SKELETAL SYSTEM Classifications of bones by shape
The skeletal system is composed of 206 bones that, along with Bones can be classified by shape
cartilage, tendons, and ligaments, make up the framework or skeleton of 4 of those classifications are:
the body.
LONG bones include the femur (thigh), tibia (larger shin),
The skeleton can be divided into two main parts.
fibula (smaller shin bone), humerus (upper arm), radius (larger
The axial skeleton consists of 80 bones. The primary bones of the axial forearm), and ulna (smaller forearm).
skeleton are the skull, spine, ribs and sternum (thorax). SHORT bones include the carpals of the wrist and tarsals of
Anterior means front; posterior means back. the ankle.
FLAT bones include the skull, sternum (breastbone), and
The appendicular skeleton consists of 126 bones. The primary bones scapula (shoulder bone).
of this skeleton are the shoulder or pectoral girdle, arms, hands,
IRREGULAR bones include the vertebrae (spine), and pelvic.
pelvic girdle, legs, and feet.
Bone Structures
Functions of Bones
The features in this long bone illustrate those found in all bones.
Bones are composed of about 50% water and 50% a solid, calcified, Epiphysis (ĭ PIF ah siss) - growing end
rigid substance known as osseous (AH see us) tissue.
Diaphysis (dye AF ah siss) - shaft/ katawan part ng buto
1. Bones provide shape, support, and the framework of the body.
Periosteum (peri OSS tee um) - outside covering
2. Bones protect internal organs.
Medullary (MED ul air ee)- inner space containing bone marrow
3. Bones serve as a storage place for minerals such as salts, calcium,
and phosphorus. Endosteum (en DOS tee um)- lining of medullary cavity
4. Bones play an important role in hematopoiesis the formation of Joints - A joint is a place where two or more bones connect. The
blood cells that takes place in bone marrow. manner in which they connect determines the type of movement
allowed at that joint.
5. Bones provide a place to attach muscles.
A synarthrosis (sĭn ahrTHROW siss) is a joint that allows no
6. Bones make movement possible through articulation (manner in movement. An example would be a cranial suture.
which the parts come together at a joint). A amphiarthrosis is a joint that allows slight movement. An
example would be a vertebra.
A diarthrosis is a joint that allows free movement in a variety of The vertebral column
directions, such as knee, hip, elbow, wrist, and foot. The vertebral column is composed of separate bones called vertebrae,
Types of body movements at diarthrotic joints connected to form four spinal curves. A curve has more strength than a
straight line, so can support the weight of the body and provide balance
Abduction: moving a body part away from the middle.
needed to walk.
Adduction: moving a body part toward the middle.
The cervical curve contains the first 7 vertebrae; the thoracic curve
Flexion: bending a limb contains the next 12; the lumbar curve contains 5. The sacral curve does
Extension: straightening a flexed limb not contain vertebrae. It contains the sacrum and coccyx (KOCK siks) or
tailbone.
Supination: lying supine or face upward; or turning the palm or foot
upward. The male and female pelvis
Pronation: lying prone or face downward; or turning the palm downward. The pelvis is the lower portion of the trunk of the body. The hip bones,
sacrum, and coccyx form the pelvic basin. Hip bones include the ilium (Ĭl
Circumduction: moving a body part in a circular motion ee um), pubis (PYU bus), and ischium (ISS kee um).
Protraction: moving a body forward. The male pelvis is shaped like a funnel and is heavier and stronger than
Retraction: moving a body part backward. the female. The female pelvis is oval to round, and wider than the male.
Dorsiflexion: bending a body part backwards. Bone growth and resorption
Inversion: turning inward. Bone is continually remodeled. It is broken down by osteoclasts in a
process called resorption, and formed again by osteoblasts. Bone
Eversion: turning outward.
formation and healing slow down as part of the aging process
Rotation: moving a body part around a central axis
Osteoporosis is an age-related loss of bone mass or density.
Fowler’s position: sitting straight up or reclining slightly; legs straight or
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
bent.
The muscular system consists of all the muscles of the body. These make
Trendelenburg position: (TREN duh len burg) lying supine with head
up approximately 42% of total body weight, and are composed of long,
lower than feet.
slender cells known as fibers. The fibers are different lengths and vary in
Lateral recumbent: lying on your left or right side color from white to deep red.
Each muscle consists of a group of fibers held together by connective
tissue, and enclosed in a fibrous sheath or fascia.
3 types of muscle Parts of a muscle
Muscles cause movement, help to maintain posture, and produce heat. Body – the main portion
There are 3 types, classified according to function and appearance: Origin – the fixed Attachment
1. Skeletal muscles are elastic and work in pairs - one flexing while the Insertion - the point of attachment to the part of the body moved by
other is extending. They are striated, with horizontal markings, and are this muscle
stimulated to contract by electrical impulses from the nervous system. The origin of the muscle is the scapula attachment; a tendon
Fast, white muscle fibers contract rapidly, have poor blood supply, provides the insertion on the ulna and radius bones.
operate without oxygen, and tire quickly. Slow, red muscle fibers contract A tendon is a means of attachment, connecting the muscle to the bone.
more slowly, have better blood supplies, operate with oxygen, and do not They vary in length, from less than an inch to more than a foot.
tire as easily. They are used in ongoing movements, such as maintaining
A wide sheet-like tendon is called an Aponeurosis (ap ah nyu ROH siss).
posture.
Tonicity
2. Smooth muscle lines most hollow organs of the body, such as the
intestines, stomach, and uterus. They help move substances through Muscles are Continually working to Maintain posture. This Passive
tubular areas such as blood vessels and the small intestines, Contracting Muscle Contraction known as Residual Muscle tension is called tonicity.
automatically and rhythmically. Tonicity is not the same as achieving muscle tone through exercise.
Smooth muscles contract slower than skeletal muscles, but can remain The effect of exercise
contracted longer, and are not as dependent on oxygen. They are
stimulated by electrical impulses or hormones, and use carbohydrates for -With aging, muscles decrease in strength, endurance, range of motion,
energy. coordination, and elasticity. Exercising the muscles can help prevent a
loss of strength.
3. The cardiac muscle or myocardium are striated like skeletal muscles,
but are smaller and shorter.
They are stimulated to contract by electrical impulses sent out from small Energy for Muscle Contraction
clumps of specialized tissue in the heart... the sinoatrial and • Muscles use stored ATP for energy
atrioventricular nodes.
– Bonds of ATP are broken to release energy
– Only 4-6 seconds worth of ATP is stored by muscles
• Three ways for muscle to make energy (ATP)
1. Creatine Phosphate
1. Creatine phosphate is a high-energy compound and is the fastest
way to make ATP available for muscles
• Used for activities lasting < 15 seconds
• Anaerobic (no oxygen needed)
• Reaction:
– Creatine phosphate + ADP ↔ creatine + ATP
• Creatine phosphate is made when a muscle is at rest
2. Cellular Respiration - Mitochondria use glucose molecules to make
ATP in the presence of oxygen
– Provides most of a muscle’s ATP
• Aerobic (needs oxygen)
• Used for activities lasting hours
• Reaction
– C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP energy
• 1 glucose = 36 ATP
3. Anaerobic Respiration/ Fermentation
• Reaction that breaks down glucose without oxygen
• Used for activities lasting 30 – 60 seconds
• Anaerobic (no oxygen)
• Reaction
– Glucose → pyruvic acid + 2 ATP → lactic acid
• Lactic acid is also produced and causes pain in the muscle
