ANAPHY – RABE – REVIEWER 1.

SKELETAL: voluntary
2. CARDIAC: involuntary
MUSCULAR SYSTEM 3. SMOOTH: involuntary
e. SPEED OF CONTRACTION:
- Muscles are responsible for all types of body
movement 1. SKELETAL: slow to fast
2. CARDIAC: slow
- Three basic muscle types are found in the body 3. SMOOTH: very slow
+ Skeletal muscle f. RHYTHMIC CONTRACTIONS:
+ Cardiac muscle
+ Smooth muscle 1. SKELETAL: NO
2. CARDIAC: YES
3. SMOOTH: YES, IN SOME
I. CHARACTERISTICS OF MUSCLES:
CHARACTERISTICS OF MUSCLES: (CON’T)

A. Skeletal and smooth muscle cells are elongated - Most are attached by tendons to bones
(muscle cell = muscle fiber) - Cells are multinucleate
- Striated—have visible banding
B. Contraction and shortening of muscles is due to - Voluntary—subject to conscious control
the movement of microfilaments
CONNECTIVE TISSUE WRAPPINGS OF
SKELETAL MUSCLE
C. All muscles share some terminology
- Prefixes myo and mys refer to “muscle” - Cells are surrounded and bundled by
- Prefix sarco refers to “flesh” connective tissue:
a. Endomysium—encloses a single muscle fiber
II. COMPARISON OF SKELETAL, CARDIAC,
b. Perimysium—wraps around a fascicle
AND SMOOTH MUSCLES:
(bundle) of muscle fibers
CHARACTERISTICS: c. Epimysium—covers the entire skeletal
muscle
a. BODY LOCATION: d. Fascia—on the outside of the epimysium
1. SKELETAL: attached to bone or skin (for some
facial muscles) SKELETAL MUSCLE ATTACHMENTS
2. CARDIAC: walls of the heart - Epimysium blends into a connective tissue
3. SMOOTH: mostly in walls of visceral organs attachment
(other than the heart)
b. CELL SHAPE AND APPEARANCE: a. Tendons—cord-like structures
- Mostly collagen fibers
1. SKELETAL: single, very long, cylindrical, - Often cross a joint due to toughness
multinucleate cells with very obvious striations. and small size
2. CARDIAC: branching chains of cells, - Aponeuroses—sheet-like structures
uninucleate, striations, intercalated discs - Attach muscles indirectly to bones,
3. SMOOTH: single, fusiform, uninucleate, no cartilages, or connective tissue coverings.
striations
b. Sites of muscle attachment
c. CONNECTIVE TISSUE COMPONENTS:
- Bones
1. SKELETAL: endomysium, perimysium, and - Cartilages
epimysium - Connective tissue coverings
2. CARDIAC: endomysium
3. SMOOTH: endomysium
d. REGULATION OF CONTRACTION
 - Thin filaments = actin filaments

SMOOTH MUSCLE CHARACTERISTICS • Composed of the protein actin

- Lacks striations • Anchored to the Z disc

- Spindle-shaped cells
- At rest, within the A band there is a zone that
- Single nucleus
lacks actin filaments
- Involuntary—no conscious control
- Found mainly in the walls of hollow organs • Called either the H zone or bare
zone
CARDIAC MUSCLE CHARACTERISTICS
- Sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR)
- Striations
- Usually has a single nucleus • Stores and releases calcium
- Branching cells
• Surrounds the myofibril
- Joined to another muscle cell at an
intercalated disc
- Involuntary
- Found only in the walls of the heart STIMULATION AND CONTRACTION OF SINGLE
SKELETAL MUSCLE CELLS
SKELETAL MUSCLE FUNCTIONS
- Excitability (also called responsiveness or
- Produce movement irritability)—ability to receive and respond to a
- Maintain posture stimulus
- Stabilize joints
- Generate heat - Contractility—ability to shorten when an
adequate stimulus is received
MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF SKELETAL
- Extensibility—ability of muscle cells to be
MUSCLE
stretched
- Sarcolemma—specialized plasma membrane
- Elasticity—ability to recoil and resume resting
- Myofibrils—long organelles inside muscle cell
length after stretching
- Sarcoplasmic reticulum—specialized smooth
endoplasmic reticulum THE NERVE STIMULUS AND ACTION
- Myofibrils are aligned to give distinct bands POTENTIAL
+ I band = light band
- Contains only thin filaments - Skeletal muscles must be stimulated by a
+ A band = dark band motor neuron (nerve cell) to contract
- Contains the entire length of the
- Motor unit—one motor neuron and all the
thick filaments
skeletal muscle cells stimulated by that neuron
- Sarcomere—contractile unit of a muscle fiber
- Neuromuscular junction
- Organization of the sarcomere
+ Myofilaments +Association site of axon terminal of the
- Thick filaments = myosin filaments motor neuron and muscle
- Thin filaments = actin filaments
- Synaptic cleft
- Thick filaments = myosin filaments
• Gap between nerve and muscle
• Composed of the protein myosin
• Nerve and muscle do not make
• Has ATPase enzymes contact
• Myosin filaments have heads • Area between nerve and muscle is
(extensions, or cross bridges) filled with interstitial fluid
• Myosin and actin overlap - Action potential reaches the axon terminal of
somewhat the motor neuron
- Calcium channels open and calcium ions enter - Graded responses can be produced by
the axon terminal changing:

TRANSMISSION OF NERVE IMPULSE TO • The frequency of muscle

MUSCLE stimulation

- Calcium ion entry causes some synaptic • The number of muscle cells being
vesicles to release their contents stimulated at one time
(acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter) by
- TYPES OF GRADED RESPONSES:
exocytosis
• Twitch
- Neurotransmitter—chemical released by nerve
upon arrival of nerve impulse in the axon • Single, brief contraction
terminal
• Not a normal muscle function
- The neurotransmitter for skeletal muscle is
acetylcholine (ACh) • Summing of contractions

- Acetylcholine attaches to receptors on the • One contraction is immediately

sarcolemma of the muscle cell followed by another

- In response to the binding of ACh to a • The muscle does not completely

receptor, the sarcolemma becomes permeable return to a resting state due to
to sodium (Na+) more frequent stimulations

- Sodium rushes into the cell generating an • The effects are added
action potential and potassium leaves the cell • Unfused (incomplete) tetanus
- Once started, muscle contraction cannot be • Some relaxation occurs between
stopped contractions but nerve stimuli
arrive at an even faster rate than
THE SLIDING FILAMENT THEORY OF MUSCLE
during summing of contractions
CONTRACTION:
• Unless the muscle contraction is
- Activation by nerve causes myosin heads
smooth and sustained, it is said
(cross bridges) to attach to binding sites on the
to be in unfused tetanus
thin filament
• Fused (complete) tetanus
- Myosin heads then bind to the next site of the
thin filament and pull them toward the center of • No evidence of relaxation before
the sarcomere the following contractions
- This continued action causes a sliding of the • Frequency of stimulations does
myosin along the actin not allow for relaxation between
contractions
- The result is that the muscle is shortened
(contracted) • The result is a smooth and
sustained muscle contraction
CONTRACTION OF SKELETAL MUSCLE
- Muscle fiber contraction is “all or none”
- Within a skeletal muscle, not all fibers may be MUSCLE RESPONSE TO STRONG STIMULI
stimulated during the same interval
- Different combinations of muscle fiber - Muscle force depends upon the number of
contractions may give differing responses fibers stimulated
- Graded responses—different degrees of - More fibers contracting results in greater
skeletal muscle shortening muscle tension
- Muscles can continue to contract unless they - This reaction is not as efficient, but is fast
run out of energy
• Huge amounts of glucose are
ENERGY FOR MUSCLE CONTRACTION needed

- Initially, muscles use stored ATP for energy • Lactic acid produces muscle
fatigue
• ATP bonds are broken to release
energy
• Only 4–6 seconds worth of ATP is MUSCLE FATIGUE AND OXYGEN DEFICIT
stored by muscles
- When a muscle is fatigued, it is unable to
- After this initial time, other pathways must be contract even with a stimulus
utilized to produce ATP
- Common cause for muscle fatigue is oxygen
- Direct phosphorylation of ADP by creatine debt
phosphate (CP)
- Oxygen must be “repaid” to tissue to remove
• Muscle cells store CP oxygen deficit
• CP is a high-energy - Oxygen is required to get rid of accumulated
molecule lactic acid
• After ATP is depleted, ADP is left - Increasing acidity (from lactic acid) and lack of
ATP causes the muscle to contract less
• CP transfers a phosphate group
to ADP, to regenerate ATP TYPES OF MUSCLE CONTRACTIONS
• CP supplies are exhausted in less - Isotonic contractions
than 15 seconds
• Myofilaments are able to slide
• About 1 ATP is created per CP past each other during
molecule contractions
- Aerobic respiration • The muscle shortens and
movement occurs
• Glucose is broken down to carbon
dioxide and water, releasing • Example: bending the knee;
energy (about 32 ATP) rotating the arm
• A series of metabolic pathways - Isometric contractions
occur in the mitochondria
• Tension in the muscles increases
• This is a slower reaction that
requires continuous oxygen • The muscle is unable to shorten
or produce movement
• Carbon dioxide and water are
produced • Example: push against a wall with
bent elbows
- Anaerobic glycolysis and lactic acid formation
• Reaction that breaks down
glucose without oxygen MUSCLE TONE

• Glucose is broken down to - Some fibers are contracted even in a relaxed

pyruvic acid to produce about 2 muscle
ATP
- Different fibers contract at different times to
• Pyruvic acid is converted to lactic provide muscle tone and to be constantly ready
acid
 EFFECT OF EXERCISE ON MUSCLES = Increases angle between two bones
= Typical of straightening the elbow or knee
- Exercise increases muscle size, strength, and
= Extension beyond 180° is hypertension
endurance
- Rotation
+ Aerobic (endurance) exercise (biking,
jogging) results in stronger, more flexible = Movement of a bone around its longitudinal
muscles with greater resistance to fatigue axis
= Common in ball-and-socket joints
= Makes body metabolism more efficient
= Example is when you move atlas around
= Improves digestion, coordination the dens of axis (shake your head “no”)

+ Resistance (isometric) exercise (weight - Abduction

lifting) increases muscle size and strength
= Movement of a limb away from the midline
FIVE GOLDEN RULES OF SKELETAL MUSCLE - Adduction
ACTIVITY
= Opposite of abduction
1. With a few exceptions, all skeletal muscles = Movement of a limb toward the midline
cross at least one joint.
- Circumduction
2. Typically, the bulk of a skeletal muscle lies
proximal to the joint crossed. = Combination of flexion, extension,
abduction, and adduction
3. All skeletal muscles have at least two = Common in ball-and-socket joints
attachments: the origin and the insertion.
4. Skeletal muscles can only pull; they never
push. SPECIAL MOVEMENTS
5. During contraction, a skeletal muscle • Dorsiflexion
insertion moves toward the origin.
• Lifting the foot so that the
MUSCLES AND BODY MOVEMENTS superior surface approaches the
shin (toward the dorsum)
- Movement is attained due to a muscle moving
an attached bone • Plantar flexion

- Muscles are attached to at least two points • Depressing the foot (pointing the
toes)
+ Origin
• “Planting” the foot toward the
- Attachment to a moveable bone sole
+ Insertion • Inversion
- Attachment to an immovable bone • Turn sole of foot medially
TYPES OF BODY MOVEMENTS • Eversion
- Flexion • Turn sole of foot laterally
= Decreases the angle of the joint • Supination
= Brings two bones closer together
= Typical of bending hinge joints like knee and • Forearm rotates laterally so palm
elbow or ball-and-socket joints like the hip faces anteriorly

- Extension • Radius and ulna are parallel

= Opposite of flexion • Pronation

 • Forearm rotates medially so palm HEAD AND NECK MUSCLES
faces posteriorly
• Facial muscles
• Radius and ulna cross each other
• Frontalis—raises eyebrows
like an X
• Orbicularis oculi—closes eyes,
• Opposition
squints, blinks, winks
• Move thumb to touch the tips of
• Orbicularis oris—closes mouth
other fingers on the same hand
and protrudes the lips
• Buccinator—flattens the cheek,
TYPES OF MUSCLES chews

• Prime mover—muscle with the major • Zygomaticus—raises corners of

responsibility for a certain movement the mouth

• Antagonist—muscle that opposes or • Chewing muscles

reverses a prime mover
• Masseter—closes the jaw and
• Synergist—muscle that aids a prime elevates mandible
mover in a movement and helps prevent
• Temporalis—synergist of the
rotation
masseter, closes jaw
• Fixator—stabilizes the origin of a prime
• Facial muscles
mover
• Frontalis—raises eyebrows
• Orbicularis oculi—closes eyes,
NAMING SKELETAL MUSCLES squints, blinks, winks
• By direction of muscle fibers • Orbicularis oris—closes mouth
• Example: Rectus (straight) and protrudes the lips

• By relative size of the muscle • Buccinator—flattens the cheek,

chews
• Example: Maximus (largest)
• Zygomaticus—raises corners of
• By location of the muscle the mouth
• Example: Temporalis (temporal • Chewing muscles
bone)
• Masseter—closes the jaw and
• By number of origins elevates mandible
• Example: Triceps (three heads) • Temporalis—synergist of the
masseter, closes jaw
• By location of the muscle’s origin and
insertion • Neck muscles
• Example: Sterno (on the sternum) • Platysma—pulls the corners of
the mouth inferiorly
• By shape of the muscle
• Sternocleidomastoid—flexes the
• Example: Deltoid (triangular)
neck, rotates the head
• By action of the muscle
• Example: Flexor and extensor
(flexes or extends a bone)
MUSCLES OF TRUNK, SHOULDER, ARM MUSCLES OF THE UPPER LIMB
• Anterior muscles • Biceps brachii—supinates forearm,
flexes elbow
• Pectoralis major—adducts and
flexes the humerus • Brachialis—elbow flexion
• Intercostal muscles • Brachioradialis—weak muscle; elbow
flexion
• External intercostals—
raise rib cage during • Triceps brachii—elbow extension
inhalation (antagonist to biceps brachii)
• Internal intercostals— • Muscles of the forearm, which insert on
depress the rib cage to the hand bones and cause their
move air out of the lungs movement include:
when you exhale forcibly
• Flexor carpi—wrist flexion
• Muscles of the abdominal girdle
• Flexor digitorum—finger flexion
• Rectus abdominis—flexes
• Extensor carpi—wrist extension
vertebral column and compresses
abdominal contents (defecation, • Extensor digitorum—finger extension
childbirth, forced breathing)
• Muscles causing movement at the hip
• External oblique—flex vertebral joint include:
column; rotate trunk and bend it
laterally • Gluteus maximus—hip extension

• Internal oblique—flex vertebral • Gluteus medius—hip abduction,

column; rotate trunk and bend it steadies pelvis when walking
laterally • Iliopsoas—hip flexion, keeps the
• Transversus abdominis— upper body from falling backward
compresses abdominal contents when standing erect

• Posterior muscles • Adductor muscles—adduct the

thighs
• Trapezius—elevates, depresses,
adducts, and stabilizes the • Muscles causing movement at the knee
scapula joint

• Latissimus dorsi—extends and • Hamstring group—thigh

adducts the humerus extension and knee flexion

• Erector spinae—back extension • Biceps femoris

• Quadratus lumborum—flexes the • Semimembranosus

spine laterally • Semitendinosus
• Deltoid—arm abduction
• Muscles that arise from the shoulder
MUSCLES OF THE LOWER LIMB
girdle and cross the shoulder joint to
insert into the humerus include: • Muscles causing movement at the knee
joint
• Pectoralis major
• Sartorius—flexes the thigh
• Latissimus dorsi
• Deltoid
 • Quadriceps group—extends the + Integration; command center
knee
+ Interpret incoming sensory information
• Rectus femoris
+Issues outgoing instructions
• Vastus muscles (three)
- Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
• Muscles causing movement at ankle and
= Nerves extending from the brain and spinal
foot
cord
• Tibialis anterior—dorsiflexion,
+ Spinal nerves—carry impulses to and
foot inversion
from the spinal cord
• Extensor digitorum longus—toe
+ Cranial nerves—carry impulses to and
extension and dorsiflexion of the
from the brain
foot
+ Functions
• Fibularis muscles—plantar
flexion, foot eversion - Serve as communication lines
among sensory organs, the brain and spinal
• Soleus—plantar flexion
cord, and glands or muscles

NERVOUS SYSTEM
FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF THE
FUNCTIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

- Sensory input—gathering information - Sensory (afferent) division

• To monitor changes occurring = Nerve fibers that carry information to the

inside and outside the body central nervous system

• Changes = stimuli - Motor (efferent) division

- Integration = Nerve fibers that carry impulses away

from the central nervous system
• To process and interpret sensory
input and decide if action is = Motor (efferent) division (continued)
needed
- Two subdivisions
- Motor output
= Somatic nervous system = voluntary
• A response to integrated stimuli
+ Consciously controls skeletal muscles
• The response activates muscles
= Autonomic nervous system = involuntary
or glands
+ Automatically controls smooth and
cardiac muscles and glands
STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF THE + Further divided into the sympathetic and
NERVOUS SYSTEM parasympathetic nervous systems
- Central nervous system (CNS)
NERVOUS TISSUE: SUPPORT CELLS
= Organs
- Support cells in the CNS are grouped together
+ Brain as “neuroglia”
+ Spinal cord
- General functions
= Function
= Support
 = Insulate • Specialized rough
endoplasmic reticulum
= Protect neurons
• Neurofibrils
- Astrocytes
• Intermediate cytoskeleton
= Abundant, star-shaped cells
• Maintains cell shape
= Brace neurons
• Nucleus with large nucleolus
= Form barrier between capillaries and
neurons • Processes outside the cell body
= Control the chemical environment of • Dendrites—conduct impulses
the brain toward the cell body
- Microglia • Neurons may have
hundreds of dendrites
= Spiderlike phagocytes
• Axons—conduct impulses away
= Dispose of debris
from the cell body
- Ependymal cells
• Neurons have only one
= Line cavities of the brain and spinal cord axon arising from the cell
body at the axon hillock
= Cilia assist with circulation of cerebrospinal
fluid • Axons

- Oligodendrocytes • End in axon terminals

= Wrap around nerve fibers in the central • Axon terminals contain vesicles
nervous system with neurotransmitters

= Produce myelin sheaths • Axon terminals are separated

from the next neuron by a gap
- Satellite cells
• Synaptic cleft—gap
= Protect neuron cell bodies between adjacent neurons
- Schwann cells • Synapse—junction
= Form myelin sheath in the peripheral between nerves
nervous system • Myelin sheath—whitish, fatty material
covering axons
NERVOUS TISSUE: NEURONS
• Schwann cells—produce myelin
• Neurons = nerve cells
sheaths in jelly roll-like fashion
• Cells specialized to transmit around axons (PNS)
messages
• Nodes of Ranvier—gaps in
• Major regions of neurons myelin sheath along the
axon
• Cell body—nucleus and
metabolic center of the cell • Oligodendrocytes—produce
myelin sheaths around axons of
• Processes—fibers that
the CNS
extend from the cell body
• Myelin sheath—whitish, fatty material
• Cell body
covering axons
• Nissl bodies
 • Schwann cells—produce myelin • Interneurons (association neurons)
sheaths in jelly roll-like fashion
• Found in neural pathways in the
around axons (PNS)
central nervous system
• Nodes of Ranvier—gaps in
• Connect sensory and motor
myelin sheath along the
neurons
axon
• Oligodendrocytes—produce
myelin sheaths around axons of STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF NEURONS
the CNS
• Multipolar neurons—many extensions
from the cell body
NEURON CELL BODY LOCATION • All motor and interneurons are
multipolar
• Most neuron cell bodies are found in the
central nervous system • Most common structure
• Gray matter—cell bodies and • Bipolar neurons—one axon and one
unmyelinated fibers dendrite
• Nuclei—clusters of cell bodies • Located in special sense organs
within the white matter of the such as nose and eye
central nervous system
• Rare in adults
• Ganglia—collections of cell bodies
outside the central nervous system • Unipolar neurons—have a short single
process leaving the cell body
• Tracts—bundles of nerve fibers in the
CNS • Sensory neurons found in PNS
ganglia
• Nerves—bundles of nerve fibers in the
PNS
• White matter—collections of myelinated FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF NEURONS
fibers (tracts)
• Irritability
• Gray matter—collections of mostly
• Ability to respond to stimuli
unmyelinated fibers and cell bodies
• Conductivity
• Ability to transmit an impulse
FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF NEURONS
• Sensory (afferent) neurons
NERVE IMPULSES
• Carry impulses from the sensory
receptors to the CNS • Resting neuron
• Cutaneous sense organs • The plasma membrane at rest is
polarized
• Proprioceptors—detect
stretch or tension • Fewer positive ions are inside the
cell than outside the cell
• Motor (efferent) neurons
• Depolarization
• Carry impulses from the central
nervous system to viscera, • A stimulus depolarizes the
muscles, or glands neuron’s membrane
 • The membrane is now permeable • Calcium, in turn, causes the tiny vesicles
to sodium as sodium channels containing the neurotransmitter
open chemical to fuse with the axonal
membrane
• A depolarized membrane allows
sodium (Na+) to flow inside the • The entry of calcium into the axon
membrane terminal causes porelike openings to
form, releasing the transmitter
• Action potential
• The neurotransmitter molecules diffuse
• The movement of ions initiates an
across the synapse and bind to
action potential in the neuron due
receptors on the membrane of the next
to a stimulus
neuron
• A graded potential (localized
• If enough neurotransmitter is released,
depolarization) exists where the
graded potential will be generated
inside of the membrane is more
positive and the outside is less • Eventually an action potential (nerve
positive impulse) will occur in the neuron beyond
the synapse
• Propagation of the action potential
• The electrical changes prompted by
• If enough sodium enters the cell,
neurotransmitter binding are brief
the action potential (nerve
impulse) starts and is propagated • The neurotransmitter is quickly removed
over the entire axon from the synapse
• Impulses travel faster when fibers THE REFLEX ARC
have a myelin sheath
• Reflex—rapid, predictable, and
• Repolarization involuntary response to a stimulus
• Potassium ions rush out of the • Occurs over pathways called
neuron after sodium ions rush in, reflex arcs
which repolarizes the membrane
• Reflex arc—direct route from a sensory
• Repolarization involves restoring neuron, to an interneuron, to an effector
the inside of the membrane to a
negative charge and the outer • Somatic reflexes
surface to a positive charge • Reflexes that stimulate the
• Initial ionic conditions are skeletal muscles
restored using the sodium- • Example: pull your hand away
potassium pump. from a hot object
• This pump, using ATP, restores • Autonomic reflexes
the original configuration
• Regulate the activity of smooth
• Three sodium ions are ejected muscles, the heart, and glands
from the cell while two potassium
ions are returned to the cell • Example: Regulation of smooth
muscles, heart and blood
pressure, glands, digestive
system
TRANSMISSION OF A SIGNAL AT SYNAPSES
• Five elements of a reflex:
• When the action potential reaches the
axon terminal, the electrical charge • Sensory receptor–reacts to a
opens calcium channels stimulus
 • Sensory neuron–carries message REGIONS OF THE BRAIN
to the integration center
• Cerebral hemispheres (cerebrum)
• Integration center (CNS)–
• Diencephalon
processes information and directs
motor output • Brain stem
• Motor neuron–carries message to • Cerebellum
an effector
• Effector organ–is the muscle or
gland to be stimulated 1. Cerebral Hemispheres (Cerebrum)
• Paired (left and right) superior
parts of the brain
TWO-NEURON REFLEX ARC
• Includes more than half of the
• Two-neuron reflex arcs brain mass
• Simplest type • The surface is made of ridges
(gyri) and grooves (sulci)
• Example: Patellar (knee-jerk)
reflex
I. REGIONS OF THE BRAIN:
CEREBRUM
THREE- NEURON REFLEX ARC • Lobes of the cerebrum
• Three-neuron reflex arcs • Fissures (deep grooves) divide
• Consists of five elements: the cerebrum into lobes
receptor, sensory neuron, • Surface lobes of the cerebrum
interneuron, motor neuron, and
effector • Frontal lobe
• Example: Flexor (withdrawal) • Parietal lobe
reflex
• Occipital lobe
• Temporal lobe
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS)
• Specialized areas of the cerebrum
• CNS develops from the embryonic neural
• Primary somatic sensory area
tube
• Receives impulses from
• The neural tube becomes the
the body’s sensory
brain and spinal cord
receptors
• The opening of the neural tube
• Located in parietal lobe
becomes the ventricles
• Primary motor area
• Four chambers within the
brain • Sends impulses to skeletal
muscles
• Filled with cerebrospinal
fluid • Located in frontal lobe
• Broca’s area
• Involved in our ability to
speak
• Cerebral areas involved in special • Hypothalamus
senses
• Under the thalamus
• Gustatory area (taste)
• Important autonomic nervous
• Visual area system center
• Auditory area • Helps regulate body
temperature
• Olfactory area
• Controls water balance
• Interpretation areas of the cerebrum
• Regulates metabolism
• Speech/language region
• Houses the limbic center for
• Language comprehension region
emotions
• General interpretation area
• Regulates the nearby pituitary
• Layers of the cerebrum gland

• Gray matter—outer layer in the • Produces two hormones of

cerebral cortex composed mostly its own
of neuron cell bodies
• Epithalamus
• White matter—fiber tracts deep to
• Forms the roof of the third
the gray matter
ventricle
• Corpus callosum connects
• Houses the pineal body (an
hemispheres
endocrine gland)
• Basal nuclei—islands of gray matter
• Includes the choroid plexus—
buried within the white matter
forms cerebrospinal fluid
II. REGIONS OF THE BRAIN:
III. REGIONS OF THE BRAIN: BRAIN
DIENCEPHALON
STEM
• Attaches to the spinal cord
• Sits on top of the brain stem
• Parts of the brain stem
• Enclosed by the cerebral hemispheres
• Midbrain
• Made of three parts
• Pons
• Thalamus
• Medulla oblongata
• Hypothalamus
• Midbrain
• Epithalamus
• Mostly composed of tracts of
• Thalamus nerve fibers
• Surrounds the third ventricle • Has two bulging fiber tracts—
• The relay station for sensory cerebral peduncles
impulses • Has four rounded protrusions—
• Transfers impulses to the correct corpora quadrigemina
part of the cortex for localization • Reflex centers for vision
and interpretation and hearing
• Pons • Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
• The bulging center part of the • Blood-brain barrier
brain stem
• Mostly composed of fiber tracts
MENINGES
• Includes nuclei involved in the
control of breathing • Dura mater

• Medulla oblongata • Tough outermost layer

• The lowest part of the brain stem • Double-layered external covering

• Merges into the spinal cord • Periosteum—attached to

inner surface of the skull
• Includes important fiber tracts
• Meningeal layer—outer
• Contains important control covering of the brain
centers
• Folds inward in several areas
• Heart rate control
• Falx cerebri
• Blood pressure regulation
• Tentorium cerebelli
• Breathing
• Arachnoid layer
• Swallowing
• Middle layer
• Vomiting
• Web-like extensions span the
• Reticular Formation subarachnoid space
• Diffuse mass of gray matter along • Arachnoid villi reabsorb
the brain stem cerebrospinal fluid
• Involved in motor control of • Pia mater
visceral organs
• Internal layer
• Reticular activating system (RAS)
plays a role in awake/sleep cycles • Clings to the surface of the brain
and consciousness
IV. REGIONS OF THE BRAIN:
CEREBROSPINAL FLUID (CSF)
CEREBELLUM
• Similar to blood plasma composition
• Two hemispheres with convoluted
surfaces • Formed by the choroid plexus
• Provides involuntary coordination of • Choroid plexuses–capillaries in
body movements the ventricles of the brain
• Forms a watery cushion to protect the
brain
PROTECTION OF THE CENTRAL NERVOUS
SYSTEM • Circulated in arachnoid space,
ventricles, and central canal of the spinal
• Scalp and skin cord
• Skull and vertebral column
• Meninges
PATHWAY OF FLOW…. • Slight brain injury
1. CSF is produced by the choroid plexus • No permanent brain damage
of each ventricle.
• Contusion
2. CSF flows through the ventricles and
• Nervous tissue destruction
into the subarachnoid space via the
median and lateral apertures. Some CSF occurs
flows through the central canal of the • Nervous tissue does not
spinal cord. regenerate
3. CSF flows through the subarachnoid • Cerebral edema
space.
• Swelling from the inflammatory
4. CSF is absorbed into the dural venous response
sinuses via the arachnoid villi.
• May compress and kill brain
tissue
HYDROCEPHALUS IN A NEWTABORN
• Hydrocephalus CEREBROVASCULAR ACCIDENT (CVA) OR
• CSF accumulates and exerts STROKE
pressure on the brain if not • Result from a ruptured blood vessel
allowed to drain supplying a region of the brain
• Possible in an infant because the • Brain tissue supplied with oxygen from
skull bones have not yet fused that blood source dies
• In adults, this situation results in • Loss of some functions or death may
brain damage result
• Hemiplegia–One-sided paralysis
BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIER • Aphasis–Damage to speech
center in left hemisphere
• Includes the least permeable capillaries
of the body • Transischemia-attack (TIA)–temporary
brain ischemia (restriction of blood flow)
• Excludes many potentially harmful
substances • Warning signs for more serious
CVAs
• Useless as a barrier against some
substances
• Fats and fat-soluble molecules ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE
• Respiratory gases • Progressive degenerative brain disease
• Alcohol • Mostly seen in the elderly, but may begin
• Nicotine in middle age

• Anesthesia • Structural changes in the brain include

abnormal protein deposits and twisted
fibers within neurons

TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURIES • Victims experience memory loss,

irritability, confusion, and ultimately,
• Concussion hallucinations and death
 SPINAL CORD PNS: STRUCTURE OF A NERVE
• Extends from the foramen magnum of • Endoneurium surrounds each fiber
the skull to the first or second lumbar
• Groups of fibers are bound into fascicles
vertebra
by perineurium
• Provides a two-way conduction pathway
• Fascicles are bound together by
from the brain to and from the brain
epineurium
• 31 pairs of spinal nerves arise from the
spinal cord
• Cauda equina is a collection of spinal PNS: CLASSIFICATION OF NERVES
nerves at the inferior end • Mixed nerves
• Both sensory and motor fibers
SPINAL CORD ANATOMY • Sensory (afferent) nerves
• Internal gray matter is mostly cell bodies • Carry impulses toward the CNS
• Dorsal (posterior) horns • Motor (efferent) nerves
• Anterior (ventral) horns • Carry impulses away from the
CNS
• Gray matter surrounds the central
canal
• Central canal is filled with PNS: CRANIAL NERVES
cerebrospinal fluid
• Twelve pairs of nerves that mostly serve
• Exterior white mater—conduction tracts the head and neck
• Dorsal, lateral, ventral columns • Only the pair of vagus nerves extend to
• Meninges cover the spinal cord thoracic and abdominal cavities

• Spinal nerves leave at the level of each • Most are mixed nerves, but three are
vertebrae sensory only

• Dorsal root A. I Olfactory nerve—sensory for smell

B. II Optic nerve—sensory for vision
• Associated with the dorsal C. III Oculomotor nerve—motor fibers to
root ganglia—collections eye muscles
of cell bodies outside the D. IV Trochlear—motor fiber to one eye
central nervous system muscle
• Ventral root E. V Trigeminal nerve—sensory for the
face; motor fibers to chewing muscles
• Contains axons
F. VI Abducens nerve—motor fibers to eye
muscles
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS) G. VII Facial nerve—sensory for taste;
• Nerves and ganglia outside the central motor fibers to the face
nervous system H. VIII Vestibulocochlear nerve—sensory
• Nerve = bundle of neuron fibers for balance and hearing

• Neuron fibers are bundled by connective I. IX Glossopharyngeal nerve—sensory for

tissue taste; motor fibers to the pharynx
J. X Vagus nerves—sensory and motor • Cervical Plexus
fibers for pharynx, larynx, and viscera
• Originates from ventral rami in C1
K. XI Accessory nerve—motor fibers to – C5
neck and upper back
• Important nerve is the phrenic
L. XII Hypoglossal nerve—motor fibers to nerve
tongue
• Areas served:
• Diaphragm
PNS: SPINAL NERVES
• Shoulder and neck
• There is a pair of spinal nerves at the
• Brachial Plexus
level of each vertebrae for a total of 31
pairs • Originates from ventral rami in C5
– C8 and T1
• Formed by the combination of the
ventral and dorsal roots of the spinal • Important nerves:
cord
• Axillary
• Named for the region from which they
arise • Radial
• Median
• Musculocutaneous
PNS: ANATOMY OF SPINAL NERVES
• Ulnar
• Spinal nerves divide soon after leaving
the spinal cord • Areas served: shoulder, arm,
forearm, and hand
• Ramus—branch of a spinal nerve;
contains both motor and sensory fibers • Lumbar Plexus
• Dorsal rami—serve the skin and • Originates from ventral rami in L1
muscles of the posterior trunk through L4
• Ventral rami—form a complex of • Important nerves:
networks (plexus) for the anterior
• Femoral
• Obturator
PNS: SPINAL NERVE PLEXUSES
• Areas served:
• Plexus–networks of nerves serving
• Lower abdomen
motor and sensory needs of the limbs
• Anterior and medial thighs
• Form from ventral rami of spinal nerves
in the cervical, lumbar, and sacral • Sacral Plexus
regions
• Originates from ventral rami in L4
• Four plexuses: – L5 and S1 – S4
• Cervical • Important nerves:
• Brachial • Sciatic
• Lumbar • Superior and inferior
• Sacral gluteal
• Areas served:
 • Lower trunk and posterior • Ganglia are at the sympathetic trunk
thigh (near the spinal cord)
• Lateral and posterior leg • Short pre-ganglionic neuron and long
and foot post-ganglionic neuron transmit impulse
from CNS to the effector
• Gluteal muscles of hip area
• Neurotransmitters: norepinephrine and
epinephrine (effector organs)
PNS: AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
• Motor subdivision of the PNS
PNS: AUTONOMIC FUNCTIONING
• Consists only of motor nerves
• Sympathetic “fight or flight”
• Also known as the involuntary nervous
• Response to unusual stimulus
system
• Takes over to increase activities
• Regulates activities of cardiac
and smooth muscles and glands • Remember as the “E” division
• Two subdivisions • Exercise, excitement,
emergency, and
• Sympathetic division
embarrassment
• Parasympathetic division
• Parasympathetic “housekeeping”
activities

PNS; ANATOMY OF THE PARASYMPHATETIC • Conserves energy

DIVISION • Maintains daily necessary body
• Preganglionic neurons originate from the functions
craniosacral regions: • Remember as the “D” division
• The cranial nerves III, VII, IX, and • digestion, defecation, and
X diuresis
• S2 through S4 regions of the spinal
cord
DEVELOPMENT ASPECTS OF THE NERVOUS
• Due to site of preganglionic neuron
SYSTEM
origination, the parasympathetic division
is also known as the craniosacral • The nervous system is formed during the
division first month of embryonic development
• Terminal ganglia are at the effector • Any maternal infection can have
organs extremely harmful effects
• Neurotransmitter: acetylcholine • The hypothalamus is one of the last
areas of the brain to develop
• No more neurons are formed after birth,
PNS: ANATOMY OF THE SYMPHATETIC but growth and maturation continue for
DIVISION several years
• Preganglionic neurons originate from T1 • The brain reaches maximum weight as a
through L2 young adult
“IYAK NALANG PAG BUMAGSAK HA, MWA”