CAD/CAM Hardware 3 51 Various display technologies are now available to the user to choose from. ‘They are all based on the concept of converting the computers electrical signals, controlled by the corresponding digital information, into visible images at high speeds. Among the available technologies, the CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) is the most dominating and has produced a wide range of extremely effective graphics displays. Other technologies utilize laser, flat panel displays, or plasma panel displays. In the first, a laser beam, instead of an electron beam, is used to trace an image in a film. In the second, a liquid crystal display (LCD) and Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs) are used to generate images. The plasma display uses small neon bulbs arranged in a panel which provides a medium resolution display. Thus far, none of these display technologies has been able to displace the CRT as the dominant graphics display device. Figure 2.21 shows a schematic diagram of a typical CRT. The operation of the CRTis based on the concept of energizing an electron beam that strikes the phosphor coating at very high speed. The energy transfer from the electron to the phosphor due to the impact causes it to illuminate and glow. The electrons are Electron Beam CRT casing gun focusing Phosphor. coating |— Screen Electron, beam (undeflected) position Vertical Horizontal deflection deflection (position) (x position) Deflected beam Fig. 2.21 Schematic Diagram ofaCRT — ~ generated via the electron gun that contains the cathode and are focused into a beam via the focusing unit shown in Fig. 2.21. By controlling the beam direction and intensity in a way related to the graphics information generated in the computer, meaningful and desired graphics can be displayed on the screen. The deflection system of the CRT controls the x and y, or the horizontal and vertical, positions of the beam which in tur are related to the graphics information through the display controller, which typically sits between the computer and the CRT. The controller receives the information from the computer and converts it into signals acceptable to the CRT. Other names for the display controller are the display processor, the display logical processor, or the display processing unit. The major tasks that the display Processor performs are the voltage-level convergence between the computer and the CRT, the compensation for the difference in speed between the computer and the the generation of graphics and texts. More often, additional hardware to implement standard to improve the speed of response. Such rotation and translation) and shading.52 CAD/CAM Theory and Practice Figure 2.21 shows the display processor in relation to the components of the workstation. The graphics display c: ’ used to control the electron beam when generating graj N are random and raster scan. In random scan (also referred to as stroke writing, vector writing, or calligraphic scan), graphics can be generated by drawing vectors or line segments on the screen in a random order which is controlled by the user input and the software. The word “random” indicates that the screen is not scanned in a particular order. On the other hand, in the raster scan system, the screen is scanned from left to right, top to bottom, all the time to generate graphics. This is similar to the home television scan system, thus suggesting the name “digital scan.” Figure 2.22 shows the two techniques of scans. The three existing CRT displays that are based on these techniques are the refresh (calligraphic) display, direct view storage tube and the raster display. The first two are vector displays based on the random scan technique and the last is based on the raster scan technique. The details of each display are discussed below. 2.5.1.1 Refresh Display Early displays in the 1960s were refresh vector displays. Figure 2,23 shows the main components of a typical refresh display. In comparison to Fig. 2.21, the deflection system of the CRT is controlled and driven by the vector and character generators and digital-to-analog converters. The refresh buffer stores the display [— CRT screen an be divided into two types based on the scan technology phics on the screen. These Previous beam position 1 N, \—Beam movement N \ \. Current fs aaa beam position (@) Random scan ee [GRE sereen (6) Raster scan Fig. 2.22 CRT Screen Scan Tec fa 3dCAD/CAM Hardware 2 53 Deflection system TeOr min ae 1 1 Character | | generator | Input i} t devices © ho) Tet | | Refresh { in t buffer memory \ 1 i | i I \ Phosphor Display Display i I cone file processor | | i | 1 + | cRr mau position } Display Input | position commands data | H ! Vector | generator | I crus : I 1 1 Ue Ue i Fig. 2.23 Refresh Display file or program, which contains points, lines, characters and other attributes of the picture to be drawn. These commands are interpreted and processed by the display processor. The electron beam accordingly excites the phosphor, which glows for a short period. To maintain a steady flicker-free image, the screen must be refreshed or redrawn at least 30 to 60 times per second, that is, at a rate of 30 to 60 Hz. The display file shown in Fig. 2.23 is generated by the CAD/CAM software and is considered a data structure which must be updated and constructed according to the needs of the application program, that is, the software. Changes made to the display file by the software must be synchronized with the display refresh eycle to prevent the display of an incomplete picture. If the software updates the file fast enough, then it is possible to use the dynamic techniques such as animation to simulate movements as well as developing responsive user interfaces. The principal advantage to the refresh display is its high resolution (4096 x 4096) and thus its generation of high-quality pictures. However, the need to refresh the picture places a limit on the number of vectors that can be displayed without flicker. The present limitis many thousands of lines which is adequate for many users, This, though, requires expensive circuitry to achieve. In addition, being a binary display, the refresh display is able to generate only two levels of color intensity. In some displays, the intensity of the electron beam can vary to provide better color capabilities. 2.5.1.2 Direct View Storage Tube (DVST) Refresh displays were very. in the 1960s, due to the required refresh buffer memory and ‘and could only display a few hundred vectors on the juently, at the end of the 1960s theCAD/CAM Hardware the standard television technology began to emerge as a viable alternative. The drop in memory price due to advances in solid states made large enough refresh buffers available to support high-resolution displays, A typical resolution of a raster lay is 1280 x 1204 with a possibility to reach 4096 x 4096 as the DYST. Raster displays are very popular and nearly all recent display research and development focus on them. In raster displays, the display screen area is divided horizontally and vertically into a matrix of small elements called picture elements or pixels, as shown in Fig. 2.25. A pixel is the smallest addressable area on a screen. An Nx M resolution defines a screen with N rows and M columns. Each row defines a scan line. A rasterization process is needed in order to display either a shaded area or graphics. entities. In this process, the area or entities are converted into their corresponding pixels whose intensity and color are controlled by the image display system. N Pixel ee uM 3 Fig. 2.25 Typical Pixel Matrix of a Raster Display Figure 2.26 shows a schematic of a typical colorraster display. Images (shaded areas or graphics entities) are displayed by converting geometric information into pixel values which are then converted into electron beam deflection through the display processor and the deflection system shown in the figure. Ifthe display is monochrome, the pixel value is used to control the intensity level or the gray level on the screen. For color displays, the value is used to control the color by mapping it into a color map. ‘ bem ‘The creation of raster-format data from geometric information is known as scan conversion or rasterization. A rasterizer that forms the image-creation system shown in Fig. 2.26 is mainly a set of scan-conversion algorithms. Due to the universal need for these algorithms, the scan conversion or rasterization process is now hardware implemented and is done locally in the workstation. As an example, there are standard algorithms such as the DDA (Digital Differential Analyzer) and Bresenham’s method which are used to draw a line by generating Pixels to approximate the line. Similar algorithms exist to draw arcs, text and Surfaces. This is why it is possible to create images with different colors and ‘es sea eee ; ee56 CAD/CAM Theory and Practice (it map) Image display system ~ Input dev 7 ' { SF 1 ' ! t =) Color |} | Imgecreionsem — CR P=EP =i i Prt vals } t asterizer in 1 i] ms i ! ' I Display processor color tegen Display Input commands data CPU (host) Fig. 2.26 Color Raster Display with Eight Planes The values of the pixels of a display screen that result from the scan-conversion process are stored in an area or memory called frame buffer or bit map refresh buffer (bit map, for short), as shown if Fig. 2.26. Each pixel value determines its brightness (gray level) or most often its color on the screen. There is a one-to-one correspondence between every cell in the bit map memory and every pixel on the screen. The display processor maps every cell into its corresponding screen pixel brightness or color. In order to maintain a flicker-free image on the screen, the screen must be refreshed at the rate of 30 or 60 Hz, as in the case of refresh displays. The refresh process is performed by passing the pixel values in the bit map to the display processor every refresh cycle regardless of whether these values represent the image or the background. Therefore the refresh process is independent of the complexity of the image and the number of its graphics items. Thus there is no chance of a flicker problem with the increased complexity of the image as in the case of refresh displays. To understand the performance of raster displays and to evaluate them, one must ask the following question: how many bits are required in the bit map to adequately represent the intensity of any one pixel on the display screen? The trivial answer of one bit/pixel produces only a two-level image (bright or dark) which is very unsatisfactory to basic applications. The practice suggests that 8 bits/pixel are needed to produce satisfactory continuous shades of gray for monochrome displays. For color displays, 24 bits/pixel would be needed: 8 bits for cach primary color red, blue and green. This would provide 2” different colors, which are far more than needed in real ‘Typically, 4 to 8 bits/pixel are adequate for both monochrome and color di splay utilized in most engineering applications. Specialized image p i is may require more than that. The bit map memory is arranged lly as a series of planes, one forCAD/CAM Hardware 3 57 ach bit in the pixel value, Thus an eight-plane memory provides 8 bits/pixel, as shown in Fig. 2.26, This provides 2* different gray levels or different colors that can be displayed simultaneously in one image, The number of bits per pixel directly affects the quality of its display and consequently its price. The value of a pixel in the bit map memory is translated to a gray level or a color through a lookup table (also called a color table or color map for a color display). The pixel value is used as an index for this lookup table to find the corresponding table entry value which is then used by the display system (display processor and beam deflection system) to control the gray level or color. Figure 2.27 shows how the pixel value is related to the lookup table in an eight- plane display. If cell P in the bit map corresponds to pixel P at the location P(x y) onthe screen, then the gray level of this pixel is 50 (00110010) or its corresponding color is 50. i 255 0, Lookuy car acne Disp teal —— rey —— 50] 00110010 ed Leonacet Jevell i— index Q Y | ~~ Bit map = (@) Monochrome display — 4 PLY] 0} Lookup Cell P table Display sercen rr sa] R pas | B ae Color index P&Y 0 {_— Bit map 7 () Color display vf Fig. 2.27 Relationship between pixel oalue and a lookup table itt fi s¢hwhat is called direct-definition systems ; Rare ciaiee na entries as there are pixel values in Which has as many te bisa FEE ere oiEaIay shown in the figure, the lookup table has i (-] 'S] 2 Ov erniss Sad to all possible values a pixel may have. For {torisplay this may imply that the number of bis per pixel must be increased the number ofentries in the color map and therefore increase the available "umber of colors to the user. This, however, is not true and leads to increasing the58 & CAD/CAM Theory and Practice yw can the numb sizeof the bit map memory and the cost ofthe Se asennad riafisoar(oomnber of color indexes in the color map increase wl att 7 ri ‘example, how can a display of bits per pixel) in the bit map to a minimum? Db d\@iThts infachi oe its of color output (2” different colors)? This is achieved Lpuiaipiten Rati manta ce 6 million) available color indexes. The 4 bits/ixel provides 16 2 simultaneous colors, in an image, which can be chosen from the color map. A pixel value (0 to 15) can be used to set the re =a > color index which corresponds to the proper color to be displayed. This scheme, in this example, provides 16 simultaneous colors from a palette of 16.7 million. To the user, the color map is made available where colors are chosen and the application program relates the chosen color to the proper pixel value. For example, if the user chooses the color purple for an image element, the corresponding program sets the corresponding pixels to reflect the color purple. ‘While raster displays are now a standard offering from nearly all CAD/CAM vendors, the quality of the displayed images is affected by flicker and aliasing problems. The flicker of an image is reduced by simply reducing the time of the refresh cycle. The image refresh system (Fig. 2.26) may use an interlaced scan of two fields. In the interlaced scan (as in the home television), the refresh cycle of 9 Second is divided into two subcycles each lasting 4; second. The first subcycle lays the odd-numbered scan lines and the second displays the even-numbered scan lines. This technique produces an image with almost a refresh rate of 60 Hz instead of 30 Hz. The interlaced scan scheme does not work very well if the adjacent scan lines do not display similar information. Another scheme is to use a noninterlaced scan of one field by operating at a higher refresh rate such as 60 Hz. In this scheme, the entire scan lines are refreshed once every 4; second. This. high rate means more and faster accesses to the bit map (refresh buffer) per second and higher bandwidth deflection amplifiers used in the deflection system shown in Fig. 2.26. The aliasing problem is directly related to the resolution of the display which determines how good or bad is the raster approximation of. geometric information. The jaggedness of lines at angles other than multiples of 45 degrees, assuming Square pixels, is the feature of a raster display known as aliasing, Various methods of antialiasing exist which use various intensity levels to soften the edges of the lines or shades. Of course, the aliasing problem diminishes as the resolution increases and is only related to the screen image and not to the geometric representation in the computer or to drawings plotted on Paper. Example 3 2.1 An eightplane raster display has a resolution of 1280 horizontal x 1024 vertical and a refresh rate of 60 Hz noninterlaced. Find: (@) The RAM size of the bit map (refresh buffer). @ ) ae time required to display a scan line and a pixel. ©) Theactive display area of the screen if the resolution is 78 pixels (dots) per inch. (d) The optimal design if the bit map size is to be eee te Solution (a) The RAM size of the bit map = R e ip = 8 x 1280 x 1024 = 1.3 Mbytes. (b) The times to display a scan line t,and a pixel fy are given iCAD/CAM Hardware 3 59 1 bs 1/60 1 FBllts an A = Topq, = 16 inicroseconds 16 1, = —2- = 12 nanos s lp = T>gq = 12 nanoseconds (c) The active display area = 1280/78 horizontal x 1024/78 vertical = 16.4 x 13.1 inch. (d) Assuming there is only one bit map available, the two solutions are to reduce the number of planes by half and keep the resolution as it is or vice versa. Thus the two choices are a four-plane 1280 x 1024 display or an eight-plane 640 x 512 display. The first choice is preferred, especially if F 6 path colors are adequate for most applications that utilize the isplay. Example © 2.2. Whatis a reasonable resolution of an eight-plane display refreshed from a bit map of 256 kbytes of RAM? Solution Bit map size per plane = “ees = 256,000 bits This could support a display with a resolution of 505 x 505, 640 x 400 or other combinations. If four planes are used instead, then the resolution can be 715 x 715, 640 x 800, or other combinations of 512,000. Example © 23° How can you draw 2500 pixel wide square on a 1280 horizontal x 1024 vertical screen whose aspect ratio is 4: 3? Solution There are two possibilities to draw the square. The first is to assume a horizontal value of 500. The corresponding vertical value is given by 500 x 1024/ 1280 x 4/3 = 533. In pixel value, the square corners: become (assuming the bottom left comer is located at pixel (h, v): (h, v + 533) (h + 500, v + 533) a (h, v) (h + 500, v) 500 The second possibility is to assume a vertical value of 500. The horizontal value becomes 500 x 1280/1024 x 3/4 = 469. The square corners become: (h, v + 500) (h + 469, v + 500) 500 (h, v) (h + 469, v) 49660 2 CAD/CAM Theory and Practice displays, It is left compare the capabil at the end of the chapter, for the reader to ‘ and disadvantages of these types. The general trend in display hardware design is to increase the local capabilities and intelligence of the display. This is possible by the advances in the VLSI field and consequently the reduction of prices of RAM. In addition, window memory techniques are available to provide multiwindow screens without windows overlapping. 2.5.2. Hardcopy Printers and Plotters Output devices of both printers and plotters are available to CAD/CAM systems. for purposes such as creating checkplots for offline editing and producing final drawings and documentation on paper. Relative to the drawing rate on screen, they are slow. Printers usually provide hard copies of text as well as graphics. Yardcopy devices, in general, employ one of two methods of plotting: vector raster plotting. The two methods are very close in concept to refresh and raster displays respectively. Vector plotting can employ either absolute or incremental plotting depending on whether the coordinates of the current point are measured relative to the absolute origin of the plot or to the last point plotted. In general, absolute plotting is preferred because it eliminates any errors or noise from the surrounding environment. Raster (or dot matrix) plotting is based on using the presence or absence of dots to draw lines and other geometric information present in the document. The resolution of the plotter may cause jaggedness in the hard copy similar to raster displays. For many years, plotters were the only means of obtaining high-quality outputs from a computer. Currently, various printers are available that provide either black and white or multicolor pictures. The hardcopy devices that are available include impact and nonimpact devices. Impact devices include dot matrix printers and typically produce an image on paper by hammering a ribbon onto the surface of the paper—hence the name “impact printers.” Nonimpact devices utilize other methods and include pen, photographic, electrophotographic, electrostatic, thermal-transfer and inkjet plotters and/or printers. While most of these devices may be central and shared by all workstations, each workstation usually has its own hardcopy unit. The basic operations of some of these devices are described below. 2.5.2.1 Pen Plotters ‘There are two common types of conventional pen plotters (Fig, 2.28 (a) and (b)): flat-bed and drum. In the flat-bed plotter, the paper is stationary and the pen-holding mechanism can moye in two axes. In the drum plotter, the paper is attached to a drum that rotates back and forth, thereby providing movement in one axis. The pen mechanism moves in the transverse direction to provide movement along the other axis. Pen plotters are considered vector plotters and employ multiple pens (four to eight) to provide varying line widths or colors. Pens may be of wet ink, ball-point, or felt-tip type. The plotting speed is typically limited by the speed of the writing pen used, Pen plotters require supervision to oversee pen performance and are relatively inexpensive to acquire and operate.