extended to as large an areal
population as a whole nation or even the entire world. Thus when the
universe of study i s large and the researchers ~ r c looking
! for broad
trends or patterns in a given population they often resort to survey
methods. In other words, qualitative and quantitative research methods
are not opposed to each rather they are complementary. The two can be
combined, one enriching the other.
An important feature of survey research i s that unlike qualitative methods,
which are generally used by specialist researchers, survey research does
not have the monopoly of sociologists or economists. Surveys have become
part and parcel of modern life, constituting almost an industry
The contemporary world i s often described as the "information societye".
This implies that the flow of information has become its most crucial and
central aspect. Recent advances in telecommunication technologies have
made this flow of information easier as well as critical for the working
of present day society, its politics and i t s economics.
As i s the case with information society, "agrarian" and "industrial"
societies too were products of major breakthroughs in technology. Some
sociologists think that there have been primarily three revolutions i n
human history, namely, agricultural revolution, urban revolution and
industrial revolution. However, the agricultural and industrial societies
are defined primarily in terms of their major economic activity, that is,
the nature and means of production. By comparison, the term "information
society" has a different connotation. While production (whether
airicultural or industrial) continues to be central, it is carried out in a
regime of information. In decision-making processes, farmers and factory
owners work on the basis of the available information. In some cases the
producers themselves generate such information before they plan
production of certain commodities.

*%980
Similarly, consumers decide about consumption according to the
information that mass media make available to them. Markets depend a Survey Method

great deal on the flow of information. Each time a company decides to

launch a new product, it undertakes extensive marketing surveys about
the tastes and purchasing powers of potential buyers. Producers are
expected to provide information about their products to potential buyers
through advertisements, particularly in those media which have a larger .
impact on the people.
Information, its production and distribution has also become an important
sector of the economic system. It provides employment to a large number
of people and sjenerates a huge amount of wealth. There are a number of
professional organisations and companies in almost every country that
carry out surveys for all kinds of clients, from business houses to political
parties. This is what we meant when we said earlier that survey i s an
industry in the contemporary world.
lnformation has also become crucial for the modern state and the
functioning of the democratic systems. Almost the entire policy making
process of the modern welfare state is based on information (see Box
20.1).
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r
Box 20.1 lnformation Gathering by the State
I Various organs of the state collect all possible information about its population
through periodic censuses and surveys. The Government of India, for example, has
a specialist body called National Sample Survey Organization (NSSO), which
periodically undertakes sample surveys of the Indian population on various social
and economic parameters. The data that it generates i s used by various government
agencies for formulating policies and programmes. Similarly, the lndian Planning
Commission also has a 'programme evaluation wing', which undertakes surveys in
order t o evaluate the working of various developmental programmes. Other
departments of the government also sponsor surveys focused on the issues of
their concern. Similar institutions are found in other parts of the world. The
I
point is that the information about populace is essential not only for governance
but also for formulating and executing the programmes of development, and as
such information is generated through periodically carried out surveys.
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-

Global agencies involved with developmental activities either generate

their own information about the economic well being of populations in
different parts of the world or depend upon the available data on various
subjects (such as poverty, unemployment, health). The World Bank and
the different agencies of the United Nations periodically publish reports
on different aspects of the existing state of affairs in a given country.
The political process too has become information oriented. Political parties
in modern democracy closely monitor "public opinion" and articulate their
priorities accordingly. Similarly, citizens in modern democracies also form
their opinions about various political parties on the basis of information
they get from several sources. ~ s e ~ h o l o ~ i s t swho
@ , carry out surveys on
'public opinion' before elections and make predictions (or projections)
399 9
Quantltattve and about the possible outcome of elections, have come to acquire a
Survey Methods
respectable place in politics and media. Television channels and newspapers
undertake elaborate surveys during election times on the prospects of
various political parties and the voting behaviour of people. Similarly, in
countries Like the United States of America and other Western
democracies, the media and the corporations constantly monitor the
popularity ratings of their leaders and political parties, both in power
and outside.
Besides the fact that surveys have gained in importance in the modern
world, they have always been an important research method. They have
been used for understanding the emerging trends or patterns in a given
population or for testing hypotheses. Some of them may have policy
implications, while some may be purely for academic interest. For
example, sociologists interested i n understanding the process of
secularisation may undertake surveys on how often people perform
religious rituals in their everyday social, economic and political life.

20.3 History of Survey Research

Though systematically carried out surveys have a short history, rulers in
the past have always been interested in finding out what was going on in
their states and the condition of their subjects. There are umpteen stories
of rulers (or their representatives) going to meet the public, sometimes
incognito, with the explicit intent of enquiring about their welfare and
any seeds of discontent. This was considered extremely Important for
proper rule, In ancient times roman emperors polled surveys of their
citizens. The Victorians social reformists undertook surveys and
interviewed ten to twenty thousand persons for seeking an adequate
representation of opinions,
However, survey research In i t s systematic form began after the Industrial
Revolution and urbanisation of Europe. Karl Mam was perhaps the first
social scientist to collect .Information from some key informants about
the condition of industrial workers and tried to relate it to his theory of
class society and class struggle. On the basis of such data he also tried to
quantify workers' exploitation in terms of working hours and wages
rates (see Box 20.2 on early surveys).

The first systematic survey was supposedly carried out by Henry Mayhew, a
Scottish philosopher and social reformer, who wanted to flnd out about the
llvlng conditions in Edinburgh In the early 19thcentuh and asked ordinary people
to report on thelr situation. With reformist zeal, Charles Booth Initiated a survey
on Labour and Llfe of the People of London in 1886, The findings of his survey
20.4 Defining Survey Research
Survey research is basically a method of gathering in'formation from a
population on a given subject. Unlike qualitative research, survey research
invariably covers a large population; but it does not imply that it collects
information from each and every individual. Statisticians have designed
various met.hods of drawing a representative sample from a given
population, which can reveal trends for the entire population.
Quantitative research methods are often classified into two types, namely,
census and sample based survey research. When information is gathered
from each and every member of the population, or in other words, when
all units of the population are covered for information, it i s called census.
But it is an expensive, lengthy and time-consuming process. Therefore,
we focus on a portion (or unit) of the population; it is from the study of a
part that we arrive at an understanding of the whole. When a part (or
section, or unit) of a population is studied, it is called 'sample survey
research'. The term 'sample' is used for the part of a population that is
subjected to study. Identifying such a portion or sample population is not
easy. In order to make a survey scientific and representative, one must
follow a scientific procedure.

20.5 Sampling and Survey Techniques

Sampllng is a method that identifies a representative number from a given
universe of population. There are two basic properties of a sample.
i It should be adequate.
II) It'should be representative of the universe (the 'entire population').
The most crucial point in sampling is to make sure that one's personal
values do not influence the selection process. In order to keep out the
researcher's Sias, various techniques or procedures of selecting a sample
have been suggested. For detailed information on sampling see Unit 15
of Block 5 and Unit 21 of Block 6.
bet us at this stage complete Reflection and Action 20.1 exercise.
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I Reflection and Action 20.1 I
1 You can assess the usefulness of a survey in terms of its purpose and therefore it is I
1 necessary that you do not confuse the kinds of material you are going to collect. In I
I order to gain more clarity on this point, answer the following questions on a 1
I sheet of paper.
I
Is the survey of "facts" that you count yourself the same as a survey of facts
1 which are reported by respondents and only tallied by the researcher?
I
I Are the respondents' opinions or statements about items not social facts and as I
such worth researching about? I
I Is it not necessary to consider whether and how you would locate them in the I
I social context and use to f i l l out your understanding of the "facts" that you I
1 counted yourself? I
L ~ ~ . ~ ~ ~ ~ , . , , , +lo1~9 ~ , ~
 An important step in any kind of research i s the preparation of research
tools. Survey research i s typically carried out with the help of a
questionnaire or interview-schedule. Preparing a questionnaire and
interview schedule i s the most important step in survey research (see
Box 20.3 on the difference between a questionnaire and an interview).

a Questionnaire and an Interview

When the respondents themselves fill in the answers (or responses) to the questions
asked, it is called questionnaire. In a schedule, the investigators read out the
in the responses.

There are different ways of approaching a respondent. The simplest

way i s to approach the potential respondent directly. That is how most
surveys are conducted. A research team would invariably go to a village
or a locality and try talking t o the head of the household (HOH).
Questionnaires are also sent by mail; such questionnaires are called 'mailed
questionnaires'.
Another method of approaching the respondent i s the household drop-
off survey. In this the researchers go to the respondents' homes (or
businesses) and hand over the questionnaires to the respondents. The
respondents can be either requested to mail them back to the researchen
or the researchers may penonally go to collect them at a later date.
Some researchers have also started using telephones for approaching
respondents and fillinp thd interview schedule throu~hconversation on
phone.'Telephone interviews have become a popular mode of carrying
out s;rveys in countries like the United States of America. There are
~bviousadvantages of such an approach. Telephone n i terve
i ws can save
a lot of time. One can also cover a large area or population through
. telephone surveys without having to travel. The researchers can also
approach the respondents at a later date and ask follow-up questions.
Today, e-mail i s also being used for mailing questionnaires.
However, in a country like India telephones (or e-mail) are s t i l l a privilege
of the few. 'rhough some rural areas are now connected by telephone,
not every household has a telephone connection. In fact, only a small
proportion of the entire population in cities has telephone connections.
Thus, only in certain kinds of research where the respondents are largely
from middle class backgrounds that one can use the method of telephonic
interviews. In such settings not everyone will be willing to respond positively
to a request for an interview on telephone. Even when they agree, the
interviews generally will have to be short and precise.
'
Perhaps the best way of carrying out a survey i s through personal
interviews. Unlike the mail survey or telephone (or e-mail) n
i terve
i ws, in
personal interviews, the researchers have opportunities of not only getting
 responses from the respondents directly but also get the opportunities Survey Method

of probing some questions which may be beyond the scope of the survey
but may help in enriching the data, finding answers to certain critical
questions, and sometimes even in identifying further questions.
I Once the data have been collected, the researchers have to codify and
process the data in a manner that it becomes presentable in tabular form
and charts. It should also become accessible for use for statistical treatment

1 that would tell us about the different qualities of the data. Issues relating
to processing of data and i t s presentation in the report will be discussed in
detail in the units of Block 8.
I

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20.7 Advantages and Weaknesses of Survey
Research
Survey research has the following advantages:
i Survey research i s relatively inexpensive (especially self-
t
t administered surveys).
ii) Survey research i s useful in describing the characteristics of a large
population, demographic structure of a population, and i t s emerging
trends and patterns.
iii) Survey research can be administered from remote locations using
mail, e-mail or telephone. Consequently, very large samples are

i I iv)
feasible, making the results statistically significant even when
analysing multiple variables.
In survey research one can ask many questions about a given topic,
! which gives considerable flexibility to the analysis.
v) We can choose different ways of administering a survey. From face-
to-face interviews to telephones and e-mails one can use any mode
of collecting data depending on one's requirements and limitations.
vi) Unlike the qualitative methods, survey research is carried out
through standardized questions, which makes measurement more
precise by enforcing uniform definitions upon the participants.
Standardisation ensures that similar kinds of data are collected
I
from groups and then interpreted comparatively (between-group
study),implying more objectivity and higher reliability.
Following are some of the common problems with survey research:

! i
A preoccupation with standardisation results in designing questions
in very general terms to make them minimally appropriate for all
1 respondents. This could lead to simplification and one may end
1
1
up missing what may be most appropriate to many respondents.
ii) Survey research i s inflexible in the sense that it requires a precise
I study design. Everything must be worked out in advance, the
r .
n3 .
Quantltattve and tools to be used and the method of administering the tools. In
Survey Methods
order to make a survey methodologically sound, it should remain
unchanged throughout the period of data collection.
iii) In order to make a survey viable and meaningful the researcher
has to make sure that a large proportion of selected respondents
agree to respond. This, however, may not always be an easy task to
achieve. In such situations carrying out a survey becomes difficult.
iv) Surveys also demand a great deal of attention and honesty on the
part of respondents, particularly when a questionnaire is being
used and the survey is self-administered. Respondents may not
always be willing to give such attention to filling the questionnaire.
Sometimes, it may be hard for participants t o recall certain
information or to take a clear position on controversial issues.
v) Another problem with survey research is that it is invariably context-
blind. However, in the social world, context and the environment
i n which questions are being asked and answers given is
very important. For example, the responses of a female respondent
being asked questions about gender equality in her home, i n
the presence of her husband and other family members, may be
very different from the same questions asked at her work place
where she is employed. Survey research can rarely sea lhe the
questions of "context".

..........................
Reflection and Action 20.2
In his note on Social Surveys in the chapter, Producing Data, Mitchell (1984: 272)
wrote,
Obviously, the constraints imposed upon data collection in normal survey work
mean that the sort of information collected will be of a different quality from
that collected by observation and by extended interviewing. Survey data are
lil.r[y to provide estimates of the variability and extent of different patterns of
association but they naturally do not lend themselves to following out leads or to
exploring the cognitive and affective implications to the respondent of the links
being studied.
Read the above excerpt from Mitchell's note and in the Light of your reading of
Unit 20, answer the following questions on a sheet of paper.
i) What are the constraints imposed upon data collection in normal survey work?
ii) Can you find an example of a survey that provides estimates of variability and
extent of different patterns of association?For this purpose you may use issues
of the Economic and Political Weekly and find an example of survey with the
above material.
iii) What does the term 'Links' refer to in the above passage? Does it refer to
data about networks in surveys?

20.8 Conclusion
Unit 20 aimed at familiarising you with survey method and its relevance
in social research. Tracing the history.of survey method, it elaborated on
 Survey Method
the procedure of carrying out survey and pointed out both i t s advant.ages
and weaknesses. Unit 20 has prepared adequate background for you to
read the details of survey design, instrumentation and execution in the
next three units of Block 5.

Further ~ e a d i n g g
Moser, C. A. and G. Kalton 1973. Survey Methods in Social Investigation.
The English Language Book Society: London
de Vaus, D.A. 1986. Surveys in Social Research. George Allen and Unwin:
London
Young, P. V. 1988. Scientific Social Surveys and Research. Hew Delhi:
Prentice Hall.
Unit 21
Survey Design
Contents
21.1 lntroduction
2 1 .2 Preliminary Considerations
21.3 Stages IPhases in Survey Research
21.4 Formulation of Research Question
2 1 .5 Survey Research Designs
21 -6 Sampling Design
2 1.7 Conclusion

Learning Objectives
It i s expected that after reading Unit 12 you would be able to
Q Work out (a) the purpose of enquiry, (b) the unit on which the
survey is to focus and (c) the availability of resources
Q Divide the survey research into stages or phases
O Formulate the kinds of questions to be asked during the survey
*:* Decide the type of research design to employ
O Choose a sampling plan for survey.

21. I lntroduction
Design elements are crucial in understanding the complexity of undertaking
a survey. The survey method involves several aspects, which are crucial
for its execution in a systematic and scientific manner. Unit 21 provides
a description of the basic dimensions of survey in social research. The
topics discussed in this unit are: preliminary considerations for undertaking
survey research, different stageslphases i n conducting a survey,
formulation of research questions, types of research design, and details
of sampling design.

21.2 Preliminary Considerations

There are three preliminary considerations before any researcher decides to
undertake survey as a method of social investigation. The considerations are
i ) Purpose of enquiry,
ii) Population on which survey is to focus, and
iii) Resource availability.
Each of these considerations is essential for survey research.
The first prerequisite for undertaking survey research i s clear and well-
defined objectives, purposes or research questions. The researcher must
be clear that the survey method is the best method to study those
objectives (purposes or research questions). If there is a clear idea
about the objectives of a research study, it leads to the choice of the Survey Design

appropriate survey as a method of investigation.

The second prerequisite is specifying the population of study. This
influences the decisions about sampling and resources. The accessibility
of the popitlation i s an important element in developing survey design. It
judges the duration of study, the different layers of people to be included
and the size of the research staff as well as the sample.
The third important prerequisite in designing a survey i s to take stock of
the resources availability for study. Resources may be in the form of
financial costs, manpower requirement and the total time within which
the survey has to be completed. Surveys are usually labour intensive, the
single largest expenditure being the fieldwork costs which include the
interviewing time, travel time, and transport costs, etc. There are
additional costs involved i n survey research, namely, training and
supervision of interviewers, questionnaire construction, pilot testing the
questionnaire, printing, posting, coding, computer programming, etc.
Thus, the researcher must estimate the availability of resources before
starting the survey research.

21.3 Stages 1 Phases in Survey Research

Survey research calls for a systematic and comprehensive collection of
information about the attitudes, beliefs and behaviour of people. In a
survey, the researcher follows a deductive approach. He begins with a
theoretical or applied research problem and ends with empirical
measurement and data analysis. Once a researcher decides that survey
i s the best and appropriate method t o undertake his research, then
elaborate steps are taken in order t o make the application of the method
more scientific and systematic. Further, there i s no unanimity among
the researchers on the actual number of steps or their ordering. However,
here we deal with a few major steps in three phaseslstages that cover the
preparation, planning and execution of survey research (See Figure 21 .I).

1. Research Question

3. Tabulation and
Respondents and
3. Draw the Sample
4. Data Gathering 3. Supervision and

7. Finalising the Survey

Figure 21 .IMajor Steps in Three Stages of Survey Research + 7*I

0: .0
:
QuarrlitaLivs and The first phase covers design and planning for a survey. This is a very
Survey Met'itods
elaborate and Long phase in which the details of conducting a survey are
worked out. It is crucial as it sets the ground for the actual survey.
The important steps i n this phase are formulating a research question,
deciding the survey research design, working out the sampling procedure,
deciding the data gathering techniques, construction of a questionnaire,
conducting a pilot survey, modifying the survey instrument, training
field investigators/interviewers.
The second phase involves the execution of the main survey for data
collection. It includes locating and accessing the respondents and field
settings, conducting the survey, monitoring and supervision of the field
personnel.
In the third and final phase,-the researcher edits the data collected,
prepares codebook, and decides the tabulation for data analysis. Finally,
the researcher prepares the Write-up/Report of the study.
The listing of steps in a sequential form may give the impression that
once a step is covered there is no turning back. However, to the contrary,
it is often necessary to alter decisions made at an earlier point in the
light of developments during the later stages of research. For instance,
the problems encountered during the execution stage may call for
modification either of the sampling design or of the type of instrument
for collection or of the questionnaire. Further, it is also a mistake t o
assume that these steps can be followed one at a time without any
regard for subsequent steps. In reality, it is often important to keep in
mind the other steps while working out the details of one step. For
instance, it i s necessary to keep i n mind the intended data analysis
procedures while constructing a questionnaire.

21.4 Formulation of the Research Question

The first step in a survey design is the formulation of a research question.
Research question here refers to the major goal problem or objective of
the study. In fact, the formulation of a question should precede the selection
of survey method for data collection. Though survey has a wide range of
applications in the social sciences, it may at times turn out that the
other methods of data collection (such as in-depth interviewing or
participant observation, etc.) may be more appropriate or suitable to
the problem chosen. Thus, it i s necessary to think of the appropriateness
of the survey method for investigating a particular research problem.
Further, it may be kept in mind that there i s a need to formulate a
research question at the beginning of research. But, this emphasis does
not mean that the initial research question is the final one (see Box
21.1). Often research questions arise unexpectedly in the middle of a
conversation with informants. These need not be ignored. Their addition
or modification of questions decided earlier is always a useful excercise.
 Survey Design
Box 21. Refine Your Research Questions
According to David de Vaus (2002), it is important to know what we are Looking
for, it is a mistake to let the initial focus blind us to other unanticipated questions
which may perhaps be more interesting, important or manageable than the initial
one. Research questions can be refined and new issues emerge in the course of
survey research.

How does one arrive at a research question? Often, the researcher's

curiosity about a particular social phenomenon guides him to choose a
particular research question. However, the researcher can formulate his
research question in more than one way. First, the starting point could
be a theory or a model. The choice of theoretical framework or model
will have implications for the kind of questions that are to be formulated
and the kind of data that are to be collected. Second, significant social
policy implications may guide researchers in formulating their research
problem. In other words, the problem chosen should be relevant to the
issues of social improvement, social change, or social action. 'Third, the
goal of producing social criticism may lead some researchers to formulate
research questions suitable for that objective. Some research questions
may meet several or some of these criteria, but it is rare that a research
question will meet all of them.
Further, it is important that the survey's general purpose be translated
into a specific central problem/aim/objective. It is not enough t o say,
for example, 'I am interested in getting some answers about inequality'.
One should be clear about the kinds of questions one wants to answer.
What answers to what questions? Does he want to know the extent of
inequality, i t s distribution, i t s causes, its effects, or what? What sort of
inequality one is interested in - social, political, economic, etc? Over
what period? Where?
The process is of narrowing down from a general area of interest to a
level that is specific enough for concrete empirical research to be carried
out. After specifying the primary objective of the survey, the next step
involves identification and itemising of the subsidiary topics that relate
to the central purpose. For example, in a study of student attitudes to
the quality of undergraduate education in a college, the subsidiary issues
may include the quality of teachers, the infrastructural facilities, the
admission procedures, the type of courses offered, the content of the
courses, the interaction between teachers and students, the facilities
for remedial study, the facilities and scope for extra-curricular activities,
etc. Once the subsidiary items have been identified, the researcher
looks for the specific information required relating t o each of those
items. For example, with respect to the type of courses required, detailed
information i s needed on the duration of courses, the status of the
courses (credited or non-credited), orientation of the courses (theoretical
or practical), etc.
A thorough review of the existing literature (books and journals) on the
Quantitative and topic is helpful while narrowing the specific topic, identifying the subsidiary
Survey Methods
topics, itemising the subsidiary topics and spelling out the kind of
information required on these topics for data collection. A review of
literature is helpful because it reveals to us the scope and coverage of
research that has already been conducted and helps us in identifying
important gaps so that an attempt could be made to f i l l those gaps
through survey research.
There are other ways too that can help a researcher in formulating his
research question. One i s the exploratory study, which is a tentative and
relatively unstructured investigation of a few people who are similar in
many respects t o those we intend t o study as part of the main
investigation. For instance, i f we intend t o work on the quality of
undergraduate education i n a college, one may have t o visit an
undergraduate college, interview a few students, and identify the specific
research questions for the study. The most important goal of such an
exploratory study is that it stimulates the thinking of the researcher and
helps him identify specific issues that may be worthy of inclusion in the
study. Sometimes, it may help us in understanding the way the concepts
are understood differently by different people. For instance, in our earlier
example, different students may view differently the notion of 'quality'
in undergraduate education. For some, it may mean good teachers1
teaching. For others, it may be good infrastructure or a range of relevant
courses of study, etc.
Another aspect of the research question formulation is that of consultation
with those who are knowledgeable about the topic and who have done
related research. An encounter with these experts can help researchers
in anticipating the pitfalls of the proposed research study.

..........................
Reflection and Action 21.1
Suppose you have to carry out a survey of waste disposal methods, and you need
to formulate research questions. Work out the major goal problem or objective
of your study. Write down answers t o the following questions on a sheet of
paper.
Questions
9 In the light of the objective of your study, do you find the survey method a
useful and appropriate way of data collection? Provide specific reasons of
accepting or rejecting survey method as a method of data collection.
O How have you arrived at each of the research questions? State clearly the
choice of your theoretical model.
+:* Have you looked at the social policy with regard to waste disposal? Elaborate
the implications of the policy in terms of it guiding your research problem.
9 Is your study going to generate social criticism of an issue of importance for
the general public? If yes, you need to work out how your study is going to
lead other researchers t o formulate further research in the same area.
O Have you transformed the general objective of your study into a specific
central problem? It is important that you do this exercise at this stage and
state the narrowing down of the problem from general to specific level for
concrete research to be carried out.
 9 Have you consulted the experts in the area of your research to find out ' Survey Design
I what to expect in your field of inquiry and what are the likely pitfalls to I
I anticipate and t o be careful about? I
I Write your answers to above questions with the help of the relevant text in I
IL --,--.-------------------
Section 21.4.
--A
I

Types of research questions

There is no simple way to define research questions. However, according
to David de Vaus, we can delineate different kinds of questions and
provide guidelines to help focus research -- descriptive research questions
or explanatory research questions or both.
a) Descriptive research questions
It is difficult to focus a descriptive question but five questions can help.
*: What i s the time-frame of our interest?
9 What i s the geographic Location of our interest?
9 patterns for sub-groups?
What aspect of the topic are we interested in?
How abstract is our interest?
b) Explanatory research question
The first step in formulating explanatory research question i s to decide
whether we are looking for causes or consequences. We must list possible
causes and consequences and then collect relevant data. There are a
number of ways of coming up with such a List, namely, previous research,
the facts, our own hunches, an interaction with the informants.
Four questions might help formulating explanatory research question.
What am I trying to explain?
*: What are the possible causes?
*: Which causes will I explore?
*: What are the possible mechanisms?
Thus, there are varieties of issues that need to be kept in mind while
formulating the research question that proposes to undertake survey as
a method of data collection. It actually triggers the mind of the researcher
as how to opcrationalise the research,

2 1.5 Survey Research Designs

After the formulation of the research question, we must decide the type
of design to employ. Research designs for surveys are mainly of two types,
namely, experimental and descriptive. Experilmental designs use
environmental arrangements and rely on two clr more groups of a
participants or observations. When a randomly ccmstltuted group of a
hundred children i s compared three times, the silrvey design i s called
experimental. 'The descriptive design produces information on groups and
phenomena that already exist. No new groups are created. Descriptional
designs are also called 'observational' or 'explanatory' designs. +1110
Quantitative and Experimental designs
Survey Methods
According to Arlene Fink (1995), experimental designs are characterised
by comparing two or more groups, at least one of which i s experimental.
The other i s a control (or comparison) group. An experimental groups is
given a new or untested, innovative programme, intervention, or
treatment. The control is given an alternative (e.g. the traditional
programme or no programme at all). A group is any collective unit.
Sometimes, the unit is made up of individuals with a common experience,
such as men who have participated in a war or those who have had
undergone treatment at a hospital or those who have attended a particular
school. At other times, the unit i s naturally occurring: a classroom,
business, hospital, or a prison.
There are different types of controls. Firstly, there are concurrent controls
in which participants are not randomly assigned to groups. 'Concurrent'
means that each group i s assembled at the same time. For example,
when 10 of 20 schools are randomly assigned to an experimental group
while, at the same time, 10 are assigned to a control group, you have a
randomised trial or true experiment. Secondly, there are concurrent
controls in which participants are not randomly assigned to groups. These
are called non-randomised controlled trials, quasi-experiments, or non-
equivalent controls. Thirdly, in 'self-controls', a group i s surveyed at two
different times. These require pre-measure, post-measures, and are
called 'longitudinal' or 'before-after' designs. Fourthly, 'Historical Controls'
which make use of data coklected for participants in other surveys.
Finally, 'combinations' of all consist of concurrent controls with or without
pre or post-measures. Of all the experimental designs, longitudinal designs
are used quite often in social research.
Longitudinal designs
In a longitudinalB design, data are systematically collected over a period
of months or years in such a way that it is possible to observe trends in
attitudes or behaviours over the specified period. Consider the following
example. If a researcher is interested in studying the changes in the
spending behaviour of the white-collar employees, she or he will have to
conduct the study at different points of time in a year or periodically. A
study of this kind of a problem involves longitudinal (or time-series)
designs.
Trend studies and panel studies
There are two types sf longitudinal designs: Panel Study and Trend Study.
In a panel study, the same respondents (people) are interviewed two or
more times. In a trend study, two or more different samples of people
(respondents) are drawn at different times from the same population
(for- examples see Box 21.2). You may have noticed that the television
and newspaper media draw samples from time to time to study trends.
 Survey Design
11 Box 21.2 Examples of Panel Study and Trend Study II
Suppose we wish t o understand the changing support for the leading political
parties in the general elections to Parliament, two months before the election.
For this study, we draw a sample of adults in the voting age group and 60 percent
support, let us say, Political Party I. One month before the election, we re-
interview the people who were a part of our sample. Perhaps, 55 percent of
them now support Political Party I. This would be a panel study. On the other
hand, i f we draw a new sample of voters, one month before, and find that 55
n t of the new voters preferred Political Party I, this would be a trend

Trend studies provide information on net changes and panel studies provide
information on both net and gross changes. Suppose at Time 1, sixty out
of every 100 people say they would vote for Political Party A . Between
Time 1 and Time 2, 10 of the Political Party A voters might change their
opinion and vote for Political Party B and five of the Political Party B
might vote for Political Party A. Thus, between Time 1 and Time 2,
many people have changed their vote (opinion) and this is a gross change.
The net result of these individual changes i s that at Time 2, 55 of every
100 people would vote for Political Party A. Thus, i f we use a panel
design we can count the number of people in our sample who change
their opinion between Time 1 and Time 2. If we use a trend design, we
can describe the net change in the population, but we cannot count the
number of individual change. If the net change i s 5 percent (from 60
percent to 55 percent supporting Political Party A), the gross change
might be anywhere between 5 percent and 85 percent. Trend studies
describe how the distribution of a variable i s changing for the population
studied. Panel studies describe how individual members of a population
are changing (see Box 21.3 for an example of panel design).

Box 21.3 An Example of Panel Design

Lazarsfeld, et.al, find a classic example of panel design in "The People's Choice".
(1944). The researchers interviewed a panel b f 600 residents of Erie County, Ohio
(USA), once a month between May and November of 1940 with respect to how they
intended to vote in the presidential election of 1940. Of particular interest t o these
investigators was the process by which panel members decided to vote the way
they eventually did.

There are both advantages and disadvantages to panel designs. Most of

the advantages relate to being able to interview the same respondents
repeatedly over a period of months or years to see i f any changes occur in
their thinking and attitudes. If we find shifts in attitudes or reported
behaviour, we are in a better position to argue that there has been a
real change in the population.
Another advantage of panel design i s that they permit much more
,information to be collected about each respondent than i s feasible through
Quantitative and other designs. Panel designs also avoid a heavy dependence on the memory
Survey Methods
of respondents for information about his time covered by the panel.
However, they may s t i l l rely on memory for questions about the
respondent's past.
'The primary disadvantage of panel study is sample mortal.ity; that is,
there will be a loss of panel members owing to lack of cooperation,
death, or change of residence, etc. Another disadvantage is that it
takes a long time to collect data and hence the costs involved may be
more. Further, repeated surveys on the same population may cause
respondents t o become overly sensitized to their role as "selective"
respondents.
Descriptive designs
There are two types of desuiptive designs, namely, cross-sectional designs
and cohort designs.
Cross-sectional designs
In a cross-sectional@design, the data is collected at one point in time.
This is the most frequently used and most fundamental design in social
survey research and is sometimes called 'single-shot survey'. This design
is most appropriate for making inferences about the characteristics of
the population from which the sample is draw&;and Inferences about
the relationships between variables at that point in time at which data is
collected. 'The interviewing for such studies is sometimes carried out in
less than a week, but more typically requires a few weeks and in some
cases a few months. For example, a survey of current people's choices of
a pol,itical party is a cross-sectiranal survey.
A researcher might use the data either to describe a sample on one variable
or a number of variables or to demonstrate the association between these
variables. Consider the following example. A researcher is interested in
exploring the attitudes of the parents on the education of their children.
He selects a sample of households with school going children in a community
(Rural/Urban) and interviews the parents in those select households. After
the interviews are completed, the researcher analyses the data and draws
conclusions. The research design involved here is a cross.sectional design.
One of the advantages of this design is that a researcher can classify a '
sample into many quite different sub-groups t o explore the separate
dimensions of the research topic. A researcher may also use this design
in causal analysis. Interestingly, by asking questions about the past it is
possible to study certain longitudinal (overtime) social phenomena such
as social mobility using a cross-sectional design.
However, the cross-sectional designs have two important l'imitations: (1)
it is difficult to establish the time order of the variables, (2) it is difficult
to analyse change over time. To illustrate the first point, suppose in a
study, we find that the organisational affiliation is associated with political
 Survey Design
arises as to whether our respondents first joined organisations and later
came to feel efficacious because of their experiences in that organisation,
or whether they felt efficacious first, which led them to join a particular
organisation. Alternatively, whether both causal sequences are operating,
either for different people or for the same people. If we gathered data
at one point in time, it i s difficult to know when differences on each
variable developed. Since causes come before effects, it is difficult to
know in a cross-sectional design which variable should be taken as
independent, causal agent.
A second limitation of the cross-sectional design is that it is difficult to
use it for analysing changes over time. Consider the analysis of voting
behaviour. At any given point during an election, we can ask respondents
how they would vote 'if the elections were held today'. However, voting
decisions might change during a campaign and different voters may exhibit
different patterns of change. Some know their choice from the beginning
and never vary; some switch back and forth between candidates; some
are undecided until Election Day. Moreover, people who decide early in a
campaign and never waver may have different characteristics and may
experience different pressures than people who decide late. In sum,
data collected at one tlme make it difficult to understand social processes
that occur over tlme.
11) Cohort deslgns
These forward-looking, or prospective, designs provide data about changes
in a specific population. Suppose a survey of the aspirations of athletes
particlpatin in the 1996 Olympics i s given in 1996, 2000, and 2004. This
8
i s a Cohort design and the Cohort i s 1996 Olympics.
Cohort designs can also be retrospective, or look back over time (a
historical Cohort) i f the events being studied actually occurred before
the onset of the survey. For example, suppose a group of persons was
diagnosed ten years ago with disease X. If you survey their medical
records to the present tlme, you are using a retrospective Cohort.

I Reflection and Action 21.2 I

I In the case of your study of waste disposal methods, you would have formulated
( research questions and then also refined them. For maklng clear the type of research
I questions and the type of research design you have formulated and adopted,
answer the following questions on a sheet of paper.
I Questions
I + Are the questions formulated by you a mix of different types mentioned in
I the text or of one speciflc type only?
I O What type of survey design have you selected for the survey in your research
I on waste disposal methods?
I Write in detail about the type of desiun you have selected and alsa give reasons I
I why you have selected this one and not any of the other designs mentioned in I
I the text. I
I I
L,,--, -,. -----------,,---,--J
Quantitative and
Survey Methods 21.6 Sampling Design
After survey design has been selected, a sampling plan must be chosen.
Many details about sampling have been discussed earlier in the units of
Block 4 and Block 5, and therefore I am including only those that are new.
Why sampling?
Because the researchers may not include the whole of the population in
survey research for reasons of costs and manpower, a part of the
populationi s selected for understanding the characteristics of a population.
Sampling, therefore, i s a process of systematically selecting cases for
inclusion in a research project. A researcher gets a set of cases (or a
sample) that is more manageable and cost effective to work with than
the pool of all cases. For example, it would be much less costly and time
consuming to measure variables on 200 than 20,000 people. The
researcher is not just interested in a small subset of cases. Instead, he
would like to generalise about the entire pool. If well done, sampling lets
the researcher measure variables on the smaller set of cases but generalise
results accurately to all cases. For instance, i f sampling is well conducted,
a researcher can measure variables with, say, 2000 cases, and'generalise
to 200 million. Survey researchers argue strongly that there would only be
2 - 4 percent variation if all the 200 million cases were used for the study.
The next question is how it is possible to generalize from a handful of
cases. It i s not based on any magic, but on logical statistical reasoning
that has been tested repeatedly with empirical evidence. Moreover, a
researcher cannot use just any sample for the purposes of generalization.
There are well laid down sampling procedures that require rigorous
exercises in order to increase the level of precision in a study.
Basic terms i n sampling
i ) Sampling element
A sampling element is the unit of analysis (or case) in a population. It
can be a person, a group, an organisation, a written document, or
symbolic message, or even a social action (a divorce, a fight, etc.) that
i s being measured.
ii) Population
It is the large pool of elements from which a sample i s drawn. Sometimes,
the term 'universe' is used interchangeably with 'population'. To define
the universe or population, a researcher specifies the unit being sampled,
the geographical location, and the temporal boundaries of populations.
The term 'target population' refers to the specific pool of cases the
researcher wants to study.
iii) Sampling ratio .
The ratio of the size of the sample to the size of the target population is
the 'sampling ratio'. For example, a college has 2000 students, and a
researcher draws a sample of 200 from it. Thus the sampling ratio is
20012000 = 0.1, or 10 percent.
iv) Sampling frame Survey Design

A population i s an abstract concept. Except for specific small populations,

one can never truly freeze a population to measure it. For example, in a
city at any given moment, some people are dying, some are traveling
outside the city, some have gone on temporary migration t o other cities,
and some are taking birth. The researcher must decide exactly who t o
count. Should he count a city resident who happens to be on a holiday or
outside the city when the time i s fixed for the study?Therefore, the notion
of 'population' i s abstract and it exists in the mind, but i s impossible t o
pinpoint concretely. Since it i s an abstract concept, except for small
populations, a researcher needs t o estimate the population. Thus, it
requires an operational definition.
A researcher operationalises a population by developing a specific l i s t
that closely approximates all the elements in the population. This l i s t is a
'sampling frame'. The researcher may choose from many types of sampling
frames: telephone directories, driving licences, ration cards, membership
of a club, students' registration in a university, etc. A good sampling frame
i s crucial to good sampling. A mismatch between the sampling frame and
the conceptually defined population can be a m a ~ o sourcer of error. For
instance, i f you select the telephone directory as a sampling frame, it
constitutes only 5-10 percent of the population in a city, say, Delhi. The
directory does not l i s t those who do not have a telephone connection. It
also does not update quickly the frequent shifts of residences and changes
in telephone numbers in a city.
v) Parameter and statistic
Any characteristic of a population i s a 'population parameter'. For
instance, students from the science stream of children in the age group '
6-1 1 years, etc. It i s the true characteristic of the population. Parameters
are determined when all elements in a population are measured. The
parameter i s never known with absolute accuracy for large populations,
so researchers must estimate it as based on samples.
Researchers use information from the sample, called a 'statistic', t o
estimate popu!ation parameters.
Sampling errors
If many samples are taken from the same population, it i s unlikely that
they will all have characteristics identical either with each other or with
the population. In brief, there will be what i s called 'sampl,ing error'.
Sampling error is not necessarily the result of mistakes made in the
sampling procedure. Rather, variations occur due to the chance selection
of different individuals.
Types of sampling designs
Sampling designs are of two types. The first i s called probability-sampling
design and the second i s non-probability sampling design. In Unit 15 of
Block 5 our focus was on how to carry out calculations while here we are
discussing each type of sampling design in terms of i t s essential character
Quantitative and
S~rrveyMethods
and procedure. All the same you are likely to find some repetition of
subject matter which has been retained to reinforce the learning of the
same.
i) Probability sampling design: Probability sampling provides a statistical
basis for stating that a sample is representative of the 'target population'.
In probability sample, every element i n the population has a known
chance of being included in the sample. 'That means, every member of
the target population has a non-zero probability of being included in the
studylsample. This allows for estimates of the accuracy of sample findings
in approximating what we woul,d find out if we had conducted a census
of the total population.
ii) Non-probability sampling design: In non-probability sampling designs,
we do not know whether an element of the population has an equal
chance of being selected. Its probability of selection cannot be
determined, as is that with probability sampling where each element has
a 50 percent chance of being selected and 50 percent chance of not
being included in the sample. The non-probability samples are drawn
based on judgment regarding the characteristics of the target population
and the needs of survey. With non-probability sampling, some members
of the eligible target population have a chance of being chosen and
others do not. Thus, the statistical estimates of precision cannot be
made with this sample. The non-probabllity sampling designs are preferred
when there is no possibil,ity of probabil,ity sampl,ing. Whenever feasible,
probability-sampling designs are preferred.
Probability sampling procedures
1) Simple random sampling
In simple random sampling, each member of the population under study
has an equal chance of being selected. The method involves selecting at
random from a list of the population (a sampling frame) the required
number of subjects for the sample. Because of the probability and chance,
the sample should contain subjects with characteristics similar to the
population as a whole. For example, some old, some young, some tall,
some short, some rich, some poor, etc. One essential requisite for this
kind of sampllng i s that a complete list of the population (sampling
frame) is needed.
The biggest advantage of simple random sampling is that a researcher
can get an unbiased sample without much technical dlfficulty. For instance,
once a member (or element) is selected, he (or it) is not eligible for a
second chance and is not returned t o the pool. 'This is what makes a
simple random sample relatively unbiased. The typical ways of selecting
a simple random sample are mainly through a lottery or through a table
of random numbers or now through computer generated random
numbers. The Lottery method is adopted for smaller populations or sampling
frame. For bigger sampling frames, the computer-generated numbers
are selected.
 It may be kept in mind that simple random sampling may not guarantee Survey Design

a perfect representation of the population. In other words, it may be

wise to say that most random samples are close to the population most
of the time but may not perfectly match the entire population.
ii) Systematic sampling
This is a modified version of simple random sampling. .It involves selecting
cases/elements from a population l i s t in a systematic rather than random
fashion. Here, the researcher calculates a 'sampling interval' rather
than using a list of random numbers. The interval becomes his quasi-
random selection method. Thus, in a systematic sample, every 'n'th
member has a chance to be included in the sample. For instance, i f we
are to select 10 cases out of a total of 100, every tenth will have a
chance to be selected. In this case, 'n' is any number between 1 and 10.
Thus, the starting point in the systematic sampling is chosen at random.
In most cases, a simple random sample and a systematic sample yield
virtually equivalent results. One important situation in which systematic
sampling cannot be substituted for simple random sampling occurs when
the elements in a sample are organised in a cycle or pattern. For example,
if sampling is organised of married couples with the male first and
female second, such a pattern gives the researcher an unrepresentative
sample i f a systematic sample i s a used. His systematic sample can be
non-representative and include only wives or only husbands, depending
upon the manner in which cases are organised or patterned.
II iii) Stratified sampling
Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into homogenous groups
i (sub-groups or strata) each group containing subjects with similar
1 characteristics. For example, in the earlier example, Group A might contain
only males and Group B only females. After dividing the population into
strata or sub-groups, the researcher draws either a simple random sample
or systematic sample or both from each of the sub-groups.
How does one decide on sub-groups?The strata or sub-groups are chosen
I because evidence is available that they are related to the outcome. The
1 justification for the selection of the strata can come from literature and
expert opinion.

I In stratified sampling, the researcher controls the relative size of each

1 stratum, rather than letting random processes control it. This guarantees
I representation of different strata within a sample. However, one condition

i is that the stratified sampling procedures produce samples that are

more representative of the population than simple random sample or
systematic sample i f the stratum information is accurate.

1 iv) Cluster sampling

I The most widely employed probability sample design in survey research
is cluster sampling. It addresses two problems - first is the Lack of good
t sampling frame, and second the costs involved i n reaching a sampled
It element or a case. For example, there is no single list of undergraduates
Quantitative and in colleges of a city. Even i f one gets an accurate sampling frame, it
Survey Methods
would cost too much to reach many of the undergraduates as the colleges
are spread out geographically in the city. In this case, instead of using a
single sampling frame, researchers use a sarr~plingdesign that involves
'clusters'. In this case, the cluster will be the college.
A cluster i s a naturally occurring unit (e.g., a school, which has many
classrooms, students, teachers; a city with zones, namely, Each, West,
South, Central, Iqorth, etc., states, etc.). The clusters are selected
randomly and all members of the selected clusters are included in the
sample or simple random or systematic or stratified samples are taken
out of each cluster. Cluster sampling is used in large surveys. It differs
from stratified sampling in that with cluster sampling one starts with a
naturally occurring constituency. The researcher selects from among the
clusters and either surveys all members of the selection or randomly
selects from among them. The resulting sample may not be
representatives of areas not covered by the cluster, nor does one cluster
necessarily represent another.
v) Stage sampling
Stage sampling, also known as multi-stage sampling, is an extension of
cluster sampling. It involves selection of a sample in several stages. That
is, taking samples from samples. Suppose we want to survey children's
academic performance in schools from a large city. One type of stage
sampling might be to select a number of schools; at random, and from
each of these schools select a number of classes and select children from
within these classes. Another type of stage sampling could be to select
one school, in terms of either the geographic region of the school in the
community/city or in terms of the type of school (publ.ic, private aided,
private unaided, etc.) and take their simple random sampling, systematic
sampling, or stratified sampling or even mixture of all these.
Non-probability sampling procedures
i ) Accidentai or convenience sampling
This i s also called 'man-on-the-street' survey and it involves choosing
the individuals/cases that are readily available on the street, at a market
place, at a school, or at a cinema theatre, etc., until the required
sample size is obtained. This kind of survey can produce ineffective,
highly unrepresentative samples and i s not recommended. When a
researcher haphazardly selects a sample that is convenient, he can easily
get a sample that seriously misrepresents the population. Such samples
are cheap and quick, although biases and errors are there in plenty. An
example of this kind of survey i s the kind of interviews television
programmes conduct on the street.
ii) Quota sampling
Quota sampling has often been described as the non-probability equivalent
of stratified sampiing. In quota sampling, the researcher divides the
population into sub-groups or categories such as men and women, reserved
castes and non-reserved castes, arts and commerce, younger and older, Survey Design

etc., and then decides the proportion of individual in each category or

sub-group. Thus, the number of respondents i s fixed in various categories
of the sample.
Quota sampling i s an improvement because the researcher can ensure
that some population differences are in the sample. However, it i s not
to argue that it i s fully representative. For instance, once quota categories
are selected in quota sampling, the actual number of individuals in each
category i s selected based on the convenience or accidental sampling.
Further, the researcher bias might also creep into the selection of actual
cases of individuals who are included in the study.
iii) Purposive or judgmental sampling
In purposive sampling, researchers handpick the cases t o be included in
the sample based on their judgment of their typicality. That means, the
judgment of the researcher i s used i n selecting cases with a specific
purpose in mind.
Purposive sampling i s appropriate in the following three situations. First,
a researcher uses it t o select unique cases that are especially informative.
Second, a researcher may use purposive sampling to select members of
a difficult-to-reach, specialised population. Third, the purposive sampling
i s preferred when a researcher wants t o identify particular types of
cases for in-depth investigation.
iv) Dimensional sampling
This i s a further refinement of quota sampling. I t involves jdentifying
various factors of interest in a population and obtaining at least one
respondent of every combination of those factors.
v) Snowball sampling
It i s also called a network or chain referral or reputational sampling and
it i s a method for identifying and sampling (or selecting) the cases in a
network. Snowball sampling i s based on an analogy to a snowball which
begins small but becomes larger as it rolls on wet snow and picks up
'
additional snow. Friendship networks are the most important sources of
this kind of sampling. Further, professional associations, chat groups,
etc. may also provide bases for such sampling.
Sample size
A question often asked i s af the size of the sample. How large should it
be? The best answer could be 'it depends'. That means there i s no clear-
cut answer to this question. However, the literature on survey sampling
does give a general advice to prospective survey researchers. For some
people, a sample of thirty i s the bare minimum i f the researcher plans
to some form of statistical analysis of the data. However, the size of the
sample depends on the plans of the researcher and how accurate the
sample has to be for his purposes, and on population characteristics. It
may be stated here that a large sample alone does not guarantee a
 representative sample. Further, when we increase the sample size, we
increase costs. Larger samples mean increased costs. A researcher may
keep in mind all these considerations while judging the size of the sample.
In Section 15.3 of Unit 15, you have already learnt how to calculate
sample size, when estimating mean and when sampling for proportion.

r-------------------------- 1
Reflection and Action 21.3
I
Discuss in a note of about five hundred words the sampling type and design of
I
I the survey you need to carry out in your research on waste disposal methods.
I
I While writing the note, take help,of the relevant text in the unit. I
L-,-,-,,,,,,,------------,-J

2 1.7 Conclusion
'This unit has attempted to discuss the initial concerns of the survey
' researcher. I t spelled out the essential prerequisites for undertaking a
survey and the steps t o be followed in survey research in order t o make
it more systematic. The unit provided a detailed account of research
question formulation, survey research designs, and the sampling designs.
Thus, it tried to equip the student with the basic terms and concepts '

and the process with suitable examples.

Further ~ e a d i n g g
Aldridge, Alan. And Levine, Ken. 2001. Surveying the Social World -
Principles and Practice in Survey Research. open University Press:
Buckingham
Fink, Ar1en.e. 1995. The Survey Hand Book. Sage Publications: Thousand
Oaks
Cohen, Louis and Manion, Lawrence. 1994. Research Methods in
Education. Routledge: London and New York
Moser, C. A. and G. Kalton 1973. Survey Methods in Social Investigation.
The English Language Book Society: London
de Vaus, David. 2002. Surveys in Social Research. Routledge: London
 Unit 22
Survey' Instrumentation
Contents
22.1 lntroduction
22.2 Techniques/lnstruments for Data Collection
22.3 Questionnaire Construction
22.4 Issues in Designing a Survey Instrument
22.5 Conclusion
vlu
Learning Objectives
It is expected that after reading Unit 12 you would be able to
O Understand techniques of data collection
*:* Practice the art of constructing questions
O Highlight the issues of reliability and validity in designing survey
instruments.

22.1 lntroduction
A reliable and valid instrument enhances the quality of data collected. If
a reliable instrument is consistent and valid, it i s also accurate. In other
I
words, an instrument becomes reliable when each time it is used, the
same information flows. A poorly worded survey instrument can seriously
affect precision, affecting the entire research process. The researcher
must be careful in developing the instrument for survey in order to enhance
its quality and purpose.

I
I 22.2 Techniques/lnstruments for Data
Collection
In this section we will discuss i) types of survey instruments, ii) role of the
I interviewer, iii)stages of an interview and iv) interview bias.
i)Types of survey instruments
I
There are five principal types of instruments (or techniques) used in
I
survey r'esearch. They are: (a) self-administeredquestionnaires, (b) face-
to-face interviews, (c) telephone interviews, (d) internet survey, and
(e) structured observation. Each of these instruments has its advantages
and disadvantages, which are discussed below.
a) Self-administered questionnaire
I A self-administered questionnaire consists of questions that an individual
completes by himself or herself. Self-administered questionnaires can be
mailed or completed 'on site', say, on a computer or by hand i n a
classroom, waiting room, or office. The respondents read the questions,
I

then record their answers. el239

Quantitative and
Survey Methods
Advantages: Self-administered questionnaires have a clear advantage
regarding cost. Since interviews are not part of the data gathering process,
the expense of interviews is minimised. This reason alone probably accounts
for the fact that so much survey research i s conducted by self-administered
questionnaires. Another advantage of this instrument is that respondents
have time to consider (and ponder over) questions carefully. There i s no
pressure to react to questions right away as is often the case in an interview.
Some respondents feel more comfortable expressing their actual reactions
to questions on sensitive topics (sex, politics, and religion) on a self-
administered questionnaire than they do in an interview.
In a mailed questionnaire, the researcher can send questionnaires to a
wide geographical area and the respondents can complete when it is
convenient and can check their personal records, if necessary. Mailed
questionnaires offer anonymity and avoid interviewer bias. They are very
effective and response rates are high for a target population that is well
educated, or has a strong interest in the topic or the survey organization.
Disadvantages: The biggest disadvantage of the questionnaire is low
response rate. Respondents may consider questionnaire filling a waste of
time. Questionnaires are less successful in those social contexts where
oral traditions reign and written traditions are in the back seat. When
the attempt i s to reach a cross-section of the population, a response
rate of 10 percent (and less) may not be uncommon with questionnaires.
The researchers may raise response rates by sending reminders, but this
adds to the time and cost of data collection. Moreover, reminders,
howsoever gentle, may be interpreted as irritants. A partial explanation
of this low response rate is that some people have a difficult time filling
out questionnaires. For purposes of filling out even simple written
questionnaires, the literacy level must be high.
Further, a researcher cannot control the conditions under which a
questionnaire is filled. For instance, i f the questionnaire is completed
during a get-together, there will be many others around the respondent
influencing his answers. Some respondents may fill out the questionnaire
in the presence of their family members, who may aid in giving answers.
Sometimes, someone other than the sampled respondent may complete
the questionnaire without the researcher's knowledge. Some respondents
may complete the questionnaire weeks apart or answer questions in a
different order than that intended by researchers. Incomplete
queStior~nairescan also be a serious problem. Researchers cannot visually
observe the respondent's reactions to questions, physical characteristic
or the setting in which questionnaires are filled.
'The self-administered questionnaire format limits the klnd of questions
a researcher can ask. Questions requiring visual aids (e.g. look at the
picture and t e l l me what you see), open-ended questions, many
contingency questions, and complex questions do poorly i n self-
administered questionnaires. . , .
( 'b) Face-to-face interview Survey Instrumentation

An interview requires at least two persons: one to ask .the questions (the
interviewer) and the other, to respond (the interviewee). However, in
some cases, group interviews are also possible.
Advantages: Face-to-face interview is generally the best data gathering
technique for survey research. This approach enables the researcher to
obtain information from a much larger percentage of those sampled than
do self-administeredquestionnaires, particularly those mailed. One reason
is that it is more difficult for respondents to refuse cooperation when they
are directly confronted and requested to respond to questions than when
they receive a questionnaire and are asked to fill it out themselves. The
interviewing situation also increases the response rate because many
respondents who are unable to fill out a questionnaire by themselves can
and will respond to the same questions when asked by an interviewer.
The face-to-face interview enhances not only the response rate, but
also the quality of response. When questions are not understood by a
respondent, the i n t e ~ e w ecan
r clarify their meaning by the use of 'probing
questions'. If a respondent does not answer a question in the proper frame
of reference, an interviewer can follow up by asking: "Could you explain
what you mean by what you just said?" The use of such probes can eventually
bring the respondent around to providing the information sought by a
particular question. Besides clarifying doubts,- the additional questioning
can add depth of information which a respondent provides. A further
advantage of face-to-face interviews i s that the respondent can ask for
clarifications to the questions. It is less likely that false answers will be
given by respondents directly to the interviewer.
Disadvantages: The advantages of face-to-face interviews over self-
administered questionnaires are conditional: the effectiveness of the
confrontation depends on good interviewers who achieve the respect of
respondents. A considerable disadvantage of face-to-face interviews i s
that it is expensive. In fact, the cost can be prohibitive for many survey
research situations, particularly, training, supervision, and personnel costs
for interviews can be too high. Another disadvantage in a face-to-face
interview is the possibility of interviewer bias. The appearance, tone of
voice, question wording, and so forth of the interviewer may affect the
respondent.
c) Telephone interviews
By telephone interviews i s meant those interviews that are conducted on
telephone, where the voice of the interviewer i s used.
Advantages: Comparatively speaking, the telephone interview is less
e)(pen$iye, It can often provide a representative sample at less than half
the cost of face-to-face interviewing. Telephone interview i s a popular
urrvey instrument where a large number of respondents have telephones.
Further, i f concessions and discounts are obtained from telephone
Quantitative and companies, it becomes far more inexpensive as an instrument of data
Survey Methods
collection.
Disadvantages: People without telephone connections (normally, poor
people) and people with unlisted telephone numbers (the well-to-do and
those who have recently shifted residence) have to be excluded from
telephone surveys. Telephone interviews yield only one-third of the
information that could normally be obtained from face-to-face interviews.
In the telephone interview, the interviewer cannot use the visual
questioning technique (e.g. handing the respondent a lengthy l i s t of
alternative response categories) available in self-administered and face-
to-face interviews. Moreover, relatively high cost of telephone calls in
many parts of the world along with the limited interview length are the
main shortcomings of this instrument.
In addition, open-ended questions are difficult to use. Interviewers can
only note serious disruptions (e.g. background noise) and respondent's
tone of voice (e.3. anger, flippancy or hesitancy).
d) Internet survey
Since the mid-1990s, the internet has become a viable and popular
means of administering questionnaires. There are two main ways in
which the internet has been used as an instrument for survey: e-mails
and via web pages.
-
i)E-mail surveys: E-mail questionnaires are the cheapest of all the
techniques of survey research: They come in three different forms.
First, as plain text-questions inserted as part of an e-mail. This i s the
most basic method of e-mail survey in which respondents simply edit the
mail message t o indicate their response. Second, a formatted
questionnaire sent as an e-mail attachment. Third, an interactive
questionnaire, which can be sent as an attachment, answered and returned
by email.
ii) Web Page based surveys: These surveys require that the respondent
visit a page (URL). From this page, they will be given a questionnaire.
Typically, respondents are recruited for web page questionnaires in one
of the following ways:
*:* Pop-up questionnaires: When a person happens to visit the page,
a questionnaire will pop up or the respondent will be asked i f he wants to
go to URL '(web address) to answer a questionnaire. This method of
sample recruitment depends entirely on people happening to visit the
site and then agreeing to answer the questionnaire.
6 Advertising on o t h e ~sites: Other sites might adL -rtise a survey.
'This method can attract people from a wide range of sit 3nd results in
a large number of responses but it i s difficult to think . +at population
such a sample represents.
6 Listserve, news group and chat group advertisilir A researcher
 Instrumentation
may advertise questionnaire or invite participants from people an internet
based lists.
O E-mail invitations: These may be sent t o people whose e-mail
addresses are available. The researchers may use both e-mail and web
pages based surveys together also. I t may be borne in mind that the
shortcomings of this instrument are more or less the same as those of
the telephonic interviews.

Table 22.1 Types of Surveys and their Features

TYPE OF INSTRUMENT
Features Self - Telephone Face-to-face
administered Interview Questionnaire
Interview

(a) Administrative Issue

1. Cost Cheapest Moderate Expensive
2. Speed Slowest Fastest Slow to
Moderate
3. Length (Number Moderate Short Longest
of Questions)
4. Response Rate Lowest Moderate Highest

(b) Research Control

1. Probes Possible No Yes Yes
2. Specific Response No Yes Yes
3. Question Sequence No Yes Yes
4. Only One Respondent No Yes Yes
5. Visual Observation No Yes Yes

(c) Success with Different Questions

1. Visual Aids Limited None Yes
2. Open-ended Questions Limited Limited Yes
3. Contingency Questions Limited Yes Yes
4. Complex Questions Limited Limited Yes
5. Sensitive Questions Same Same Same

(d) Sources of Bias

1. Social Desirability No Same Worse
2. Interviewer Bias No Same Worse
3. Respondent's Reading Bias Yes No No

e) Structured observation
A structured observation collects data ,visually and is designed t o guide
the observer i n focusing on specific actions or characteristics. For
example, two visitors to a school would be participating i n a structured
observation i f both are asked t o count and record the number of
Quantitative and computers they see, look for the presence or absence of air conditioning
Survey Methods
and measure the room's area in square feet. This is a very rarely used
instrumentltechnique in survey research. It i s more frequently used in
participant observation.

r-------------------------- 1
, Reflection and Action 22.1 I
I I
Suppose you have to carry out a survey of waste disposal methods in your area.
I Which of the above discussed survey instruments would you like to select for your
I
I survey? Give specific reasons why you would select one instrument and not any I
IL--------------------------J
other mentioned in Section 22.2. I

ii) Role of the interviewer i n social survey

To gather information interviews occur in several settings. Employers
interview prospective employees, doctors interview patients, mental health
professionalinterview clients, social workers interview the needy, reporters
interview politicians, police interview the witnesses and victims. But, survey
research interviewing is a special kind of interviewing. As with most
interviewing, i t s goal i s to obtain as far as possible accurate information.
Interview i s not just about asking questions. I t includes quite a bit of
information about the social context in which the interview occurs.
The survey interview i s a social relationship. Like other social relationships,
it involves social roles, norms, and expectations. The interview is a short
term, secondary social interaction between two strangers with the explicit
purpose of one person obtaining specific information from the other. The
social roles are those of the interviewer and the interviewee or
respondent. Information i s collected in a structured conversation in which
the interviewer asks prearranged questions and the respondent answers.
It differs in several ways from ordinary conversations. (See Table 22.2).
Offan characteristics of the respondents and the interviewer, such as
sex or race or age affect the way either the interviewer or the respondent
would reflect attitudes and behaviour that is unrelated t o the interview
itself.
An important problem for interviewers is that many respondents are
unfamiliar with the survey respondents' role and respondents often do not
have a clear conception of what is expected of them. As a result, they
substitute another role that may affect their responses. Some believe the
interview i s an intimate conversation or therapy session, others see it as a
bureaucratic exercise i n completing forms, others view it as a testing
session, etc. Even i n a well-designed, professional survey, follow-up
research found that only half the respondents understand questions exactly
as intended by researchers. Respondents reinterpreted questions to make
them applicable to their idiosyncratic, personal situations or t o make
them easy t o answer.
 'nstrurnentat70n
Table 22.2 Differences between Structured Interview and Ordinary Conversation
Sl. No Ordinary Conversation Sl.No Structured Survey Interview

1. Questions and answers from each 1. lnterviewer asks and respondent

participant are relatively equally answers most of the time.
balanced.
2. There is an open exchange of 2. Only t h e respondent reveals
feelings and opinions. feelings and opinions.
3. Judgments are stated and attempts 3 Interviewer is non-judgmental
made to persuade the other to a and does not t r y t o change
particular point of view. respondent's opinions or beliefs.
4. A person can reveal deep inner 4. lnterviewer tries to obtain direct
feelings to gain sympathy or as a answers t o specific questions.
therapeutic r e h s e .
5. Ritt1*l responses are common (e.g. 5. Interviewer avoids making ritual
'Un huh', shaking head, 'How are responses t h a t influence a
you?' 'Fine'). respondent and also seeks
genuine answers, not r i t u a l
responses.
6. The participants exchange 6. Respondent provides almost all
information and correct the factual information. Interviewer does
errors that they are aware of. not correct a respondent's
factual errors.
7. Topics rise and f a l l and either 7. Interviewer controls the topic,
person can introduce new topics. direction, and pace. He keeps
The focus can shift directions or the respondent "on task", and
digress to less relevant issues. irrelevant diversions are
contained.
8. The emotional tone can shift from 8. Interviewer attempts to maintain
humour, t o joy, t o affection, to a consistently warm but serious
sadness, to anger, and so on. and objective tone throughout.

9. People can evade or ignore 9. Respondent should not evade

questions and give flippant or non- questions and should give
committal answers. truthful, thoughtful answers.

Thus, the role of the interviewer is crucial. The interviewer has t o

obtain cooperation, build rapport, yet remain neutral and objective. He
has to encroach upon the respondent's time and privacy for information
that may not directly benefit the respondent. The investigators have to
try to reduce embarrassment, fear, and suspicion so that respondents
feel comfortable while revealing information. Good interviewers monitor
,the pace and direction of the social interaction as well as the content of
answers and the behaviour of respondents. They are non-judgmental
and do not reveal their opinions, verbally or non-verbally (e.g., by a look
of shock). If a respondent asks for an interviewer's opinion, he politely
redirects the respondent and indicates that such questions are largely
inappropriate and may be out of context. For instance, i f a respondent 9129s
Quantltatlve and asks, "what do you think?", the internnewermay answer politely, "Here,
Survey Methods
we are interested in what 'm' think; what I think doesn't matter".
Likewise, i f a respondent gives a shocking answer (e.g. I was arrested
three times for beating my wife), the interviewer does not show shock,
surprise, or disdain but treats the answer as a matter of fact. He helps
respondents in giving truthful answers.
One may ask, "if survey interviewer must be neutral and objective, why
not use a robot or machine?" Machine interviewing has not been very
successful because it lacks human warmth, sense of trust, and rapport
that an interviewer creates. An interviewer helps define the situation
and ensures that respondents have the information sought, understand
what is expected, give relevant and serious answers, and are motivated
to cooperate. Therefore, the interview i s a social interaction. in which
the behaviour of both interviewer and respondent stems from their
attitudes, motives and perceptions.
It may also be borne in mind that the interviewers do more than interview
respondents (see Box 22.1 ).

Box 22.1 Time Allocation of Interviewers' Work schedule

Moser and Kalton (1973) note that face-to-face interviewers spend only about 35
percent of their time interviewing. About 40 percent is spent in locating the
correct respondent, 15 percent in traveling, and 10 percent in studying the
materials and dealing with administrative aspects and recording details.

iii) Stages of an interview

The interview is conducted in stages, beginning with an introduction and
entry. The interviewer gets into the door, shows authorisation, and
reassures and secures cooperation from the respondent. He i s prepared
for reactions such as, "How did you pick me up?" "What good would
come out of this?" "I don't know about this?" The interviewer should
explain why the specific respondent has been chosen for interviewing
and why he cannot be substituted or replaced by anyone else.
.
The main part of the interview consists of asking questions and recording
answers. The interviewer asks the appropriate questions in order, without
returning to or skipping questions unless the directions specify this. He
goes at a comfortable pace and gives non-directive feedback to malntain
interest.
In addition to asking questions, the interviewer records answers. This i s
easy for close-ended questions, where interviewers just mark the correct
box. For open-end=d questions, the interviewers' job i s more difficult.
'They listen to the respondent carefully, record in a legible writing what i s
said verbatim without correcting grammar or slang. Moreover, the
interviewersneed to avoid summarising or paraphrasingbecause this causes
a loss of information or distorts answers.
 'nstrumentat'on
The interviewer should know how and when to use probes. A probe is a
neutral request to make clear an ambiguous answer to complete an
incomplete answer, or t o obtain a relevant response. Interviewers
recognise an irrelevant or inaccurate answer and use probes as needed.
There are many types of probes
+:+ A three-to-five seconds pause;
+:* Non-verbal communication (e.g. tilt of head, raised eyebrows,
eye contact, etc.)
9 Repetition of the question or the answer, and then pause
*+: Ask a neutral question (such as 'Any other reasons'?)
The last stage is the exit, when the interviewer thanks the respondent
and leaves. He then goes to a quiet private place to edit the questionnaire
and record other details, while they are still fresh in mind. Other details
include the date, time, and place of interview; a thumbnail sketch of the
respondent's attitude (serious, angry, laughing, etc.). The interviewer
records the personal feelings also on the sides. For instance, "the
respondent became nervous when questioned about his income".
iv) Interviewer bias
Interviewer bias falls into six categories
i) Errors by respondent - forgetting, embarrassment,
misunderstanding, or lying because of the presence of others.
ii) Unintentional errors or interviewer sloppiness - contacting the
wrong respondent, misreading a question,, omitting questions,
reading questions in the wrong order, recording the wrong answer
to a question', misunderstanding the respondent.
iii) Intentional subversion by the interviewers -- purposeful attention
of answers, omission or rewarding of questions, etc. .
iv) Influence due to the interviewer's expectations about a
respondent's answers based on the respondent's appearance, living
situation, etc.
v) Failure of an interviewer to probe or to probe properly.
vi) lnfluence on the answers due to interviewer's appearance, tone,
attitude, reactions to answers, or comments made outside of
the interview schedule.
Further, there are some other factors which might influence the
interviewer. For instance, the social setting in which the interview occurs
and the interviewer's social background (race, caste, gender, social class,
etc. ) may also affect the responses.

22.3 Questionnaire Construction

All the data gathering techniques (or instruments) we have discussed
Quantitative and earlier employ a set of questions to which the respondents are asked to
Survey Methods
reply. This set of questions is referred to as a questionnaire for self-
administered questionnaires, mailed questionnaires as well as internet
surveys and as an interview schedule for face-to-face interviews and
telephonic interviews. 'This section considers the types of questionnaires
and the questions, discl~ssingthe guidelines for constructing a good
questionnaire or interview schedule.
In this section we will discuss i) types of questionnaires, ii) types of
questions, iii) designing a good questionnaire, and iv) things to avoid in
questionnaire construction.
i) Types of questionnaires
There are three types of questionnaires, namely, structured, unstructured
and semi-structured questionnaires. Structured questionnaires use
structured (or closed) questions that provide a respondent with a set of
options and it is expected that he picks up one out of many. It does not
give much freedom or choice to the respondent. These questionnaires
are used when the respondent i s a high profile person or professional
ahd who does not want to give longer time for the interview. The
unstructured questionnaire includesonly the open-endedquestions without
any options being provided to the respondent. The semi-structured
questionnaires include both structured (closed) and unstructured (open)
questions and are the most widely used in social research.
ii) Types of questions
a) Structured (closed) and unstructured (open-ended) questions
As mentioned earlier, the structured questions provide the alternative
(multiple choice) answers from which the respondent chooses an option.
The following is an example.
Example 1: If the general elections were held today, for which party
would you vote?
*3 Congress
*:* B.J.P.
*:* CPI(M)
*:* Any other (Specify)
*:* Don't Know
The alternative answers for a structured questlon are printed on the
questionnaire and either the respondent or the interviewer (depending
'
on the type of instrument) ticks off the appropriate response. Another
example of a structured question is the followfng.
Example 2: How do you feel about the Central Government's initiative
to make education a fundamental right?
*> Strongly Approve
9 Approve
9 Ambivalent
 Survey Instrumentation
*:* Disapprove
*:* Strongly Disapprove
6 Don't Know
I The second question is a better example of a structured (closed) question

I
I
than the first one because the alternative responses cover the full range
of relevant (approving or disapproving) answers. The first question
obviously fails by this criterion of completeness because it does not
include current political parties, which are potential options. Notice that
both questions have a "don't know" category. It i s important to havc
such a category for structured questions because some respondents reall*,
may not know how they feel about such issues. However, the researcher
generally does not volunteer this as a response alternative because many
respondents would use it just to avoid making a decision amqpg the
other alternatives.
On the other hand, unstructured (open-ended) questions do not
predetermine the possible answers from which the respondent must choose.
The following i s an example.
Example 3: What do you feel are the major problems facing our nation 1

today?
----------------
.....................

Instead of providing the possible answers, the questionnaire leaves space

for the respondent to answer the question in his own words. In other
. words, the issue is left open. Such questions have the advantage of allowing
for the expression of the depth and complexity of the respondent's feelings
'
and attitudes about a particular topic.
One disadvantage of unstructuredquestionnaires i s that they produce data,
which i s sometimes difficult to analyse quantitatively because the
categorisation of responses must take place after the data has been
collected. In some cases, the answers given by respondents vary so much
that it becomes impossibleto discern a relatively small number of response
patterns. This problem does not occur with structured questions because
the categories of response on the questionnaire become the categories
used for data analysis.
Another important use of structured questions i s in the measurement of
abstract concepts such as anomie, social class, etc., using an index or
scale, which combines several structured questions.
It should be made clear that structured (closed) and unstructured (open-
ended) questions have their advantages and disadvantages and that some
topic areas are best covered by one or the other question type. For example,
the issues for which there is general agreement about the possible
alternative replies are best tapped by structured ,questions. However,
Quantitatlve and
Survey Methods structured questions sometimes inappropriately force respondents to
select an answer from irrelevant and predetermined options/choices.
This is a major and potential drawback with structured questions.
Unstructured questions, on the other hand, provide respondents the
opportunity to 'open up' and answer questions in their own terms.
Unfortunately, such responses are sometimes difficult to interpret and
analyse.
b) Threatening versus non-threatening questions
Researchers sometimes ask about sensitive issues or ones that respondents
may find threatening. 'The questions about sexual behaviour, drug or
alcohol use, criminal or deviant behaviour, mental health, illegal activity,
controversial public issues, etc., are considered t o be threatening.
Researchers who ask such questions must do so with extra care.
Threatening questions are part of a broader issue. Respondents may be
ashamed, embarrassed, or afraid to give a truthful answer. Instead,
they give what they believe to be the normative or socially desirable
answer. This is the 'social desirability bias'. This social pressure can
cause an over-reporting or under-reporting of the true situation. For
example, people may under-report an activity that involves deviance,
sex, illness, etc. They may over-report being a good citizen (e.g. voting,
knowing about issues, etc), being well informed and cultured (e.g.
reading, going to cultural events), fulfilling moral responsibilities (e.g.
having a job, giving to charity), or having a good family life (e.g. having
a happy marriage and good relations with children), etc.
One way of addressing threatening questions is by offering explicit
guarantees of confidentiality and by telling respondents that what
the survey is seeking are truthful answers, irrespective of what they
are. They should ask questions on sensitive topics after respondents
have developed trust in an interviewer. They can also wait until after
asking a less threatening warm-up material and providing a meaningful
context. They can phrase questions to make it easy for a respondent
to admit engaging i n the threatening behaviour. Another method is
to have an introductory statement that states that many people engage
i n such a behaviour and the respondent certainly is not alone. Yet
another way is to use survey instruments that permit anonymity. For
instance, it may be better t o use a mail or self-administered
questionnaire or internet survey or telephonic interview instead of
face-to-face interviews.
c) Knowledge questions
Studies on survey suggest that a large majority of the public cannot
correctly answer questions that seek to know the facts or knowledge.
Researchers may sometimes want to find out whether respondents know
about an issue or topics, but knowledge questions can be threatening
because respondents do not want to appear ignorant.
 Survey Instrumentation
d) Skip or contingency questions
Researchers avoid asking questions that are irrelevarlt for a respondent.
Yet some questions apply only to specific respondents. A 'contingency
question' i s a two (or more) part question. The answer to the first part
of the question determines which of two different questions select
respondents for whom a second question i s relevant. Sometimes they
are called screen or skip questions. On the basis of the answer to the
first question, the respondent or an interviewer is instructed to go to
another or to skip certain questions:
Example 4: Were you a student of the social sciences?
(1) Yes (2) No
(If No, please go to Question 2).
1. ( a ). If yes, which subject 1 discipline?
,
1. ( b ). How many years have you studied the subject?
iii) Designing a good questionnaire: some guidelines
A good questionnaire forms an integrated whole. The researcher weaves
questions together so that they flow smoothly. A good questionnaire i s
clear, unambiguous and uniformly workable. Its design must minimise
potential errors from respondents.
There are two key principles for a good survey questionnaire: Avoid
confusion and keep the respondents' perspective in mind. Further,
questionnaire construction is an art. It takes skill, practice, patience,
and creativity. The principles/guidelines for constructing a good
questionnaire are the following:
a) Introduction
Every'questionnaire should have an introduction, which gives a description
of what the study is all about. The introduction should also provide
instructions for responding to the questionnaire and the promise of
confidentiality.
b) The order of questions
Most researchers like to begin a questionnaire with one or two questions
that will be easy to answer, such as questions about the household size,
occupation, village, etc. However, it i s important not to make these
questions so personal that respondents will be put on the defensive or
terminate the interview immediately.
As a rule of thumb, the line of questioning generally is broader at the
beginning than later in the questionnaire. For instance, in an apolitically
oriented survey, the opening questions might probe in a general way
(including some open-ended questions) for the respondent's opinion on
the most important issues of the day. Later in the questionnaire, the
interviewer might read a list of specific issues and ask the respondent to
appraise the relative importance of each one.
 1
Quantitative and
Survey Methods
'The questions should be placed in an order, which facilitates an orderly
progression of the-interchange between the interviewer and the
respondent. One would not, for example, ask a few questions about the
most important issues of the day, then skip to questions about political
leaders, and then skip back to more questions on the issues of the day,
then ask some questions about the respondent's characteristics, then
skip. back to more questions about political leaders.
Further, the most personal questions are usually saved until late in the
questionnaire, so that i f the respondent refuses to answer or terminates
the interview at that point, most of the information would already have
been obtained.
c) Form of the questions
It is important to determine whether structured or unstructuredquestions
a\re best suited for a given objective. We have stressed the importance
of interspersing both types of questions throughout the questionnaire to
maintain the interest .of the respondent and to complement each other
in eliciting both closed and open-ended information. Even more detailed
decisions are necessary. Should a structured question take the form a
numerical scale (for instance, rating something from 0 to 9 in terms of
favorability) or a verbal scale (highly favorable, somewhat favorable,
highly unfavorable, somewhat unfavorable)?
d) Clarity
It is crucial to make sure that respondents will be able to understand the
meaning of each question. In other words, the researcher must phrase
questions in terms the respondents will understand, but he must be
careful not to seem patronizing to the respondents. This is often a
difficult balance to achieve and is usually best gained through extensive
pre-testing of alternative questions.
e) Cross-check questions
It i s a good policy to include several different questions on one topic area
to see i f respondents answer them in the same way. Such questions allow
for an appraisal of the validity of the questionnaire and of the accuracy
of the respondents' self-reports. A special type of cross check question is
the 'random probe'. Each respondent is asked to explain what is meant
by his or her responses to a few randomly selected questions. Different
respondents are asked to do this for different structured questions. The
procedure enables the researcher to eliminate from the analysis phase
of research any structured questions which many respondents have
misunderstood.
f) Interviewer control
The questionnaire should not only elicit information, it should also facilitate
control of the quality of the interviewer's work. For instance, the
questionnaire should explicitly instruct the interviewer what to do
whenever a specific procedure might be in question. The instruction,
 Survey In. tru~nentatlon
"Give the respondent two or three minutes to think about the question",
may be necessary in certain cases, since some interviewers are more
impatient than others.
It i s important to let the interviewer know through the questionnaire
that his work will be fully evaluated after it i s completed. Not only should
there be a section at the end of the questionnaire for the interviewer's
signature and the date of the interview, but this section should be headed
with a statement like, "I certify that this i s a complete and honest
interview, conducted in accordance with the instructions". This phrase
implies the sort of commitment which helps motivate interviewers to
their best effort.
Another section on validation i s sometimes even more persuasive. A
portion of each interviewer's work should normally be 'validated' by a
member of the research staff who either telephones or writes to a
portion of the interviewer's respondents (usually about 15 percent) to
make certain the interview was completed, roughly how long it took,
whether there were any irritants to the respondents, and whether the
respondent confirms the answers to two or three questions. It is important
to let the interviewer know that this type of validation will take place;
and the questionnaire may end with a section which has space for
validator's comments and recommendations.
g) Pre-test
All the interviewing experience and wisdom in the world cannot replace
. ' "the method of pretest as a means'of ensuring that all the above
considerations are observed to the fullest possible extent. In a pre-test,
the proposed questionnaire is actually administered to a very small sample
of respondents (anywhere from 10 to 100, depending on the size of the
eventual sample). It is a good idea for the researchers to conduct some
of the interviews and for the people who will actually be administering
the eventual interviews to conduct others. Thus, the researcher can be
mindful of the practical problems inherent in the questionnaire with the
help of a pre-test. Sometimes, several pre-tests are necessary, with the
questionnaire being revised between the pre-tests.
iv) What to avoid i n questionnaire construction
The following aspects should be avoided while preparing a
questionnaire.
a) Avoid jargon, slang, and abbreviations: argon.
and technical terms
(such as alienation, anomie, Oedipus complex, etc.) are difficult to
understand by laypersons, hence they should be avoided i n the
questionnaire. Slang is a kind of jargon within a sub-culture. Members
of other sub-cultures may not understand it. So slang (such as hotdog,
snowbird, etc.) should also be avoided. Also, avoid abbreviations. One
should avoid slangs, jargons, and abbreviations unless a specialized
population i s being surveyed.
.*.I 772.
Quantitative and b) Avoid ambiguity, confusion, and vagueness: Ambiguity and vagueness
Survey Methods
plague many researchers engaged i n questionnaire construction. A
researcher might make implicit assumptions without thinking of the
respondents. For example, the question, 'What i s your income?", could
mean weekly, monthly, or annual; family or personal; before taxes or
after taxes; for the current year or last year; from salary or from all
sources. The confusion causes a lot of inconsistency i n how different
respondents assign meaning to and answer the question.
Another source of ambiguity i s the use of definite words or response
categories. For example, an answer to the question, "Do you jog regularly?
Yes-- No--," hinges on the meaning of the word regularly. Respondents
may define the word regularly as everyday or every week or month. To
reduce confusion, it is better to be specific.
c) Avoid emotional language and prestige bias: Words have implicit
connotative as well as explicit denotative meanings. Likewise, titles, or
positions in society carry prestige or status. Words with strong emotional
connotations and stands on issues linked to people with high social status
can colour how respondents hear and answer survey questions. Use neutral
language. Avoid words with emotional 'baggage' because respondents may
react to the emotionally laden words rather than to the issue. Also avoid
prestige bias - associating a statement with a prestigious person or
group. Respondents may answer on the basis of their feelings towards
the person or group rather than addressing the issue.
d) Avoid double-barreled questions: Make each question about one
and only one topic. A double-barreled question consists of two or more
questions joined together. It makes a respondent's answer ambiguous.
For example, i f asked, "Are you provided accommodation and food in
the hostel?", the respondent who gets only accommodation or the one
who gets only food will have problems i n answering. In this case the
respondent will also be not certain of the answer.
e) Avoid leading questions: Make respondents feel that all responses
are legitimate. Do not let them become aware of an answer that the
researcher wants. A leading (or a loaded) question is one that leads the
respondent to choose one response over another by i t s wording. For
example, the question, 'You don't smoke, do you? leads respondents to
state they do not smoke. Further, loaded questions can be stated to get
either negatiye or positive answers.
f ) Avoid asking questions that are beyond respondents' capabilities:
Asking something that only a few respondents know frustrates and
produces poor quality responses among other respondents.
g) Avoid false promises: Do not begin a question with a promise with
which respondents may not agree and ask about choices regarding it.
Respondents who disagree with the promise will be frustrated and not
know how to answer. For example, the question, "The library i s open
.,
i
too many hours. Do you want it to open four hours later or close four Instrumentation

hours earlier each day?", leaves those who either support the premise or
oppose both alternatives without a meaningful choice.
h) Avoid asking about future intentions: Avoid asking people about
what they might do under hypothetical circumstances. Responses are
poor predictors of behaviour. Questions such as these are a waste of
I
time as they are abstractions without any indication to the immediate
experiences.
i)Avoid double negatives: Double negatives in ordinary language are
grammatically incorrect and confusing. For example, "I haven't got no
job", logically means that the respondent does have a job.
j) Avoid overlapping or unbalanced response categories: Make response
categories or choices mutually exclusive, exhaustive, and balanced.
Mutually exclusive means that response categories do not overlap.

r-------------------------- 1
Reflection and Action 22.2 I
;
I
To continue with supposing that you have to carry out a survey of waste disposal II

I methods
you are
in your area, construct a questionnaire, specifying the types of questions
going to include in the questionnaire.
I
L,-,,------,---------------J

22.4 Issues in Designing a Survey Instrument

There are two most important issues which need to be kept in mind
while designing a survey instrument. First i s the reliability and second
the validity of the survey instrument.
i)Reliability
A reliable survey instrument is one that i s relatively free from
'measurement error'. Because of this error, the scores obtained from
individuals are different from their true scores, which can only be obtained
from perfect measures. What causes this error? In some cases, the
error results from the measure itself: It may be difficult to understand
or poorly administered. For example, a self-administered questionnaire
on the value of preventive health care might produce unreliable results if
i t s reading ievel is too high for the teenaged mothers who are to use it.
If the reading level is on the target but the directions are unclear, the
measure will be unreliable. Of course, the survey researcher could simplify
the language and clarify the directions and s t i l l find the measurement
error. It is because measurement errors can also come directly from the
examinees. For example, if teenaged mothers are asked to complete a
questionnaire and they are especially anxious or fatigued, their obtained
scores could differ from their true scores.
There are four kinds of reliability, discussed here in terms of survey
research: stability, equivalence, homogeneity, and inter- and intra-rater
reliability.
* I39*
 Quantitative and
'

Survey Methods
a) Stability: Stability i s sometimes called test-retest reliability. Ameasure
is stable i f the correlation between the scores from one time to another
i s high. Suppose a survey of student's attitudes was administered to the
same group of students at school A in April and then again in October. If
the survey was reliable and no special program or intervention was
introduced, then, on the average, we would expect attitudes to remain
the same.
b) Equivalence: 'Equivalence' (or 'alternate-form reliability') refers
to which two items measure the same concepts at the same level of
difficulty. Suppose students were asked a question about their views
toward stechnology before participating in a computer course and again
two months after completing it. Unless the researcher was certain that
the items on the surveys were equal, more favourable views on technology
after the secbnd survey could reflect the survey's language level (for
example) rather than the improved views.
c) Homogeneity: Homogeneity refers to the extent to which all the
items or questions assess the same skill, characteristic, or quality.
Sometimes, this type of reliability is referred to as internal consistency.
For example, suppose a researcher has created a questionnaire to find
out about students' satisfaction with a textbook. An analysis o f
homogeneity will tell us the extent to which all items on the questionnaire
focus on satisfaction.
d ) Inter- and Intra-rater reliability: Inter-rater reliability refers to
the extent to which two or more individuals agree. Intra-rater reliability
refers to a single individual's consistency of measurement.
ii) Validity
Validity refers to the degree to which a survey instrument assesses
what it purports to measure. For example, a survey of student attitude
toward scareers in Information Technology would be invalkl i f the survey
only asked about their knowledge of the newest advances in software
and hardware technologies. Similarly, an attitude survey will not be
considered valid unless you can prove that people who are identified as
having a good attitude on the basis of their responsekto the survey are
different in some observable way from people who are identified as
dissatisfied.
Four types of validity are often discussed: content, face, criterion, and
construct.
a) Content: Content validity refers to the extent to which a measure
thoroughly and appropriately assesses the skills or characteristics it is
intended to measure. For example, a researcher who is nterested in
mental health has to define the concept ('What is mental health?" "How
is health distinguished from the disease?") and then write items that
adequately contain all aspects of the definition so that the concept is
4-1409 well explained in terms of i t s measure.
4
 Does it seem to ask all the needed questions? Does it use the appropriate
language and language level to do so? Face validity, unlike content validity,
does not rely on established theory for support.
c) Criterion: Criterion validity compares responses t o future
performance or to those obtained from other, more well-established
surveys. Criterion validity is made up of two sub-categories Predictive
and Concurrent. Predictive validity is the extent t o which a measure
forecasts future performance. Concurrent validity i s demonstrated when
two assessments agree or a new measure is compared favourably with
one that i s already considered valid.
d) Construct: Construct validity is established experimentally t o
demonstrate that a survey distinguishes between people who do and do
not have certain characteristics. For example, a researcher will have to
prove i n a scientific manner that satisfied respondents behave differently
from dissatisfied respondents.

22.5 Conclusion
Unit 22 discussed the details of survey instrumentation. It described the \

types of data collection techniques/instruments and their advantages

and disadvantages, role of the interviewer, interviewer bias, guidelines
for constructing a questionnaire and some principles to be kept in mind
while preparing the questionnaire, and the issues of reliability and validity
of the survey instruments. Each one of these items i s important for the
t success of survey research as this stage i s crucial to yield reliable and
valid data. Thus the development of survey instrument translates the
research question into a questionnaire which then i s used to generate
I
b
data.
t

Further Reading @
Aldridge, Alan. And Levine, Ken. 2201. Surveying the Social World -
Principles and Practice in Survey Research. Open University Press:
Buckingham
Unit 23
Survey Execution and Data Analysis
Contents
23.1 lntroduction
23.2 Problems and Issues in Executing Survey Research
23.3 Data Analysis
23.4 Ethical Issues in Survey Research
23.5 Conclusion
1 1

Learning Objectives
It is expected that after reading Unit 23 you would be able t o
+3 Identify the difficulties one faces in executing a survey
9 Carry out the various steps of data analysis, namely, editing,
coding, tabulation and data analysis and finally report writing
* Recognise the kind of ethical and moral issue the researcher
faces.

23. Ilntroduction
A number of issues spring up throughout the process of executing survey
research. We will examine a few of them in order to enhance the quality
and reliability of survey. The researcher may confront/encounter many
more situations that may inspire him or her to serious thinking about
the implementation of the survey plan. The best way t o tackle any
problem in the field i s to keep oneself open to surprises that may come.

23.2 Problems and Issues in Executing Survey

Research
There are a number of problems a researcher faces after the preparation
and plans for survey have been charted out. The problems may arise out
of the poor training of interviewers or investigators, locating and accessing
the respondents and field settings, implementing the data collection
techniques, and in terms of the costs and resource management. This
section presents some of the issues that may confront the researcher in
the field.
i)Locating and accessing the field settings
Once the training of the interviewers i s over, the actual process of reaching
out to respondents and their field settings begins. The first task of the
researcher at this stage i s to identify the target population and write t o
the respective organisations and institutions for permission to conduct
survey. It i s at this stage that one must keep in mind that there are two
different kinds of field settings, namely, formal (gfficial) and informal
(unofficial settings). Thus, each of the settings would have some people Survey Execution
and Data Analysis
who may be called the 'gatekeepers', the people with the authority to
permit entry into the fie1.d settings.
a) Gatekeepers i n a formal organisation
Official gatekeepers are the ones who give permission to conduct survey
in formal organisations such as schools, government departments, NGOs,
etc. (Headmaster in a School or a District Educational Officer at the
district level or the Director of an NGO). If we enter an organisation
without the permission of the gatekeepers, our survey may face threats
of Legal action for not taking permission as it i s the right of the institution
to participate in the study or not. The researcher has to ensure the
approval and consent of the gatekeepers before entering formal
institutions, such as schools, government departments, NGOs, hospitals,
etc.
b) Gatekeepers in an informal setting
It is just not merely i n the formal settings, in informal settings also
(such as family, community, etc.) gatekeepers are involved. One requires
permission to conduct survey research. If the researcher wishes to speak
to a child i n the home environment, he must speak to the parents first.
Usually the parents advise their children to speak to the surveyors. If
the researcher intends to speak to women of a house, he is expected to
take the permission of the male head of the family. When the researcher
wants to speak to a community member, he has to speak to tlae head of
the community (village head, panchayat chairman, caste leaders, etc.).
Without the permission of the gatekeepers i n informal settings, the
members of a family or a community may not cooperate or may even
turn down the request for interview. Therefore, the interviewer must
be conscious of the importance of gatekeepers in informal settings as
well.
c) How do we approach the gatekeepers for permission?
The first thing a researcher must do after identifying the respondents and
their settings is that they should inform the gatekeepers about the
objectives and purposes behind the survey and apprise them of its overall
goal. For instance, the main objective of a survey being undertaken is to
assess the impact of the Integrated Education for the Disabled Children.
The respondents may be informed that the survey results may be used to
improve the quality of implementation and delivery of the scheme and
that their cooperation i s highly appreciated and valuable. Further, the
researcher has to clarify the doubts and apprehensions of both the
gatekeepers and respondents. For this, the researcher must be well-versed
with the specific objectives of the survey. For instance, the broad objectives
of the survey mentioned above aye
O To study how far the integrated schools have been successful in
integrating the eligible children with special needs.
: To examine the retention strategles adopted by the schools.
Quantitative and 03 . To study whether the facilities for assessment and appropriate
Survey Methods
placement of the children with disabilities are available in the
integrated schools.
There can be many specific objectives of the current survey. So the
interviewer should try to understand these objectives and be clear about
each of them. This will help him in the later stages of survey execution.
It will help to correctly transact and impart the same kind of training to
his assistants. The interviewer must also understand the survey's
conceptual, cultural, psychological, economic, and political context.
Some of the specific questions the researcherlinterviewer must be clear
about in the case of our example are
Q Who are the children with special needs?
O What are their special needs?
O What is the need for a special programme for children with special
needs?
*:* What is the cultural context of the families, communities and the
schools that are going to be a part of the study?
Q What will be the psychological condition of the children with
disabilities or special needs and their parents?
*:* What is the economics of running a scheme such as this (IEDC)?
What are the possible uses of equipment and their utility and how
they are used?Whether the investment on certain items is justified
in terms of their utility.
O What i s the political context of the schooling of chil.dren with special
needs? The scheme might be receiving the major focus or less
focus in terms of the attention of the implementing agencies, etc.
Why has it become so impartant in recent times? What are the
pressure groups asking for thq&tterment of the scheme? Who are
the stakeholders in the and what are their positions
vis-a-vis the objectives of the scheme?
Further, the researcher must assure the gatekeepers of anonymity and
confidentiality of the information provided by them and their organisation.
In case one wants to be explicit about the institution 1 organisation, he
should request permission for doing so. Once he is in the field, after
gaining entry or access to the setting, a researcher must gain access to
the individual respondents. Some important tips to access the respondents
are
Q Accessing the respondents and building rapport with them:
Remember the interview situation i s one of social interaction. In
a social interaction, building rapport is essential i f you want your
relationship to sustain. Rzpport is nothing but building relationships.
Q Approach the respondents for permission to include them in the
 study. The respondent must be willing to participate in the survey. Survey Execution
and Data Analysis
Everybody in the sample has a right to decide whether he or she
would like to be part of the survey. If one is forced to participate
in the survey, then the reliability of the information is at stake.
There is also the possibility of the respondent providing misleading,
incomplete, or incorrect answers.
O Do not think that it i s the privilege of the respondents to give the
researchers the interviews and they must caoperate with him.
$0, the researcher must understand what matters t o the
respondents before including them in the study (Often surveys
are criticized for being driven by the interests of the researcher).
*> Recognise the differences between the respondents: I f all the
respondents are alike in thought and action, then there i s no
need for conducting a survey. We can simply take a case and
generalize from that case. Variations make the findings of the
survey worthwhile and interesting.
f Avoid unjustified presuppositions and false assumptions about the
respondents: Often, we are carried away by our presuppositions
and stereotypes about the other individuals. For instance, one
may view children with disabilities or special needs differently.
This will lead t o a bias in the way the questions are asked and . .. --
even the respondents are accessed. Simply put, the interviewer
should not be judgmental in his interaction with the respondents
as also with the topic of the survey, the institutions they approach
for information, or even the role of the parents, etc.
Q Be a good listener, rather than a good speaker.
r-------------------------- 1
I Reflection and Action 23.1 I
I I
1 Suppose you need to carry out a survey of waste disposal methods of your area,
' what would be your strategies for reaching out to the respondents?Write a short II
note on the qualities you would like to see in the interviewers appointed for the
IL - - - - - - - - , - , , - - - - - - , , , , , , - - _ I
survey. I

ii) Implementation of data gathering technique

There are a number of problems which spring up after entering the field
while executing the main survey. The problems mainly concern the
implementation of the data gathering techniques such as self-administered
questionnaires and face-to face interviews.
a) Self-administered questionnaires
A major problem with the self-administered mailed questionnaires is
how to get them returned. We already know that the respondents face
considerable temptation not t o fill up the questionnaires mailed t o them.
The suggestion offered in such cases is that a 50 percent return rate be
used as the minimum level of acceptability for survey research based on
the self-administered questionnaires. This level can be achieved in some
Quantitative and situations such as those in which a researcher distributes questionnaires
Survey Methods
personally in a classroom, office premises, etc., but rarely when data
collection i s based on a mail survey. However, some steps may be suggested
to maximize the return rate.
Q An introductory letter should accompany the mailed questionnaire.
This letter should explain the purpose of study and who is sponsoring
the project. A good introductory letter can be an incentive for
the respondent t o fill out the questionnaire.
O* Besides an introductory letter, the inclusion of a stamped, self-
addressed envelope ,for the respondent to return the questionnaire
is a necessity i f a good return rate is to be achieved.
Q In some cases, special incentives such as a pen or a small amount
of money are also sent to the potential respondent in order to
encouragq cooperation. However, this step may raise some ethical
questions, besides being costly.
*:* Finally, what i s crucial to a good return rate i s an intensive follow-
up campaign which attempts t o encocrr:~- -..ose who have not
returned their questionnaires by a certain date.
Sometimes, even i f all these steps for increasing the return rate of the
self-administered questionnaires are employed, it is unlikely that more
than seventy percent of the questionnaires will be returned. The question
then remains: How does the thirty percent who do not respond, affect
the research outcomes? Can we say that the representativeness of the
sample is not jeopardised? The answer is both Yes and No.
For instance, sometimes the poor return rate might affect the research
findings as a result of the lack of representativeness. At other times, it
may not at all affect the findings of a survey. One way of dealing with
this question i s to compare the information about those who do not
respond with information derived from some other source about the
sample. For example, assume that a self-administered questionnaire is
mailed to a simple random sample of the students of a college and that
sixty percent of the sample return their questionnaires. Information
from the survey about the respondent's age, sex, and subject of study
can be compared to the information derived from the materials available
on the total student body. If there are no startling differences between
the survey data and the data from other sources, it could be concluded
that the forty percent of the sample which did not return their
questionnaire i s similar to the sixty percent of those who did return
them. In this case the issue of representativeness i s favourably resolved,
However, it i s important to mention that this i s not a perfect solution
and there can be other ways of resolving it.
b) Face-to-face interviews
Even though the response rate is considerably higher for intervlews,
there are similar problems involved in face-to-face interviews. Some
strategies for improving the response rate in interviews are the following: Survey Execution
and Data Analysis
e3 The refusal of cooperation by potential respondents can be lessened
by first training the interviewers i n ways t o establish rapport
with the respondents.
6 The temptation of the interviewers to avoid certain respondents
should be diminished by emphasising the validation procedure
and requiring the interviewers to account for each non-completion.
For example, sometimes a researcher doing door-to-door survey
may avoid a house that displays a board, "Beware of the Dog".
Q Respondents are often not home when the researcher attempts
t o contact them. It i s therefore important t o makc visits at
different times of the day and on different days of the week.
If these strategies are used effectively and the response rate i s average
or better, there is still the question of how representative the respondents
are of the total group one has tried to study. The suggestion given in the
case of self-administered questionnaire for comparing the survey
information on the respondents with other information about the total
group i s applied in the case of face-to face-interviews as well.
Further, a major issue crucial for the success of the implementation of
the interview process is the selection and training of the interviewing
staff. The following aspects should be kept in mind while training the
interviewers:
Train interviewers in how t o establish rapport with respondents in
order to gain their cooperation. However, rapport does not mean
to encourage the pleasing answers.
Q The interviewers must be told t o remember that the interview
situation i s one of social interaction. Differences in characteristics
such as caste, race, sex, social class, religion) of both the
respondent and the interviewer have an impact on the answers
elicited.
The interviewers should become non-judgmental towards the
respondents. This quality should make the respondents feel
comfortable in expressing their true feelings.
+$+ It makes good sense to hire and train interviewers who are not
radically different from the people whom they will be interviewing.
*: A manual may be prepared for the interviewers which deals with
the general interviewing techniques and the unique requirements
of the particular study in question.
After the actual interviewing process begins, interviewers should be asked
to return their first few completed interviews to the supervisory personnel
for critical evaluation. A t this point, some validation interviews should
be conducted by telephone or in person to ensure that the interviewers
41474 ,
.a
Quantitative and are not irritating any respondents and that they are really conducting
Survey Methods
the interviews according as the instri~ctions.Such an assessment is helpful
for the purpose of evaluating the questionnaire under actual field
conditions. Independent validation of the interviews should continue
throughout the time-period of the interviews. See Box 23.1 for guidelines.

Box 23.1 Some guidelines for effective implementationof the data gathering
techniques
The researcher has to keep in mind the following guidelines to avoid some problems
in the collection of information from the respondents.
4% If your questionnaire is in English and your respondents are not comfortable
with English, then try to translate the questions in the regional languages
white asking the respondents.
*:* Make the questions meaningful, clear, unambiguous, sensitive, and revealing.
The use of language also depends on factors such as age, region, social
class, etc.
*:* Understand the social standing of particular usages in language. For instance,
the 'mid-day meal' is' lunch', not 'dinner', the room where the family
gathers is the 'sitting room', not the 'living room', a 'magazine' is never
called a' book.'
4% Sometimes people may think you are being impolite or vulgar or rude or
incorrect based on the kind of language you use while interviewing them.
This may spoil the entire process of interview itself. So use proper language.
*:* Tactics for dealing with ambiguous or unclear terms:
Avoidence. Use alternatives
Another possibility i s t o gloss the term, i.e. t o give a brief
explanation to the respondent of what we mean by the word. But
one problem with glossing is that we almost impose the meaning or
even the answer on the respondent.
Clarification. This is a form of glossing, but we explicitly clarify the
potential ambiguity
Giving Examples. But, it carries the danger of suggesting the answers
or may even distract the respondents from thinking about other
answers.

23.3 Data Analysis

Once the data have been collected, the task is to reduce the mass of data
obtained to a form suitable for analysis. 'Data reduction@', as the process
i s called, generally consists of editing, coding and processing through the
computer in the case of large surveys and by hand in the case of small
surveys.
a) Editing
Editing the filled in questionnaires is the first step in the preparation of
data for processing. It is important to make sure that the questionnaire
has been filled up properly. This is a painstaking work but it can be very
fruitful. In sum, a good editing job can add substantially to the quality of
the collected data.
Editing interview schedules or self-administered questionnaires is intended
<*I
48 9
to identify and eliminate errors made by the interviewers and the Survey Execution
and Data Analysis
respondents. Moser and Kalton (1973), speak of three tasks in editinf:
9 Completeness: A check is made that there is an answer to every
question. In most surveys, interviewers are required to record an answer
to every question. Missing answers can sometimes be cross-checked
from other sections of the survey. At worst, respondents can be contacted
again to supply the missing information.
Q Accuracy: As far as possible, a check is made that all questions are
answered accurately. Inaccuracies arise out of carelessness on the part
of either the respondents or the interviewers. Sometimes a deliberate
attempt i s made to mislead. A tick in the wrong box, a ring around the
wrong code, an error in simple arithmetic can reduce the validity of the
data unless they are picked up in the editing process.
O .Uniformity: A check i s made that interviewers have interpreted
instructions and questions uniformly. Sometimes the failure to give explicit
instructions over the interpretation of respondents' replies leads to
interviewers recording the same answer in a variety of answer codes
instead of one. A check on uniformity can help eradicate this source of
error.
b) Coding
The quantitative analysis of survey data requires that answers are
converted into numbers. Many variables also require that answers be
classified into categories. This process of converting answers to numbers
and classifying answers i s called coding". Thus, the primary task of data
reduction is coding, which i s primarily assigning a code number to each
answer to a question in the questionnaire 1 interview schedule. There
are six main steps in coding and classifying questionnaire data. They
are:
O ~lassif$ngresponses
O Allocating codes to each variable
*% Allocating column numbers to each variable
0% Producing a Codebook
O Checking from coding errors
O Entering data
Let us discuss in brief each step in coding and classifying data.

i ) Classifying responses: Coding i s more than allocation of numbers to

the responses. It also involves the creation of a classification system that
imposes a particular order on the data. 'This in turn affects the way data
are analysed. These classification systems are not objective systems but
are created by people and reflect the historical and cultural ways in
which we make sense of the world around us. David de Vaus (2002)
argues that as creators and consumers of research we need to be aware
Quantitative and that classification Systems shape what we find.
Survey Methods
ii) Allocating codes t o each variable: Once classification schemes
have been developed, our task is to allocate codes t o each of the
categories i n the classification. These classification schemes can be
developed either before a questionnaire 1 interview schedule is
administered or after. Much of the work in the classifying responses is
undertaken at the questionnaire construction stage where a set of fixed
responses i s provided to the respondents. Codes are allocated t o these
responses and these codes are normally visible in printed questionnaires
to assist with data entry at a later stage.
Open-ended questions are coded after the data have been collected.
Post-coding i s done either by using systematic, pre-existing standard
coding schemes or developing a coding scheme based on the responses
provided by the respondents. For example, standard questions such as
occupation, religion, caste, type of family, etc., can have standardized
coding schemes. The standardized coding schemes are systematic and
are developed by people with considerable expertise after considerable
consultation. Further, they are publicly available and reduce code error.
Each variable has at least two categories and any person must belong to
one and only one category. The essence of coding i s to give a distinctive
code to each category of a variable.
iii) Allocating column numbers t o each variable: To enter codes into
a computer they must be put on a 'record'. In the early days of computing
a record was a computer card that could contain up to 80 digits. If more
than 80 digits were required for all the respondent's answers a second
card or record would be used for that case. These days with electronic
recording, data can be much longer than eighty digits. The records for
each case are then placed in a data file in which the first record represents
the first respondent, the next record represents the second respondent
and so forth.
iv) Producing a codebook: After deciding how to code each response
to each variable, it is important to make a systematic record of all the
decisions made. This record i s called a Codebook and the following
information is normally included.
*:* The exact wording of the question
*a A name by which a variable i s referred to in the programme. In
the Codebook list a name is given to each variable.
*:* The type of data used for that variable.
The first and last column numbers In whlch the variable is located.
9 The val,id codes for each question.
6 The missing data codes for each question.
*:* Any special coding instructions used for coding particular questions.
++: Checking f o r coding errors: Codins errors can create serious Survey Execution
and Data Analysts
problems during data analysis. The most serious errors figure
when data are entered in the wrong columns. But miscodes are a
more common problem. These can occur during the data collection
phase, during the manual coding of the answers or during the
data entry phase. It is probably impossible to eliminate all coding
errors but the problem can be reduced by locating and correcting
as many errors as possible.
9 Entering data: In the past, data were always coded manually and
entered into the computer by keypunch operators. However,
advances in computer technology have radically changed the whole
process of data entry.
c) Tabulation and data analysis
By a simple command the computer gives all the tabulations that are
anticipated for data analysis. It is the simplified version of the entire data
collected, which is given in numerical values of the distribution of responses
of the respondents. A researcher labours hard through several stages of
survey research to arrive at this stage. The stage of tabulation sums up
the outcome of the survey research in a skeleton form. However, it is
important that the researcher assumes some knowledge of quantitative
data analysis procedures to make sense of the skeleton.
Aldridge and Levine argue that there are three different aspects of a survey
analysis. According to them these three dimensions are conceived to be
potentially present in the analysis of any survey although they may not be
fully or equally exploited. The three dimensions are: descriptive, analytical
and contextual. The descriptive dimension tends to dominate in primarily
descriptive surveys. The analytic and contextual aspects are more
pronounced in analytic surveys, but the art of analysis is to promote the
development of all three so that the research potential of a survey is fully
realized.
It may also be mentioned here that the data analysis is not just a
technical matter. Social scientists have ethical responsibilities to analyse
data properly and report it fairly. See Box 23.2 for what you need to be
careful about before analysing your data.

Box 23.2 Before Analysis of the Data, Be clear about Four Broad
Considerations
*: What is the Level of measurement of each variable being used in
any particular piece of analysis?
How many variables will any particular piece of analysis require?
*: What type of analysis is required? Is descriptive analysis required
or analytic or contextual analyses?
*:* Have the ethical principles of full, fair, appropriate and challenging .
analysis been applied to the selection of data to be analysed and
reported?
Quantitative and d) Report writing
Survey Methods
Once the data are available the survey researchers typically write and
disseminate reports or present them orally. In any case, the presentation
of the results of the survey should be as clear and complete as possible.
The following are some questions that are useful for evaluating the
quality of a survey research report of findings.
Q Could t h e reader replicate the report on t h e basis o f t h e
information provided? Are all the phases of survey research process
explained in adequate detail?
Q Are all the potentially relevant data provided or only highly selected
excerpts included? Most studies call for much more in the way of
preliminary statistical analysis than it would be appropriate t o
include in the final report. Thus some selectivity i s always necessary.
But we can question the nature of the selectivity when data for
what seem to be superior indicators of the phenomena of interest
are not presented and no rationale for their exclusion i s provided.
Q Are all the data provided supportive of the researcher's hypothesis?
When there i s no data t o contradict the researcher's original
hypothesis, we might question the selection procedure used i n
deciding which results to present. Also related i s the tone of the
report. Is it one of justifying the hypothesis or of critically
evaluating it?
+3 Are the study's conclusions warranted on the basis of the data
that have been presented? It i s not uncommon for investigators
to inflate the substantive significance of their data to the point
that the reader of the text i s led t o the conclusion that the
relationship i s very strong when the actual statistical analysis
yields a weak or moderate relationship. It i s not wise to skip the
tables in a report and rely on the author's conclusions about the
content of these tables as presented in the text of the report.
@ Have the authors demonstrated a desire to put their hypotheses
in jeopardy and to really dig up any contradictory evidence that
may exist? Or in contrast, do the authors seem to be interested
only in presenting results that support their hypothesis?
Q Is there any discussion of the author's values and the ways i n
which they may have had an influence on the outcome of the
study?
As more and more research i s conducted, an ever-increasing amount of
data becomes available to researchers. It i s often possible to obtain the
data desired simply by reanalysing data reproduced by someone else.
This i s called secondary analysis of data and it can be used to substantiate
or refute the earlier researches on any topic of investigation during the
process of report writing.
23.4 Ethical Issues in Survey Research Survey Execution
and Data Analysis
Like all social research, people can conduct surveys in ethical or unethical
ways. A major ethical issue in survey research is the invasion of privacy.
Survey researchers can intrude into a respondent's privacy by asking
about intimate actions and personal beliefs. People have a right to privacy.
Respondents decide when and t o whom to reveal personal information.
They are likely t o give such information when it is asked for i n a
comfortable context with mutual trust, when they believe answers will
remain confidential. Researchers should treat all the respondents with
dignity and reduce their anxiety or discomfort. They are also responsible
for protecting the confidentiality of data.
The second ethical issue that confronts the survey researcher i s the right
of respondents to participate voluntarily. ~es~ondents agree to answer
questions and can refuse at any time. They give 'informed consente' to
participate in research. Researchers depend on the respondents' voluntary
cooperation. Therefore, researchers need to ask well-developed questions
in a sensitive way, treat respondents with respect, and be very sensitive
t o confidentiality.
Thirdly, the tendency t o mislead the people at large by the survey
researchers i s also an important ethical consideration. Sometimes, people
may also misuse the survey results or use poorly designed or purposely
rigged" surveys. People may demand answers from surveys that surveys
cannot provide or may not understand a survey's limitations. Those who
design and prepare surveys may lack sufficient training t o conduct a
legitimate survey. Sometimes the researchers use the survey format in
an attempt to persuade some interviewer t o conduct survey, with little
or no real interest in learning information from a respondent.

r-------------------------- 1
I Reflection and Action 23.2 I
Suppose you have t o guide a team carrying out a survey of methods of waste
disposal i n your area. Explain how you will handle the following questions.
Questions
*$ What would be your strategy to avoid the policy decisions based on careless
or poorly designed surveys may result in waste and human hardship?
$ How would you make the survey execution so that legitimate researchers
conduct methodologically rigorous survey research?
*:* How would you make researchers aware of and report the limitations of the
survey research?
*:* How can researchers combat unscrupulous politicians, business people,
and others who rig surveys to produce deceptive results?
Write on a sheet of paper your answers to the above questions and add at least
four more ethical issues that await a researcher while conducting a survey. Some
of them may deal with the sponsorship and funding of the project, researcher's
personal preferences and biases, the respondent's deception, etc. Finally answer
the question: Who is responsible for dealing with the problem areas and avoiding
the ethical issues i n order t o make the research endeavour successful and
objective?
..........................
Quantitative and
Survey Methods 23.5 Conclusion
In this unit, we have attempted to Learn the issues and problems that
researchers confront while executing the survey. Primarily, it discusses
the issue of locating and accessing the field settings and respondents
and the problems faced during the administration of data gathering
techniques. The unit also discusses the phase of analysis after the
completion of data collection and the execution of the main survey.
Finally, the ethical issues in the conduct of survey have been discussed.
It may be summed up that survey i s a process in which the researcher
translates a research question into a questionnaire, which then is used
to collect data from respondents. The data thus collected i s processed
through a rigorous process of editing, coding, and computerisation and
tabulation that emerge in the end. This data in turn attempts to analyse
the research question formulated at the beginning of the survey research.
The entire process requires the utmost attention of the researcher in
order to avoid and minimize errors, which may distort the very purpose
of research, i.e., search for truth.

Further ~ e a d i n ~ g
Cohen, Louis and Manion, Lawrence. 1994. Research Methods in
Education. Routledge: London and New York
Neuman, W. Lawrence. 1997. Social Research Methods. AlLyn and Bacon:
Boston
Glossary
(Explanations of glossary words have been prepared with the help of,information available
on the Internet and i n other sources.)
Chi-square: Chi square is a non-parametric test of statistical significance for bivarlate
tabular analysis (also known as cross breaks). Any appropriately performed test of
statistical significance lets you know the degree of confidence you can have in accepting
or rejecting a hypothesis. Typically, the hypothesis tested with chi square is whether or
not two different samples (of people, texts, whatever) are different enough in some
characteristic or aspect of their behaviour that we can generalize from our samples
that the populations from which our samples are drawn are also different in the behaviour
or characteristic. A non-parametric test, like chi-square, is a rough estimate of confidence;
it accepts weaker, less accurate data as input than parametric tests (like t-tests and
analysis of variance, for example) and therefore has less status in the pantheorl of
statistical tests. Nonetheless, its limitations are also its strengths; because Chi Square is
more 'forgiving' in the data it will accept, it can be used in a wide variety of research
contexts.
Coding: A systematically arranged and comprehensive collection of laws or a systematic
collection of regulations and rules of procedure or conduct or a system of signals used
to represent letters or numbers in transmitting messages or a system of symbols, letters,
or words given certain arbitrary meanings, used for transmitting messages requiring
secrecy or brevity.
Cohort: Cohort derives from Latin cohors, "an enclosure, a yard," In Statistics 'cohort'
means a sample meant to be representative of a whole population. In informal usage it
refers to a variety or diversity.
Concept of probability: Inferential statistics is built on the foundation of probability
theory, and has been remarkably successful in guiding opinion about the conclusions t o
be drawn from data. Yet (paradoxically) the very idea of probability has been plagued by
controversy from the beginning of the subject t o the present day. One conception of
probability is drawn from the idea of symmetrical outcomes. For example, the two
possible outcomes of tossing a fair coin seem not to be distinguishable in any way that
affects which side will land up or down.
Correlation coefficient: The Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient (r), or
correlation coefficient for short is a measure of the degree of linear relationship between
two variables, usually labeled X and Y. While in regression the emphasis is on predicting
one variable from the other, in correlation the emphasis is on the degree to which a
linear model may describe the relationship between two variables. In regression the
interest is directional, one variable is predicted and the other is the predictor; i n
correlation the interest is non-directional, the, relationship is the critical aspect. The
computation of the correlation coefficient is most easily accomplished with the aid of a
statistical calculator. The value of r was found on a statistical calculator during the
estimation of regression parameters in the last chapter. The correlation coefficient may
take on any value between plus and minus one.
Crososectional: Adjective of cross-section that relates t o a section formed by a plane
cutting through an object, usually at right angles t o an axis or a piece so cut or a
graphic representation of such a piece. In physics, it refers t o a measure of the
probability that an encounter between particles will result i n the occurrence of a
particular atomic or nuclear reaction. In statistics it refers t o a sample meant to be
representative of a whole population.
Diachronic and synchronic: Diachronic is a convenient way of referring to something that
changes over time. Synchronic refers to 'similar' instances existing at the same time.
Quantitative and Dichotomous: Dividing into two parts; relating to, involving, or proceeeding froma division
Survey Methods or the proces of dividing into two, especially mutually exclusive or contradictory groups.
Eclecticism: Eclecticism is an approach to thought that does not hold rigidly to a single
paradigm or set of assumptions or conclusions, but instead draws upon multiple theories
to gain complementary insights into phenomena, or applies only certain theories in
particular cases. This is sometimes inelegant, and eclectics are sometimes criticised for
lack of consistency in their thinking, but it is common i n many fields of study. For
example, most psychologists accept parts of behaviorism, but do not attempt to use the
theory to explain all aspects of human behavior. Similarly, a physicist may use Newton's
laws for predicting the motion of baseballs, but will switch to the relativity for predicting
motion of galaxies or t o quantum mechanics for the one of subatomic particles. A
statistician may use frequentist techniques on one occasion and Bayesian ones on
another. An example of eclecticism in economics is John Dunning's eclectic theory of
international production. Eclecticism in psychology is also supported by many in that in
reality many factors influence behaviour and psyche, therefore it is inevitable to consider
all perspectives in identifying, changing, explaining, and determining behaviour.
Eclecticism was first articulated by a group of ancient philosophers who tried to select
from the existing philosophical beliefs those doctrines that seemed most reasonable to
them. Out of this collected material they constructed their new system of philosophy.
The term comes from the Greek eklektikos: choosing the best. Well known Eclectics in
Greek philosophy were the Stoics Panaetius and Posidoniu.~, and the New Academics
Carneades and Philo of Larissa. Among the Romans, Cicero was thoroughly eclectic, as
he united the Peripatetic, Stolc, and New Academic doctrines. Further eclectics were
Varro and Seneca.
Ex-post-facto: Ex post facto is Latin for "from a thing done afterward." Ex post facto is
most typically used to refer to a law that applies retroactively, thereby criminalizing
conduct that was legal when originally performed.
Gatekeeper: One that is in charge of passage through a gate. The term refers t o one
who monitors or oversees the actions of others.
Homogeneity: In statistics, homogeneity is the concept related to reliability. While the
internal consistency reliability (statistics) indicates the degree a data set approximates
an ideal equivalence scale, the homogeneity indicates the degree a data set approximates
an ideal.
Hypothesis testing: Setting up and testing hypotheses is an essential part of statistical
inference. In order to formulate such a test, usually some theory has been put forward,
either because it i s believed to be true or because i t is t o be used as a basis for
argument, but has not been proved, for example, claiming that a new drug is better
than the current drug for treatment of the same symptoms. In each problem considered,
the question of interest is simplified into two competing claims I hypotheses between
which we have a choice; the null hypothesis, denoted HO, against the alternative
hypothesis, denoted HI. These two competing claims I hypotheses are not however
treated on an equal basis: special consideration is given to the null hypothesis.
Informal Consent: Casual or in an informal manner or an informal agreement to or
acceptance of opinion or a course of action.
lnformation society: An information society is one in which the creation, distribution
and manipulation of information is becoming a significant economic and cultural activity.
The knowledge economy is i t s economic counterpart whereby wealth is created through
the economic exploitation of knowledge. The information society is a new kind of
society. Specific to this kind of society is the central position information technology
has for production and economy. lnformation society is seen as successor to industrial
society. Closely related concepts are post-industrial society (cf Daniel Bell), post-fordism,
post-modern society, knowledge society, Telematic Society, Information Revolution, and
i ~ f ~ r m 3 t i o nsociety
al (cf Manuel Castells).
L

One of the first people to develop the concept of the information society was the Glossary
economist Fritz Machlup. In 1933 Machlup began studying the effect of patents on
research. His work culuminated i n the breakthrough study "The production and
1 distribution of knowledge in the United States" in 1962. This book was widely regarded
and was eventually translated into Russian and Japanese.
Jargon: The specialised or technical language of a trade, profession, or similar group.
Also refers t o speech or writing having unusual or pretentious vocabulary, convoluted
C
phrasing, and vague meaning.
Logitudinal: The word comes from the Latin longitudo meaning length. Hence, longitudinal
means along the length, running lengthwise, or (by extension) over the course of time.
C
Mean: The arithmetic mean is what is commonly called the average: When the word
y
"mean" is used without a modifier, it can be assumed that it refers to the arithmetic
mean. The mean i s the sum of all the scores divlded by the number of scores. The
formula in summation notation is: i = 6X/N where i is the population mean and N is the
I
number of scores. I f the scores are from a sample, then the symbol M refers t o the
mean and N refers to the sample size. The formula for M is the same as the formula for
i.The mean is a good measure of central tendency for roughly symmetric distributions
I but can be misleading in skewed distributions since it can be greatly influenced by
extreme scores. Therefore, other statistics such as the median may be more informative
for distributions such as reaction time or family income that are frequently very skewed.
Measure of variability: The terms variability, spread, and dispersion are synonyms, and
k refer to how spread out a distribution is. There are four frequently used measures of
variability, the range, interquartile range, variance, and standard deviation.
Median: Being i n the middle or in intermediate position; relating to or constituting a
p statistical median
Mode: The most frequent value of a set of data; a value of a random variable for which
a functicn of probabilities defined on it achieves a relative maximum
Parametric: A parameter is a measurement or value on which something else depends.
For example, a parametric equaliser is a tone control circuit that allows the frequency
of maximum cut or boosts to be set by one control, and the size of the cut or boost by
another. These settings, the frequency and level of the peak or trough, are two of the
parameters of a frequency response curve, and in a two-control equaliser they completely
describe the curve. More elaborate parametric equalisers may allow other parameters
t o be varied, such as skew. These parameters each describe some aspect of the response
curve seen as a whole, over all frequencies. By way of contrast, a graphic equaliser
provides individual level controls for various frequency bands, each of which acts only
on that particular frequency band.
Peudonym: A pseudonym (Greek: false name) is a fictitious name used by an individual as
an alternative to their legal name (whereas an allonym is the name of another actual
person assumed by one person i n authorship of a work of art; e.g., when ghostwriting a
book or play, or in parody, or when using a front such as by screenwriters blacklisted i n
Hollywood in the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s). In some cases, the pseudonym has become
the legal name of the person using it. Occasionally, a pseudonym i s employed to avoid
overexposure. Prolific authors for pulp magazines often had two and sometimes three
short stories appearing i n one issue of a magazine; the editor would create several
fictitious author names so that readers would not realfse this.
Positlvlsm: In sociology, anthropology, and other social sciences, the term was closely
connected t o sociological naturalism and can be traced back to the philosophical thinking
of Auguste Comte i n the 19th century. Describing positivism i n the 1966 Henry Myres
Lecture, the structural anthropologist Edmund Leach said, "Positivism is the view that
serious scientific inquiry should not search for ultimate causes deriving from some
Quantitative and outside source but must confine itself to the study of relations existing between facts
Survey Methods which are directly accessible to observation." In some quarters of contemporary sociology,
positivism has been replaced by antipositivism.
, Psephologists: Those who pursue 'the scientific study of elections
Qualifiers: Qualifiers i s a tool for anyone, professional or student, who must assemble,
analyse, evaluate, and organise research data. With Qualifien you can collect all your
data-text, audio, video-in one place and arrange it in categories to suit your purpose.
Possible qualitative data include conversations, presentations, recitals, field data, and
other situations. You can record audio and play back audio and video with tools such as
"transcriber play" and "mark back." Perform post-analyses-"intersection," "union,"
"not in." Print reports. Project analytic presentations of data and trends from your
computer.
Range: The range is the simplest measure of variability to calculate; and one you have
probably encountered many times in your life. The range is simply the highest score
minus the lowest score.
Rapport: The term refers to the relationship, especially one of mutual trust or emotional
affinity. It is a French word, from Old French, from raporter, to bring back: re-, re- +
aporter, to bring (from Latin apportire : ad-, ad- + portgre, to carry.
Regression: A functional relationship between two or more correlated variables that is
often empirically determined from data and is used especially to predict values of one
variable when given values of the others. Aclassic statistical problem i s to try to determine
the relationship between two random variables X and Y. For example, we might consider
height and weight of a sample of adults. Linear regression attempts to explain this
relationship with a straight line fit to the data.
Rigged: To manipulate dishonestly for personal gain
Sample variance: The statistic s square is a measure on a random sample that is used to
estimate the variance of the population from which the sample is drawn. Numerically, it
i s the sum of the squared deviations around the mean of a random sample divided by the
sample size minus one. Regardless of the size of the population, and 'regardless of the
size of the random sample, it can be algebraically shown that i f we repeatedly took
random samples of the same size from the same population and calculated the variance
estimate on each sample, these values would cluster around the exact value of the
population variance. In short, the statistk s squared is an unbiased estimate of the
variance of the population from which a sample is drawn. '
Sampling method: It i s incumbent on the researcher to clearly define the target
populatlon. There are no strict rules to follow, and the researcher must rely on logic
and judgment. The populatlon i s defined in keeping with the objectives of the study.
Sometimes, the entire population will be sufficiently small, and the researcher can
include the entire populatlon in the study. This type of research is called a census
study because data i s gathered on every member of the population. Usually, the population
Is too large for the researcher to attempt to survey all of i t s members. A small, but
carefully chosen sample can be used to represent the populatlon. The sample reflects
the characteristics of the population from which It Is drawn.
Standard deviation: The standard deviation is kind of the "mean of the mean," and
often can help you find the story behind the data. To understand this concept, it can
help to learn about what statisticians caU normal distribution of data. A normal distribution
of data means that most of the examples i n a set of data are close to the "average,"
while relatively few examples tend to one extreme or the other.
Tsbulation: An orderly columnar display of data, Hke a chart, table, refers to information
set out in tabular form, also refers to the act of putting into tabular form.
Triangulation: In trigonometry and elementary geometry, triangulation is the process of Glossary
finding a distance to a point by calculating the length of one side of a triangle, given
measurements of angles and sides of the triangle formed by that point and two other
reference points. Triangulation is used for many purposes, including surveying, navigation,
astrometry, binocular vision and gun direction of weapons. Many of these surveying
problems involve the solution of large meshes of triangles, with hundreds or even thousands
of observations. Complex triangulation problems involving real-world observations with
errors require the solution of large systems of simultaneous equations to generate
solutions. Famous uses of triangulation have included the retriangulation of Great Britain.
Validity: A deductive argument is sound i f and only if it i s both valid, and all of its
premises are actually true. Otherwise, a deductive argument is unsound. Deductive
argument is said to be valid i f and only i f it takes a form that makes it impossible for the
premises to be true and the conclusion nevertheless to be false. Otherwise, a deductive
argument is said to be invalid. According to the definition of a deductive argument, the
author of a deductive argument always intends that the premises provide the sort of
justification for the conclusion whereby i f the premises are true, the conclusion i s
guaranteed to be true as well. Loosely speaking, i f the author's process of reasoning is
a good one, i f the premises actually do provide this sort of justification for the conclusion,
then the argument is valid.
Variables: Variables are used in open sentences. For instance, in the formula: x + 1 = 5,
x is a variable which represents an "unknown" number. In mathematics, variables are
usually represented by letters of the Roman alphabet, but are also represented by
letters of other alphabets; as well as various other symbols. In computer programming,
variables are usually represented by either single letters or alphanumeric strings. Why
are variables useful? Variables are useful in mathematics and computer programming
because they allow instructions to be specified in a general way. If one were forced to
use actual values, then the instructions would only apply in a more narrow, and specific
set of situations.
 References
(Please note that the list of references includes all the sources that the authors of
the units have cited in the text. It includes also the books mentioned as Further
Reading at the end of each unit of Book 2.)
Aldridge, Alan. and Ken, Levine 2001. Surveying the Social World - Principles and
Practice in Survey Research. Open University Press: Buckingham
Allen G. and G. Skinner 1991. Handbook for Research Students in Social Sciences.
Falmer Press: London
Babbie, E. 1989. The Practice of Social Research. Wadsworth Publishing Company:
Belmont, California
Bernard, H. Russel, 1994. Research Methods in Anthropology: Qualitative and
Quantitative Approaches. Sage: New York
Black, Thomas R. 1999. Doing Quantitative Research in the Social Science. An
Integrated Approach to Research Design, Measurement and Statistics. Sage
Publication: New York
Boas, Franz 1940. The Limitations of the Comparative Method in Anthropology, IN
Race, Language and Culture. Macmillan: New York
Brewer, John 6.2000. Ethnography. Open University Press: Buckingham
Bryman, Alann 1988: Quantity and Quality in Social Research. Unwin Hyman: London
Burgess, R.G. (ed.) 1982, Field Research: A Sourcebook and Field Manual.
(Contemporary Social Research 4), George Allen and Unwin, London
Burns, Robert B. 2000. Introduction to Research Methods. Sage Publications: London
Chandler, Dawn and Bill Torbert 2003. Transforming Inquiry and Action: Interviewing
27 Flavors of Action Research. Action Research 1 (October):
Cohen, Louis and Lawrence, Manion 1994. Research Methods in Education.
Routledge: London and New York
Cohen, Louis and Michael Holliday 1982. Statistics for Social Research. Harper and
Row: London
Cubitt, T. ,1973. Network density among urban families. In Network Analysis:
Studies in Human Interaction (eds J. Boissevain and J.C. Mitchell). The Hague:
Mouton
de Vaus, David. 2202. Surveys in Social Research. Routledge: London
Denzin, N.K. (ed). 1970. Sociological Methods: A Sourcebook. Butterworths, London
Eggan, Fred. 1954. Social Anthropology and the Method of Controlled Comparison.
American Anthropologist 56: 743-763 \

Ellen, R. F. 1984. Ethnographic Research: A Guide to General Conduct. Academic

Press: London
Fink, Arlene. 1995. The Survey Hand Book. Sage Publications: Thousand Oaks
Fisher, R.A. and F. Yates 1982 Statistical Tables, Longman: New York
Godde, William J. and Paul K. Hatt 1952. Methods in Social Research. McGraw-Hill:
New York
Gustavsen, Bjorn 2003. New Forms of Knowledge Production and the Role of Action
Research. Action Research 1 (October): 153-164
Handel, J.D. 1978, Statistics for Sociology, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.
Hughes, John A. and Wes Sharrock 1990. The Philosophy of Social Research. Addison
01604 Wesley Longman: Essex
Lazarsfeld, Paul F., Bernard Berelson and Hazel Gaudet 1944. The People's Choice. References
Columbia University Press: Columbia
Levi-Strauss, C. 1963. Structural Anthropology. Penguin
Lewis, Oscar 1955.Comparisons in Cultural Anthropology. IN W. I. Thomas Jr (ed.)
Current Anthropology. Chicago University Press: Chicago
Madan, T. N. 1975. On Living Intimately with Strangers. IN Andre Beteille and T. N.
Madan (eds.) Encounter and Experience: Personal Accounts of Fieldwork. Vikas:
New Delhi
Madan, T. N. 2004. In Pursuit of Anthropology. IN V. K. Srivastava (ed) Methodology
and Fieldwork. Oxford University Press: New Delbi
Mark, Melvin, M. and Gary T Henry 2004. The Mechan~smsend Outcomes of
Evaluation Influence. Evaluation 10:35-37
Mitchell, J. Clyde 1984. Social Surveys. IN R. F. E!len (ed) Ethnographic Research.
Academic press: London. Pp. 271-272
Moser, C. A, and G. Kalton 1973. Survey Methods in Social Investigation. The English
Language Book Society: Londoh
Mukherji, P. N. 2000. Methodology in Social Research; Dilemmas and Perspectives.
Sage Publications: New Delhi
Mukherji, P. N. and Chandan Sengupta 2009. Conversations with Ramkrishna
Mukherjee. IN P. N. Mukherji (ed.) Methodology in Social Research; Dilemmas and
Perspectives. Sage Publications: New Delhi
Murdock, G.P. 1940. The Cross-Cultural Survey. American Sociological Review 5:
369-370
Myrdal, Gunnar1944. An American Dilemmc. The Negro Problem and Modern
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