Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning (ME 401)

Classification of Air-Conditioning Systems, Thermal Comfort

Instructor: Dr. Prasanth Anand Kumar Lam, MED, NIT Warangal

[email protected]
 HVAC SYSTEMS
• Heating, Ventilation, and Air-Conditioning (HVAC) is the technology of to provide thermal comfort and acceptable indoor air
quality.
• The purpose of HVAC system is to Heat, Cool, Humidify, Dehumidify, Clean and Distribute the conditioned air into the room
through varied temperature, humidity and air quality.
• HVAC system is responsible for heating and cooling your home and includes products like furnaces, air conditioners, heat
pumps as well as ductwork, thermostats and other home comfort controls.
• HVAC Systems need to be installed in shopping complex, academic complex, research laboratories and office complex, etc. to
maintain different levels of temperature, humidity and cleanliness.
• Heating component of HVAC system provides a warm climate for home in the cooler months of the year.
• Ventilation is the process of exchanging or replacing air in any space to provide high indoor air quality which involves
temperature control, oxygen replenishment, and removal of moisture, odors, smoke, heat, dust, airborne bacteria, carbon
dioxide, and other gases.
• Ventilation removes unpleasant smells and excessive moisture, introduces outside air, keeps interior building air circulating,
and prevents stagnation of the interior air.
• Air-Conditioning component of HVAC system provides warm/cold climate with humidity regulation for thermal comfort.
 Why do we need Air-Conditioning?
• Excessive heat or cold causes body to expend energy in an attempt to maintain the proper internal temperature.
• Humans generally feel comfortable between temperatures of 22 °C to 27 °C and a relative humidity of 40% to 60%.
• Without air conditioning to control air temperature and humidity in work space, humans use more energy and feel lethargic.
• Classification of Air-Conditioning Systems:
1. According to Purpose:

1. Comfort Air-Conditioning 2. Industrial Air-Conditioning

2. According to Season of the Year:

1. Summer Air-Conditioning 2. Winter Air-Conditioning 3. Year-round Air-Conditioning

3. According to arrangement of equipment:

1. Central Air-Conditioning 2. Unitary Air-Conditioning (Window type or Split type AC)

4. According to fluid media used in thermal distribution system:

1. All air System 2. All water System 3. Air water System

 Classification - According to Purpose
Comfort air conditioning:
• The purpose of Comfort air conditioning is to create indoor conditions conducive to human health, comfort and efficiency.
• Cooling in large buildings during summer months is becoming a standard design practice these days.
• Even in places where summer temperatures are not high, the heat generated in stores, restaurants, theatres, hospitals and
schools by people, appliances and lights has to be removed to improve the efficiency of workers and comfort of customers.
Industrial air conditioning:
• Industrial air conditioning is meant for creating an environment conducive to research and industrial operations to maintain
manufacturing tolerances in electronics, space and computer industries and all high speed automated manufacturing
operations.
• These premises or processes require absolute control of temperature, moisture, and air purity.
• Paper mills, textile mills, candy manufacturing units, printing, photo-processing and host of other industries require air
conditioning.
 Comfort Air Conditioning
Thermal Comfort:
• Thermal comfort is defined as “that condition of mind which expresses satisfaction with the thermal environment”.
• A living human body may be likened to a heat engine in which the chemical energy contained in the food it consumes is
continuously converted into work and heat.
• The process of conversion of chemical energy contained in food into heat and work is called as “metabolism”.
• The rate at which the chemical energy is converted into heat and work is called as “metabolic rate”.
• Knowledge of metabolic rate of occupants is required as this forms a part of the cooling load for Air Conditioned building.
• Similar to a heat engine, thermal efficiency of a human being is defined as the ratio of useful work output to energy input.
• The thermal efficiency of a human being can vary from 0% to as high as 15-20% for a short duration.
• By the manner in which the work is defined, for most of the light activities the useful work output of human beings is zero,
indicating a thermal efficiency of 0%.
• Irrespective of the work output, a human body continuously generates heat at a rate varying from about 100 W (e.g. for a
sedentary person) to as high as 2000 W (e.g. a person doing strenuous exercise).
• Continuous heat generation is essential, as the temperature of the human body has to be maintained within a narrow range of
temperature, irrespective of the external surroundings.
 Comfort Air Conditioning
• A human body is very sensitive to temperature.
• The body temperature must be maintained within a narrow range to avoid discomfort, and within a somewhat wider range, to
avoid danger from heat or cold stress.
• Studies show that at neutral condition, the temperatures should be:
Skin temperature, tskin ≈ 33.7oC
Core temperature, tcore ≈ 36.8oC

• It is observed that when the core temperature is between 35 to

39oC, the body experiences only a mild discomfort.
• When the temperature is lower than 35oC or higher than 39oC,
then people suffer major loss in efficiency.
• It becomes lethal when the temperature falls below 31oC or
rises above 43oC.
 Heat balance equation for a human being
• The temperature of human body depends upon the energy balance between itself and the surrounding thermal environment.
• Taking the human body as the control volume, one can write the thermal energy (heat) balance equation for the human body
as:

• Where, Qgen = Rate at which heat is generated inside the body Qsk = Total heat transfer rate from the skin
Qres = Heat transfer rate due to respiration, and Qst = Rate at which heat is stored inside the body
• The heat generation rate Qgen is given by:

• Where, M = Metabolic rate, and η = Thermal efficiency ≈ 0 for most of the activities
• The metabolic rate depends on the activity. It is normally measured in the unit “met”.
• A met is defined as the metabolic rate per unit area of a sedentary person and is found to be equal to about 58.2 W/m2. This
is also known as “basal metabolic rate”.
• The metabolic rate can be correlated to the rate of respiratory oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide production.
• Based on this empirical equations have been developed which relate metabolic rate to O2 consumption and CO2 production.
Heat balance equation for a human being
Typical metabolic rates during various activities
 Heat balance equation for a human being
• Since the metabolic rate is specified per unit area of the human body (naked body), it is essential to estimate this area to
calculate the total metabolic rate.
• Even though the metabolic rate and heat dissipation are not uniform throughout the body, for calculation purposes they are
assumed to be uniform.
• The human body is considered to be a cylinder with uniform heat generation and dissipation. The surface area over which the
heat dissipation takes place is given by an empirical equation, called as Du Bois Equation.
• This equation expresses the surface area as a function of the mass and height of the human being. It is given by:

•
• Du Bois equation refers to a naked body, a correction factor must be applied to take the clothing into account.
• This correction factor, defined as the “ratio of surface area with clothes to surface area without clothes” has been determined
for different types of clothing. These values are available in ASHRAE handbooks.
• Thus from the metabolic rate and the surface area, one can calculate the amount of heat generation, Qgen.
 Heat balance equation for a human being
• The total heat transfer rate from the skin Qsk is given by:

• where Qconv = Heat transfer rate due to convection (sensible heat)

Qrad = Heat transfer rate due to radiation (sensible heat), and
Qevp = Heat transfer rate due to evaporation (latent heat)
• The convective and radiative heat transfers can be positive or negative, i.e., a body may lose or gain heat by convection and
radiation, while the evaporation heat transfer is always positive, i.e., a body always looses heat by evaporation.
• According to Belding and Hatch, the convective, radiative and evaporative heat transfer rates from the naked body of an
average adult , Qc, Qr and Qe, respectively, are given by:

• Heat transfer rates are in watts, temperatures are in oC and velocity is in m/s;
• ps,b and pv are the saturated pressure of water vapor at surface temperature of the body and partial pressure of water vapor in
air, respectively, in kPa.
 Heat balance equation for a human being
• The heat transfer rate due to respiration Qres is given by:
• Where, Cres = Dry heat loss from respiration (sensible, positive or negative)
Eres = Evaporative heat loss from respiration (latent, always positive)
• The air inspired by a human being is at ambient conditions, while air expired is considered to be saturated and at a
temperature equal to the core temperature.
• Significant heat transfer can occur due to respiration. Correlations have been obtained for dry and evaporative heat losses due
to respiration in terms of metabolic rate, ambient conditions etc.
• For comfort, the rate of heat stored in the body Qst should be zero, i.e.,
• Depending upon the surroundings and factors such as activity level etc., the heat stored is either positive or negative.
• However, the body cannot sustain long periods of heat storage with a consequent change in body temperatures .
• Since the body temperature depends on the heat balance, which in turn depends on the conditions in the surroundings, it is
important that the surrounding conditions should be such that the body is able to maintain the thermal equilibrium with
minimum regulatory effort.
• All living beings have in-built body regulatory processes against cold and heat, which to some extent maintains the body
temperatures when the external conditions are not favorable.
 Factors affecting thermal comfort
Thermal comfort is affected by several factors. These are:
1. Physiological factors (Age, Activity, Gender and Health): These factors influence the metabolic rate.
2. Insulating factor due to clothing
o The type of clothing has strong influence on the rate of heat transfer from the human body.
o The unit for measuring the resistance offered by clothes is called as “clo”.
o 1 clo is equal to a resistance of about 0.155 m2.K/W.
o Typical clo values for different types of clothing have been estimated and are available in the form of tables.
o For example, a typical business suit has a clo value of 1.0, while a pair of shorts has a clo value of about 0.05.
3. Environmental factors
o Important factors are the dry bulb temperature, relative humidity, air motion and surrounding surface
temperature.
o Of these the dry bulb temperature affects heat transfer by convection and evaporation,
o The relative humidity affects heat loss by evaporation,
o Air velocity influences both convective and evaporative heat transfer and the
o Surrounding surface temperature affects the radiative heat transfer
 Indices for thermal comfort
Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) and Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied (PPD)

• Predicted mean vote (PMV) is an index that predicts the mean

value of the thermal sensation votes (self-reported perceptions)
of a large group of persons on a sensation scale expressed from
–3 to +3 corresponding to the categories:
• cold | cool | slightly cold | neutral | slightly warm | warm | hot.
• PMV calculation requires the following inputs: metabolic rate
(Met), clothing insulation (clo), air temperature, air velocity, etc…
• The PMV is defined by Fanger as:

• M is the metabolic rate and

• L is the thermal load on the body that is the difference between
the internal heat generation and heat loss to the actual
environment of a person experiencing thermal comfort.
 Comfort Air Conditioning
Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) and Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied (PPD)

• Through PMV, we can predict the thermal sensation of a

population, but this doesn’t paint the whole picture.
• We also need to consider the level of satisfaction of the
occupants in a space, to get a more holistic idea of if and how
thermal comfort can be achieved.
• For this, Fanger developed another equation to relate the PMV
to the predicted percentage of dissatisfied (PPD).

• Once the PMV is calculated, the PPD, or index that establishes a quantitative prediction of the percentage of thermally
dissatisfied occupants (i.e., too warm or too cold), can be determined.
• PPD essentially gives the percentage of people predicted to experience local discomfort.
• The main factors causing local discomfort are unwanted cooling or heating of an occupant’s body.
• Common contributing factors are drafts, abnormally high vertical temperature differences between the ankles and head,
and/or floor temperature.
 Comfort Air Conditioning
Effective Temperature (ET): This factor combines the effects of dry bulb temperature and air humidity into a single factor.

• It is defined as the temperature of the environment at 50% RH which results in the same total loss from the skin as in the
actual environment.
• Since this value depends on other factors such as activity, clothing, air velocity and T mrt (Mean radiant temperature), a
Standard Effective Temperature (SET) is defined for the following conditions:

Operative temperature (Top): This factor is a weighted average of air DBT and Tmrt into a single factor. It is given by:

Ta = Ambient DBT, K
V = Air velocity in m/s, and
C = A constant, 0.247 X 109
Comfort Air Conditioning
 Comfort Air Conditioning – Problem : 1
A 1.8 meter tall human being with a body mass of 60 kg performs light work (activity = 1.2 met) in an indoor environment. The indoor conditions are: DBT of 30oC,
mean radiant temperature of 32oC, air velocity of 0.2 m/s. Assuming an average surface temperature of 34oC for the surface of the human being and light clothing, find
the amount of evaporative heat transfer required so that the human being is at neutral equilibrium.
 Industrial Air Conditioning
• In an industrial air conditioning, the inside the dry-bulb temperature and relative humidity of the air is kept constant for the
proper working of machines and adequate research and manufacturing process.
• The industrial air conditioner is very beneficial because some of the sophisticated electronic and other machines need a
particular dry bulb temperature and relative humidity.

• Sometimes these machines also require a specific

psychometric process.
• Example:- This type of air conditioning system is using in
textiles mills, paper mills, machine parts, manufacturing
plants, tool rooms, photo processing plants, etc.
 Classification - According to Season
Summer air conditioning systems:
• This involves cooling of air, removal of excess moisture, removing the pollutants, dust and introducing fresh air to dilute the odors and the carbon
dioxide level.
• Cooling is done by a refrigeration system and the removal of moisture is also done by the cooling coil.
• In extreme cases, dehydration by silica gel or other chemicals may be required.
Winter air conditioning systems:
• Winter comfort usually involves heating and humidification with air purity and movement.
• Circulating hot water or steam to fin tube radiators or fan coil convectors usually does the heating. Boilers, furnaces fired by gas, oil, coal or electrical
heaters are used to heat the water.
• Solar collectors may also be used for heating. Heat pumps are very efficient compared to electrical heating.
• Humidification is done by adding water vapor to the moist air. Humidifiers are simple pan type, spray type or rotary type.
Year-round air conditioning systems
• These systems involve both cooling/heating and humidification/dehumidification apart from improving the purity of the air quality so that one can use
them throughout the year.
• In true sense, these systems are called Heating Ventilating and Air Conditioning (HVAC) systems.
• These have automatic controls to switch them over to heating and dehumidifying systems during winter and vice-versa during summer.
• In fact, the modern packaged residential heat pumps with their improved designs and better refrigerants work very efficiently as heat pumps during
winter and provide cooling during summer.
 Summer Air Conditioning System
• It is the most important type of air conditioning system, in which the air is cooled generally dehumidified.
• Outside air, regulated through the damper mixes with the
Recirculated air (obtained from the Conditioned space)
• The mixed air passes through a filter to remove the dirt,
dust, and other harmful bacteria.
• Further, air passes through the cooling coil
• The coil has a temperature much below the required dry
bulb temperature of the air in the Conditioned space.
• The cooled air passes through a Perforated Membrane and
loses its moisture in the condensed form, which is collected
in the Sump.
• After that, the air has made to pass through a Heating coil which heats the air slightly, so that designed dry bulb temperature
and relative humidity are achieved. Now, the conditioned air is supplied to Conditioned space through a Fan.
• So, outside air is sucked and made to mix with Recirculated air to make up for the loss of conditioned air through the exhaust
fan or ventilation from the Conditioned space, and this process is repeated.
 Winter Air Conditioning System
• In the Winter air conditioning system, the air is heated, which is generally accompanied by humidification.
• Outside air, regulated through the damper mixes with the
Recirculated air (obtained from the Conditioned space)
• Mix air passes through a filter to remove dirt, impurities, etc.
• Now, the air passes through a Preheat coil to prevent the
possible freezing of water and to control the evaporation of
water in humidifier.
• After that, the air is allowed to pass through a Reheat coil to
bring the air to designed dryable temperature.

• The conditioned air is supplied to the Conditioned space through a Fan.

• Apart from the used air is exhausted to the atmosphere by the exhaust fans or ventilators and the remaining part of the air is
used known as Recirculated air is again passed through the Conditioned space by mixing it with the outside air to make up for
the loss of conditioned air through the exhaust or ventilation from the Conditioned space.
 Year Around Air Conditioning System
• The year air conditioning system should have equipment for both the summer and winter air conditioning.

• The outside air flows through a Damper which is coming

from the Conditioned space and mixes up with Recirculated
air.
• The is air passes through the Filter to remove dirt, dust, and
other impurities.
• In the Summer Air Conditioning System, the Cooling
coil operates to the air to the desired value.

• The dehumidification is obtained by operating the Cooling coil the temperature lower the due point temperature i. e. apparats
due point.
• And in winter, the Cooling coil is made inoperative, and the Heating coil operates to heat the air.
• The spry type of Humidifier is also made to use in the dry season to humidity the air.
 Classification - According to arrangement of equipment
Central HVAC systems:
• In this system, processing of the air is done in one or more zones in air handling units (AHUs). Here, air is cooled at a central location (AHU) and
distributed to and from rooms by one or more fans and ductwork. AHU take in outside air, re-condition it and supply it as fresh air to a building.
• The return air is brought back to the AHU by a duct where it is mixed with some fresh air, cooled/heated, humidified/dehumidified, sometimes
reheated and passed through a filter and circulated to the room.
Unitary or Package air conditioning system :
• A unitary or package air conditioning system uses equipment where most or all of the basic components have been assembled in the factory.
• A single unit may serve the whole building through ductwork or without ductwork. Many units may be used in the same building connected to the same
ductwork. These may be mounted on floor or on rooftop.
• Window AC: These may be installed on the outdoor facing wall of a room near the window or in the window frame. Its partition in the middle divides it
into an outer part and an inner part. Window air conditioner is usually very noisy with noise levels of 50 decibels or so
• Split AC: Indoor unit contain the compressor and air-cooled condenser along with a motor and fan. Indoor unit contain Evaporator with fan. The noise
emanates from the compressor and the fans.
• Combination systems:
o There is a central plant where the water is chilled in a refrigeration system and there is a facility such as a boiler or furnace to heat the water.
o The hot/chilled water is supplied by insulated pipes to various buildings of a complex or different floors of a high-rise building where it cools/heats
the air in a heat exchanger.
o This type of system is ideally suited for large buildings, shopping complex, academic complex, research laboratories and office complex, etc.
 Classification - According to fluid media used in the thermal distribution system
• The air conditioning (A/C) plant acts either as a heat source (in case of winter systems) or as a heat sink (in case of summer
systems).
• Air, water or refrigerant are used as media for transferring energy from the air conditioning plant to the conditioned space.
• A thermal distribution
system is required to
circulate the media
between the conditioned
space and the A/C plant.
• Classification:
1. All Air systems
2. All water systems
3. Air- water systems
4. Direct refrigerant based
systems
 All air Systems
• Air is used as the media that transports energy from the conditioned space to the A/C plant.
• In these systems air is processed in the A/C plant and this processed air is then conveyed to the conditioned space through
insulated ducts using blowers and fans.
• This air extracts (or supplies in case of winter) the required amount of sensible and latent heat from the conditioned space.
• The return air from the conditioned space is conveyed back to the plant, where it again undergoes the required processing
thus completing the cycle.
• No additional processing of air is required in the conditioned space. All air systems can be further classified into:
1. Single duct systems 2. Dual duct systems
• The single duct systems can provide either cooling or heating using the same duct, but not both heating and cooling
simultaneously. These systems can be further classified into:
1. Constant volume, single zone system 2. Constant volume, multiple zone system
3. Variable volume systems
• The dual duct systems can provide both cooling and heating simultaneously. These systems can be further classified into:
1. Dual duct, constant volume systems 2. Dual duct variable volume systems
All air Systems - Single duct, constant volume, single zone systems
All air Systems - Single duct, constant volume, multiple zone systems

Single duct, constant volume system with multiple zones and reheat coils
All air Systems - Single duct, variable air volume (VAV) systems

Single duct, constant volume system with multiple zones and reheat coils
 All air Systems
• Advantages of all air systems:
1. All air systems offer the greatest potential for energy conservation by utilizing the outdoor air effectively.
2. It is possible to maintain the temperature and relative humidity of the conditioned space within ± 0.150C (DBT) and ± 0.5%, respectively.
3. Using dual duct systems, it is possible to provide simultaneous cooling and heating. It is possible to provide good room air distribution and
ventilation under all conditions of load.
4. Noise in the conditioned space can be minimized by locating the power plant away.
• Disadvantages of all air systems:
1. They occupy more space and thus reduce the available floor space in the buildings.
2. It could be difficult to provide air conditioning in high-rise buildings with the plant on the ground floor or basement due to space constraints.
3. Retrofitting may not always be possible due to the space requirement.
4. Balancing of air in large and particularly with variable air volume systems could be difficult.
• Applications of all air systems:
1. All air systems can be used in both comfort as well as industrial air conditioning applications.
2. They are especially suited to buildings that require individual control of multiple zones, such as office buildings, classrooms, laboratories,
hospitals, hotels, ships etc.
3. They are also used extensively in applications that require very close control of the conditions in the conditioned space such as clean rooms,
computer rooms, operation theatres, research facilities etc.
 All water Systems
• In all water systems the fluid used in the thermal distribution system is water, i.e., water transports energy between the
conditioned space and the air conditioning plant.
• When cooling is required in the conditioned space then cold water is circulated between the conditioned space and the plant,
while hot water is circulated through the distribution system when heating is required.
• Depending upon the number of pipes used, the all water systems can be classified into a 2-pipe system or a 4-pipe system.
• A 2-pipe system is used for either cooling only or heating only application, but cannot be used for simultaneous cooling and
heating.
• A 4-pipe system consists of two supply pipelines – one for cold water and one for hot water; and two return water pipelines.
The cold and hot water are mixed in a required proportion depending upon the zone load, and the mixed water is supplied to
the conditioned space. The return water is split into two streams, one stream flows to the heating coil while the other flows to
the cooling coil.
All water Systems – A two-pipe system
 All water Systems
• Advantages of all water systems:
1. Occupies considerably less space, hence can be easily retrofitting.
2. Though central system, individual room control is possible easily.
3. Since the temperature of hot water required for space heating is small, it is possible to use solar or waste heat for winter heating.
4. Simultaneous cooling and heating is possible with 4-pipe systems.
• Disadvantages of all water systems:
1. Requires higher maintenance compared to all air systems, particularly in the conditioned space.
2. Draining of condensate water can be messy and may also create health problems if water stagnates in the drain tray. o It is difficult to ensure
required ventilation.
3. Control of humidity, particularly during summer is difficult using chilled water control valves.
• Applications of all water systems:
1. All water systems using fan coil units are most suitable in buildings requiring individual room control, such as hotels, apartment buildings and
office buildings.
 Air-water Systems
• In air-water systems both air and water are used for providing required conditions in the conditioned space.
• The air and water are cooled or heated in a central plant. The air supplied to the conditioned space from the central plant is
called as primary air, while the water supplied from the plant is called as secondary water.
• The complete system consists of a central plant for cooling or heating of water and air, ducting system with fans for conveying
air, water pipelines and pumps for conveying water and a room terminal.
• The room terminal may be in the form of a fan coil unit, an induction unit or a radiation panel
Air water Systems – A two-pipe system
 Air water Systems
• Advantages of air water systems:
1. Individual zone control is possible in an economic manner using room thermostats, which control either the secondary water flow rate or the
secondary air (in fan coil units) or both.
2. It is possible to provide simultaneous cooling and heating using primary air and secondary water.
3. Space requirement is reduced, as the amount of primary supplied is less than that of an all air systems.
4. Positive ventilation can be ensured under all conditions.
5. Since no latent heat transfer is required in the cooling coil kept in the conditioned space, the coil operates dry and its life thereby increases
and problems related to odors or fungal growth in conditioned space is avoided.
6. The conditioned space can sometimes be heated with the help of the heating coil and secondary air, thus avoiding supply of primary air
during winter.
7. Service of indoor units is relatively simpler compared to all water systems.
 Air- water Systems
Disadvantages of air water systems:
1. Operation and control are complicated due to the need for handling and controlling both primary air and secondary water.
2. In general these systems are limited to perimeter zones.
3. The secondary water coils in the conditioned space can become dirty if the quality of filters used in the room units is not good.
4. Since a constant amount of primary air is supplied to conditioned space, and room control is only through the control of room
cooling/heating coils, shutting down the supply of primary air to unoccupied spaces is not possible.
5. If there is abnormally high latent load on the building, then condensation may take place on the cooling coil of secondary water.
6. Initial cost could be high compared to all air systems.
Applications of air water systems:
1. These systems are mainly used in exterior buildings with large sensible loads and where close control of humidity in the conditioned space is
not required. These systems are thus suitable for office buildings, hospitals, schools, hotels, apartments etc.
Thank you