Karl Mannheim: “Sociology of knowledge”-> every theory has its social context, serves the interest of

particular class.

Tracy Hannah Arendt - Id with totalitarianism

Gramsci -
 Ideology = science of ideas Karl Mannheim
 ideology as hegemony
 Systematic study of idea
 Disagreed with Marx - Said that
 But it got politicised  Ideology and Utopia
counter hegemony needs to be
 Liberalism as ideology and
created to overthrow the state
Marx - HM - Ideology - false consc. Marxism as Utopia
 So understanding of ideology is
 Ideology -interests of dominant
very important
 His ideas as science class
 Idea & Sc became 2 opposing  Utopia - ideology of depressed
Lenin - Marxism an ideology
concepts classes
 Utopia not bad as it is a source of
Karl Popper -
He considered that ideology would inspiration for the depressed classes
disappear once the class system
 Marxism - determinist as not open
would end - so proletariat need not Biggest critic of ideology comes from post
to falsification - so not science
pay any attention to ideology modernists who consider Ideology as meta
 Science only in open societies
narratives

Liberalism: Keeps individual liberty at the forefront of any public discourse.

Longest surviving ideology Challenged by

 Renaissance was beginning  Conservatists (rightists)
 Glorious revolution: first liberal revolution  Socialists (leftists)
 American revolution  Communitarian, multiculturalists, post-modernists
 French revolution etc.
 Islamic fundamentalism. Cultural relativism.

Isaih Berlin in his book, ‘2 concepts of liberty’ has explained the 2 concepts of liberty found in
liberalism. He has mentioned the quote of Heine

I may not deserve to be remembered as a poet, but surely as a soldier in the battle for human
freedom- Heine
 Classical Liberals (negative liberalism)

Human Nature: Society State Rights

 Individualistic  No common  Limited state  Natural rights (Locke)
 Atomistic good, good of  Night-  Legal rights (Hobbes and
 Unencumbered individual is good watchman Bentham)
 Rational of society  State is Equality
 Possessive  Aggregative view necessary evil  Equality before law
individualism  Artificial  Invisible hand  Equality of opportunity
 Egoistic Liberty  Only law and  Formal
individualism  Negative liberty order, external  Procedural
security Justice: Based on merit

Adam Smith  Minimal State  Thomas Paine (state is necessary

 Herbert Spencer (survival of evil)
 Freedom of markets fittest)  Thomas Jefforson (state is best
 Invisible hand-> equilibrium  Sumner (Drunkard in gutter) governed which governs the least)

 Absence of external
impediments.
 Absence of
interference/coercion

Positive/Modern Liberals: Golden mean of classical liberalism and socialism

 First liberalism Nature of man Society State

through Locke  Progressive  Prior to man  Hinder the
 Then utilitarianism  Enlightened individualism  Man is obliged to hindrances
through Bentham  Social society  Affirmative
 Utility Liberty  Organic/Natural action
Overshadowed  Positive Equality  Welfare state
liberty  Absence of external +  Classical view +  Source of virtue
 Mill again brought internal impediments equality of capacity Justice
liberty to centre.  Capacity to do what we want + positive Proportionate based on
discrimination merit + fairness

T H Green J.S. Mill Laski

 Father of positive  -ve liberal and  Liberal ->Social -> Liberal

liberty +ve liberalsim  Critic of fascism
  British  Fabian socialist
 Lectures on the  States to regulate capitalism
Principles of political  Rights are not claims independent of all duty - comprehensive
ki boundary list of rights
obligations
 Human consciousness I. Kant  Functional theory of rights-> rights and duties are interlinked.
postulates liberty,  Rights are necessary conditions without which no individual
liberty involves rights, can in general seek to be at his best.
 German
rights demand state  Every state is known by the rights it maintains
 Human Dignity
 Will not force is the  The social order which is not based on claims of person is
 Moral
basis of the state based on sand.
Individualism  India’s DPSP
 State hinders the  Respecting
hinderances  Called Fascism as Counter Revolution
human dignity o Revolution of rich against the poor
 An individual is free is categorical
when he has the o Fascism is the last attempt of capitalism to protect itself
imperative o Pluralist theory of sovereignty
capacity to fulfill the
law of his being

Criticisms
Gramscian school: Will is manufactured Neo-liberals: Leads to authoritarianism
Habermas: Legitimation/governability crisis/contradictory Isaih Berlin: “Bird in a cage”

Assessment: Welfare state did lead to nanny state, corruption and overdeveloped states.
However, there is example of Nordic countries too.
We require institutions, transparency, accountability, substantive democracy, capacity (Amartya
Sen), HUMAN ACTION (Hannah Arendt)

Neo-liberals : Market is God : Critics of +ve liberty Criticism:

Rolling back of state  No liberty in neo-liberalism
See Washington Consensus  Conservatism behind mask
Market is solution for all aspects of human life  Inequalities
Welfare States had become quite expanded and burdensome  Market failed in 2008
1990 -> hegemonic status -> TINA
Hayek Milton Friedman

 Father of Neo-liberalism Isaiah Berlin  Capitalism and Freedom

 Market is like huge central  Capitalism is a precondition for freedom
nervous system, intercept  “Two concepts of  Market is god
millions of messages liberty”
 Planning - road to serfdom  Liberty as the Nozick
 Social justice is mirage absence of
 Money for poor -> politicians interference by the  Book: Anarchy, state and utopia
and bureaucrats state  Critique of Rawls
 Progressive taxation is bonded  Only liberals can be  Minimal state is inspiring as well as right
labour Tolerant  Progressive taxation is bonded labour
 Aggression on man’s  Example of bird in a  Aggression on man’s personality
personality cage  Security can be privatized
 Liberty as non-interference of  Semi anarchist
state  Entitlement theory inspired from Locke.

Libertarian from mam notes

Social Liberals: Not an extremely expanded state (unlike the modern liberals who wanted a
highly expanded state)
Classical liberalism + social justice through state intervention
Revival of welfare state
Failure of market and discontents.

 Pvt - growth
 State - capacity building
 Civil Society - accountability

Amartya Sen Jospeh Stiglitz Jean

Dreze
 Capacity Building  Post Washington Consensus John
 Humane governance rather than just good governance  “Globalization and its discontents Rawls
 Neo-liberal growth as stupid growth  “Making globalization work Dworkin
 Democratization of development
  Multiculturalism : leads to ghettoisation

Socialism – Positive liberalism – Social liberalism – Classical Liberalism

End of history & Clash of Civilisations :

PM of Malaysia : Mahathir Mohamad
Francis Fukuyama
 Asian Values Samuel P Huntington
 American Pol Sctst  Western values not suitable for Asian societies
 End of History- end of man’s  Collectivism  Clash of Civilisations
ideological evolution  Pan-Asian identity
o Supremacy of
 Bangkok declaration, 1993 Edward Said
Liberalism as way of
life Criticisms:  Calls Clash of
 UNIPOLAR WORLD
civilisations as Clash of
ORDER  Blamed for Asian financial crisis, since Ignorance
 Blames Bush’s policies for
authority was given more preference over  Requirement of
decline of US hegemony individualism and market. dialogue between
 Excuse of survival of authoritarianism civilisations
Alexandre Kojeve: World will
 There is not one Asian culture
ultimately come under a universalist
state.  Violation of human rights

SOCIALISM —>
Socialism is like a hat which has lost its shape because everyone wears it – C.E.M Joad
 It is an ideology of modern times and emerged against capitalism
Capitalism: profit, Socialism : need
Core Value is Equality

Human nature Freedom Society

 No man is  Freedom from necessities Justice  Prior to man
island, man Freedom is not a right, rather  Absolute equality  Need based distribution
is part of presence of certain conditions.  From each according Rights
continent to his capacity, to  No need
 Human Equality each according to his  Bourgeoise values
beings are  Equality of outcome need.
comrades
Socialism After Marx
GDH Cole
Edward Bernstein
Karl Kautsky
Annie Besant, George  Guild Socialism
Bernard Shaw, Sidney  Functional representation
 Evolutionary socialism
Webb, Beatrice Webb,  Functional parliament
 Revisionism
Pandit Nehru  Participation of workers in mgt
 Parliamentary road to
 Since real interest are economic, representation
socialism
Fabianism: See notes should also be on economic lines
 No need for revolution
 believes in basic tenets of Marx

See syndicalism from notes

Relevance of Socialism/Marxism
 Mode of analysis: Used by Gramsci, Althusser, Wallerstein
 Political ideology: Used for mobilization; rise of left parties in Britain, France; anti
capitalism and anti-globalization movement.
Terry Eagleton (Why Marx is Thomas Piketty Immanuel Wallerstein
right)
 Capital in the 21st Century  World systems Theory
 Fashionable to say that  Wealth grows faster than  Nee-Liberal globalisation is coming
Marx is outdated and economic output  to end.
irrelevant  The more we change, the more  Man has 2 options
we remain the same. o Socialism
  Global inequalities are still
o Barbarianism
the same

Marxism After Marx

Lenin: Imperialism: Highest stage of Rosa Luxembourg: Lenin is playing with the Mao: Power flows through barrel
capitalism ideas of Marx of a gun

Neo-Marxism: Structural Marxism (See Gramsci)

Neo-Marxism : Frankfurt School (see notes too)

 Since the mode of exploitation has changed the marxist mode of analysis needs to
change
 Capitalism has survived by promoting consumerist culture
 They suggest to include the analysis of culture in analysis of capitalism
 Culture is no longer the part of superstr - it has become part of the basic str
 Role of technology in expansion of capitalism.
 Criticized Lenin, welfare state, Marxism, modernity
 Insights from Sigmund Freud -> “Unconscious”; repressive structures of society;
psychological aspects of social control
 Max Weber: social stratification; multiple stratas exist; concept of bureaucratic rationality
 Herbert Marcuse
Max Horkheimer
 One dimensional Man
 Unfortunately Negative Dialectics
 Man is Multi-d, capitalism reduced him to 1D- consumer
has started
 Science killed rationality; rejective of values; true/false rather than
 Progress stopped and moving
right/wrong
towards our downfall. Instead of
 No ethics - animals
getting better we are getting worse
 Consumers of utility
 Objective of critical school is
 Herds of sheep and goats - after products like mindless consumers
emancipation from the
 Classes to masses
circumstances which have enslaved
 Causes
us.
o ICT, Science
 Not just freedom from necessities
o Advertisement
but freedom from all sorts of
o Music - Theodore Adorno
dominations.
o Seismographically controlled traumatic shocks

FASCISM (see from notes too)

Fascism is the last attempt of capitalism to protect itself-Laski

 William Ebenstein has given structural understanding of Fascism  Rule of centre right - lower middle class
o Totalitarian (Mussolini – “All within the state, nothing  Appeasement by capitalists
outside the state, nothing against the state.”)  Hodge podge of ideologies
o Dictatorship of single party (Mussolini – “Democracy is  Naked power play without ethics
luxury of rich”; “Parliament is talking shop”.
o Nationalism- Ultra nationalism, jingoism (Herder)
o Racism- role of ideology
o Militarist (“War is to men as maternity is to women”)
o Imperialist (Lebansarum)

Hannah Arendt Karl Popper Laski

 Deeper understanding of fascism  Anti-liberal  Compares it with Capitalism

 Variant of Totalitarian regimes  If capitalism talk about  Calls it Counter revolution
 Rule of terror and ideology liberty, fascism talks about o Revolution by the rich against
duties and state the poor
  Movement of masses as superfluous  Fascism is desparate attempt
 Regimented society
entities of capitalism to protect itself

2 schools of thought as to why Fascism Appears

Ernst Nolte
Eric Fromm
 Democracy in not a democratic society-
 Fear of freedom
mobocracy
 Too much freedom - man becomes insecure
 Political instability - coalition not working
 So he looks for charismatic leaders - Hitler
 Economic crisis : Great depression
 German psychologist
 War - frustrated nationalism looking for
 Hannah - Masses as superfluous entities looking to throw
revenge
themselves at the leader who could give them a sense of purpose
 Hannah - Modernity as victory of animal
and lead them
labouron over zoonpoliticon

FEMINISM

Feminism is a praxis oriented normative theory inspired by ethical concerns of inclusivity-

Oxford Encyclopedia of International Politics

Feminism is a radical notion that women are human beings – A feminist dictionary
 I do not want women to have power over men, but power over themselves – Simone de Beauvoir

Intro: Feminism is a meta-ideology. It began as a movement for emancipation of women and

end discriminations. They offer critique of male-stream theories.

1st wave: FR to 1960s

Mary Wollstonecraft : Liberal Feminism Engels : Social Feminism

 A vindication of rights of women  Origin of Family, Pvt property and state

 Mother of Feminism  Capitalism = exploitation of women
o Equal Civil and pol rights  Lenin : cabinet minister
o Right to vote  Stalin : Mother Heroine : 16 kids
o Equality of status  Shiela Rowbotham, Iris Marion Young

Iris Marion Young

Radical feminists
 Socialist Feminist  All other theories as male-stream theories
 Differentiated citizenship  True emancipation is possible only out of patriarchy
 Differentiating equality to equalize the differences Change the social order itself.

Socialist feminists
 Overlap between patriarchy and capitalism
 Females as reserve labour
 Cushion to prevent alienation of man
 Producing the next generation of workers.
 Relieve men of the burden of household.
 Idea of ‘economic man’, i.e. self-seeking man is
essentially masculinits.

2nd Wave: Radical Feminism

Betty Friedan Simone de Beauvoir Shulamith Firestone
  The Second Sex
 Dialectics of Sex
 One is not born a woman, one becomes woman
 Influenced by Existentialism  Patriarchy forms
 Feminine Mystique the basic structure
 Gendered Society
 Patriarchy  “...her wings are cut and then she is blamed for not of the society
 Myths knowing how to fly.”  Need to talk about
o Marriage age  “Representation of the world, like the world itself, is Dialectics b/w
o Magazines the work of men; they describe it from their own point sexes rather than
of view, which they confuse with absolute truth.” dialectics b/w
 “If the feminine issue is so absurd, is because the male's classes
arrogance made it "a discussion”

Jean Paul Sartre

Sigmond Freud
Kate Millet
 Existence is prior to essence
 Women suffer from penis envy and
 Existentialism
 Sexual men suffer from castration complex
 Opposite — Essentialism — Identity that society has
Politics  Most important goal of a women is to
given u
look attractive to men
 For freedom - one needs liberation from religion

Susan Brown Miller Susan Moller Okin Catherine Mackinnon (“Towards a

  Radical Feminist
(Dont enter my brown area)
 Gender, justice and Family feminist theory of state”)
 4 interpretations of Personal Is political
 Against Our will
o State should interfere  When i look at the state it
 Rape is an institution of
o State - patriarchal appears to be a Male
Patriarchy
o Family Patriarchal
o Economic subordination

3rd wave - Celebrate Womanhood. - Inspired from Post Modernists - Post-feminism

- contextualist approach

 Judith Butler (Book: Gender Troubles) (Post-modernist)-

o Gender is performative word (same as sex vs. gender). She rejected essentialism
o She also emphasized on inter-sectionality, women should not be treated as
homogenous group.
 Do not believe in differentiated citizenship as they consider women to be superior to men
in all regards
 Believe that gender equality has already been achieved.
 No need for pushing it further
 Black feminism - double marginalisation
o Black
o Women
 Eco-feminism - Vandana Shiva
 Post-colonial feminists have developed resistance to any top-down feminist theory.
According to them feminist theories have been developed by women in liberal western
societies and do not adequately represent exploitation in post-colonial societies.

Susan Faludi (Book- Backlash)

 Radical feminism no longer relevant in West as women are sufficiently equal

 Need to domesticate men

New feminism (difference feminism)

  Advocated by Vatican city (pope John Paul II)
 Men and women are different and have their own intrinsic worth
 Irrelevant to talk about superiority or inferiority since differences are biological
 Experiences of women like child-birth give them empathy, care, love, service.
 Emphasize on complimentarity and cooperation.

Fundamental differences in all 3 waves of feminism.

But overall consensus of fighting exportation of women and against exploitation

Conclusion
Feminism has grown with time but has a long way to go in political discourse. Sweden’s feminist
foreign policy remains a bright spot in an otherwise dark world for women

End of Ideology
SM Lipset
David Bell Criticism
Did not enjoy wide acceptability
 End of ideology
 End of ideology
 Consensus that western
 Politics of development matter Marxists: Concealed defence
liberal democracy is the
rather than politics of MacIntyre: EoI as an ideology itself
best way of life and the
ideologies C Wright Mills - Wrong to assume that the conflict
debate is over
b/w labour and capital is over
Lost its appeal by 1970s,
Remerged as EoH post-cold war- Francis Fukuyama

However, Marxism/Socialism has remained relevant

Challenges from communitarians, multiculturalism,
cultural relativism, fundamentalism from outside.

Francis Fukuyama modified his views. Policies of

USA in middle-east created challenge to “end of
history” thesis.