CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS AND

PERIODICITY IN PROPERTIES
• In 1800- 31 elements
• In 1865 – 63 elements.
• At present around 118 elements are known.
With such a large number of elements it is very difficult to study individually the chemistry of all
these elements and their innumerable compounds. Therefore scientists searched for a systematic way
to organize their knowledge by classifying the elements.
Development of Periodic Table:
1. Dobereiner’s Triads:
Dobereiner first classified some of the atoms in a group of three elements, called the triads, according
to their atomic mass. In his classification the mass of the middle element is roughly the average of the
mass of the first and the third element.
For example: Li (7), Na (23), K(39) ; Ca (40), Sr (88), Ba (137)
Limitation: Dobereiner’s classified only three triads and his classification is not applicable for the
atoms discovered later on.
2. Newland’s Law of Octaves:
He arranged the atoms in increasing order of atomic mass where the 8th element has similar properties
with the first one. His classification is called the law of octave because it is similar to the musical
octave.
Element Li Be B C N O F
At. wt. 7 9 11 12 14 16 19
Element Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
At. wt. 23 24 27 29 31 32 35.5
Element K Ca
At. wt. 39 40
Limitation: His classification is applicable only up to Ca.

3. Lothar Meyer plots:

Lothar Meyer plotted the physical properties such as atomic volume, melting point and boiling point
against atomic weight for the elements and obtained a periodically repeated pattern. According to him
the elements which are in the similar position of he curves have similar properties. For eg, the
elements present at the top of the curves are alkali metals.

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4. Mendeleev’s Periodic table:
Mendeleev’s Periodic Law: “The physical and chemical properties of the elements are periodic
function of their atomic mass”
He allowed all the atoms discovered at his time to react with Hydrogen and Oxygen and based on the
properties of the compounds formed he arranged the atoms. He found that the atoms are in increasing
order of there atomic mass.
Characteristics of Mendeleev’s periodic table:
 There are six horizontal rows called the periods and nine vertical columns called the groups.
 The nine groups are numbered from 0 to VIII.
 The elements in a group have similarities in properties but the elements in a period have
properties different from each other.
Advantages of Mendeleev’s periodic table:
 His periodic table is more systematic then the earlier ones.
 He predicted the existence of some new elements and also predicted there properties before
their discovery.
Eka-aluminium: later discovered as gallium
Eka- Silicon: later discovered as germanium
Eka-boron later discovered as Scandium.
Disadvantages of Mandeleev’s Periodic table:
 Position of Hydrogen: Hydrogen has similarities with alkali metals and with halogens. So, they
can be placed in group I as well as in group VII.
 Position of isotopes. [Since the isotopes have different mass they will get different position]
 Separation of chemically similar elements e.g, Cu and Hg; Au and Pt. etc
 Grouping chemically dissimilar elements e.g, Cu, Ag, Au are placed with Li, Na and K.
 Some atoms having higher masses are placed earlier. E.g. Co (58.9) and Ni (58.7)

5. Modern periodic table:

In the modern periodic table atoms are arranged in order of increasing atomic number.

Modern periodic Law: “The physical and chemical properties of the elements are periodic function of
their atomic number”
Characteristics of Modern periodic table:
 In the modern periodic table there are 7 (1 to 7) periods and 18 (1 to 18) groups.
 The number of the period represents the highest principal quantum number of the elements
present in it.
 The periods 2 and 3 are called short period (8atoms), 4th and 5th period is called long period (
18 atoms) and the 6th period is called the longest period (32 atoms)
 The elements belonging to a particular group are said to constitute a family. Eg Halogen
family, Noble gs family etc.
 The elements are further divided into 4 blocks (s, p, d and f) on the basis of electronic
configuration.
 The elements in a group have similarities in properties but the elements in a period have
properties different from each other.

s- Block Elements: Group 1 (alkali metals) and 2 (alkaline earth metals).

 General electronic configuration ns1-2.
 metals having law ionisation enthalpies.
 soft metals with low MP and BP.
 good reducing agents.
 Common oxidation state is +1 (Gr 1) and +2 (Gr 2).
 metallic character and reactivity increases down the group.
 compounds are predominantly ionic [ exception Li an Be]

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p- Block Elements: Group 13 to 18.
Group 18 (Noble gases), Gr-17 (Halogens), Gr-16 (Chalcogens), Gr-15 (Pnictogens).
 General electronic configuration ns2np1-6.
 These are generally non-metals.
 The non-metallic character increases from left to right in a period and decreases down a group.

d- Block Elements: [Transition Elements] Group 3 to 12.

These elements are known as transition elements {sometimes Bridging Elements}as they are in
between electropositive metals and electronegative non-metals.
 General electronic configuration (n-1)d1-10ns0-2.
 all metals.
 Shows variable oxidation state.
 formed coloured ions, exhibit variable oxidation state and peramagnetism.
 are used as catalysts.
 Used in making alloys.

f- Block Elements: They are placed separately below the periodic table in two rows (Lanthanides and
Actinides). They are also known as Inner Transition Metals.
 General electronic configuration (n-2)f1-14(n-1)d0-1ns2.
 They are all metals.
 There properties are quit similar within the period.
 All actinides are radioactive.

*Note: The elements after Uranium (U92) are known as Transuranium Elements.
Position of an atom in the modern periodic table:
Period – highest value of principal quantum number in the electronic configuration.
Group – from the valance shell electronic configuration
Conf. s1 s2 d1 d2 d3 d4 d5 d6 d7 d8 d9 d10 p1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6
Group 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

Metals, Non-Metals and Metalloids:

Most of the Elements In the periodic table are metals. (More then 78%)
 Metals are solid at room temperature. [Hg is an exception; Ga and Cs also have very low mps.]
 They have high melting and boiling points.
 They are good conductors of heat and electricity.
 They are malleable and ductile.

Non-metals are present in the top left of the periodic table.

 Non-metals are generally solid or gases at room temperature.
 They have low melting and boiling points.
 They are generally non-conductor of heat and electricity.

The metalloids are present between metals and non-metals and there properties are also in between
metals and non-metals. The metalloids are Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te, Po and At.
IUPAC Nomenclature of atoms having atomic number > 100:
Notations for IUPAC nomenclature of atoms
Digit Name Abbreviation Digit Name Abbreviation
0 nil n 5 pent p
1 un u 6 hex h
2 bi b 7 sept s
3 tri t 8 oct o
4 quad q 9 enn e
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  The name is derived by using roots for the three digits in the atomic number of the element and
‘ium’ is added after them.
 If ‘i’ is already there in the root of the last digit then only ‘um’ is added.
 The symbol of the atom is made up from the first letters of the roots which make up the name.
the first letter if capital and the others are small letters.
e.g. 101- Unnilunium (Unu), 103- Unniltrium (Unt), 125- Unbipentium (Ubp)

Periodicity in Properties in the periodic table:

The reappearance of similar properties in the periodic table after a certain interval is known as
periodicity in properties. The cause of periodicity is the reappearance of similar electronic
configuration after a certain interval.

1. Atomic Radii: Calculation of the radius of an atom is practically not possible in the free State and
hence the radius is estimated from the distance between the atoms in combined state.
 Covalent radii: It is defined as half the distance between the nucleuses of the two atoms in a
covalent molecule.
In a heteronuclear diatomic molecule AB where the electronegativity of atoms A and B are
different, the experimental values of internuclear distance dA-B is less than the theoretical
values (rA + rB).
According to Schomaker and stevenson – dA-B = rA + rB – 0.09 x
Where x is the difference of electronegativities of the atoms A and B.
According to Pauling – If the electronegativities of the two atoms A and B are xA and xB
respectively then dA-B = rA + rB – (C1xA – C2xB)
C1 and C2 are the Stevenson's coefficients for atoms A and B respectively.
 van der Waals Radius: It is half of the internuclear
distance between two adjacent atoms of the same
element belonging to two nearest neighbouring
molecules of the same substance.

 Metallic radii: It is defined as half the internuclear

distance between two metal cores in a metallic crystal.
rcovalent < rmetallic < rvander Waal
Periodic Variation:
 In a Group- Atomic radius increases from top to bottom because of the increase in the number
of energy levels.
 In a period- Atomic radius decreases from left to right because of the increase in effective
nuclear charge.

2. Ionic Radii: It is defined as the radius of an ion.

Radius of a cation is smaller then the parent atom: In a cation numbers of protons are more then
that of electrons. So, the attraction between the nucleus and the outer electrons is stronger then that in
the neutral atom and the size of the ion decreases.
Radius of an anion is larger then the parent atom: In an anion number of electron is more then that
of protons. So, the attraction between the nucleus and the outer electrons is weaker then that in the
neutral atom and size of the ion increases.

Cationic Radii < Atomic Radii < Anionic Radii

e.g., I+ < I < I-
+ +
H and Cs are the smallest and largest cations respectively.
H- and I- are the smallest and largest anions respectively.

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Isoelectronic Species: The atoms or Ions containing the same number of electrons are called
isoelectronic species. e.g, N-3, O-2, F-, Ne, Na+ , Mg2+, Al3+ etc (Contains 10 e-each)
For isoelectronic species size decreases as atomic number increases.
e.g, Na+< Ne <F-< N-3

3. Ionisation Enthalpy: (iH).

It is defined as the energy required to remove an electron from an isolated gaseous atom (M) in its
ground state.
The energy required to remove the first electron is called first ionisation enthalpy, for the second
electron is second ionisation enthalpy and so on.
M (g) M+(g) + e-; iH1

M+ (g) M2+(g) + e-; iH2

M2+ (g) M3+(g) + e-; iH3

Factors Affecting Ionisation Enthalpy:

1. Nuclear Charge: Increases with increase in nuclear charge.
2. Atomic Size: Decreases with increase in atomic size.
3. Type of the sub-shell: s > p > d > f
4. Screening or Shielding effect: The inner electron acts as a screen between the nucleus and the
outer electron and hence the nuclear charge experienced by the outer electron (Zeff) is less than
the actual charge.
Z effective = Z actual - screening constant
5. Electronic configuration: It is the most important factor. If the electron is to be removed from a
half filled or completely filled orbitals (which are more stable) then the ionisation enthalpies
are abnormally high.
Periodic Variation:
 In a Group- Ionisation enthalpy decreases from top to bottom.
 In a period- Ionisation enthalpy increases from left to right.
4. Electron Gain enthalpy: (e.g.H)
It is the change in enthalpy when an electron is added to an isolated gaseous atom at its ground state to
form an anion.
The enthalpy change associated with the addition of the first electron is first electron gain enthalpy, for
the addition of second electron is second electron gain enthalpy and so on.
X(g) + e- X-(g) ; e.g.H1

X-(g) + e- X2- ; e.g.H2

X2-(g) + e- X3-; e.g.H3

Electron Gain enthalpy can be positive as well as negative.
Periodic Variation:
The Variation of electron gain enthalpy is less systematic.
Generally
 In a Group- Electron gain enthalpy becomes less negative from top to bottom.
 In a period- Electron gain enthalpy becomes more negative from left to right.

Important:
 e.g.H can be positive or negative.
 e.g.H of F and O are less then Cl and S respectively.
 e.g.H of noble gases are large positive.
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5. Electronegativity:
Electronegativity is the ability an atom to attract the shared pair electrons towards itself in a
molecule.
The electronegativity of an atom can be expressed by different scales viz., Pauling scale, Mulliken-
Jaffe Scale, Allred-Rochow scale etc.
F is the most electronegative atom (Pauling value 4) and Cs is the least electronegative (Pauling value
0.7) atom in the periodic table

Periodic Variation:
 In a Group- Electronegativity decreases from top to bottom.
 In a period- Electronegativity increases from left to right.
Electronegativity is inversely related to the metallic properties of elements. Thus, the increase in
electronegativities across a period is accompanied by an increase in non-metallic properties (or
decrease in metallic properties). Similarly, the decrease in electronegativity down a group is
accompanied by a decrease in non-metallic properties (or increase in metallic properties) of elements.

Periodic Trends in Chemical properties:

1. Valence or Oxidation State: Valence is the combining capacity of an atom. The valence of
representative elements is usually (though not necessarily) equal to the number of electrons in the
outermost orbitals and / or equal to eight minus the number of outermost electrons in the valence shell.
Now a days Oxidation state is used for valence. Oxidation state of an atom in a compound is defined
as the charge acquired by the atom if the other atoms are removed as ions.

Anomalous Properties of Second Period Elements:

The elements of the second period show properties quite different than that of the other members of
the respective groups. The anomaly in properties of the elements of the second period is due to
 Small atomic size.
 High ionisation enthalpy.
 High electronegativity
 Non availability of d-orbitals.

Diagonal Relationship: The first three elements of 2nd period show similarities with the elements
diagonally placed in the 3rd period. This is called diagonal relationship.

2nd period Li Be B C

3rdperiod Na Mg Al Si
Cause: it is due to similar polarizising power of the elements.
{Polarising power = ionic charge /(ionic radius)2}

Periodicity in Chemical Reactivity:

The elements in the two extremes of the periodic table are highly reactive. The extreme left elements
have low ionisation energy and the extreme right elements have highly negative electron gain
enthalpy. The atom in the two extremes of the periodic table reacts with oxygen to form oxides. The
oxides formed by elements of the left are alkaline (Na2O, CaO, MgO etc.) and oxides formed by the
elements of the right extreme are acidic (Cl2O7, P2O5, SO2 etc). Oxides of the elemen5ts in the centre
are amphoteric (Al2O3, ZnO, As2O3 etc.) or neutral (CO, NO, N2O etc.)

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SCREENING EFFECT () AND EFFECTIVE NUCLEAR CHARGE (Zeff )
(a) Valence shell e– suffers force of attraction due to nucleus and force of repulsion due to inner shell
electrons.
(b) The decrease in force of attraction on valence e– due to inner shell e– is called screening effect or
shielding effect.(i.e. total repulsive force is called shielding effect.)
(c) Due to screening effect, valence shell e– experiences less force of attraction exerted by
nucleus.(i.e. total attraction force experienced by valence e– is called Zeff.)
(d) There is a reduction in nuclear charge due to screening effect. Reduced nuclear charge is called
effective nuclear charge.
(e) If nuclear charge = Z, then effective nuclear charge = Z –  (Where  (Sigma) = Screening
constant)
So, Zeff = (Z – )

Slater's rule to know screening constant ( :

(a) Screening effect (S.E.) of one e– of the 1s is 0.30. Ex. In He (1s2)
Screening effect of one 1s e–. where  = 0.30
 Zeff = Z – = 2 – 0.30 = 1.7
(b) Screening effect of ns and np (Outermost orbit) electron is 0.35
(c) Screening effect of (n – 1) penultimate orbit s, p, d electrons is 0.85
(d) Screening effect of (n – 2) and below all the e– present in s, p, d, f is 1.0

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