Biology

Characteristics of life
Nutrition
-> Plants
·
Make their own food by photosynthesis
->
Human / Animals
Eat plants / other animals
·

Respiration
-> To make energy for body activities

#
xcretion (FEEF #S
-> Remove waste
-> Animals
·
Excrete wastes in the form of exhaled gas, sweat & urine

->
Plants
·
Tree excrete waste as resin (EFIE)
·
Store waste in leaves
Waste are removed when leaves are shed

Sensitivity Cirriability)
->
Detect changes in surroundings & respond to them

Movement
->
Animals
·
Move around to search for food, find mates & escape from danger
->
plants
·Shoots growing towards light

Growth
-> Increase in body size & complexity

Reproduction
->
Produce offspring, ensures continuity of life
Organic substances—Biomolecules

Inorganic substances

Water
Inorganic substance
Water takes away heat when it evaporate
→
Evaporating water absorb heat from surroundings
→ Acts as a
cooling agent
→ Human body
•
When sweat evaporates , it takes away some heat from skin to help cool the body
→
Plants
•

Evaporation of water from plant surface causes transpiration

to prevent plants from overheating

Water acts as a temperature buffer

→
Absorbs large amount of heat to raise temperature by 1°C

→ Maintain stable body temperature when there is a small change in temperature

→
Temperature of ocean & lakes remains stable to provide

favourable habitat for aquatic organisms

Water provides support to organisms and aids movements

→
Water is incompressible CFFEE-k.EE )
•
Provide hydrostatic skeleton to some animals to support their movements
→
Water provide buoyancy for aquatic organisms
Enable aquatic organisms to float on water
•

→ Water is a
good lubricant in organisms
•
Moveable joints in human body are filled with water to reduce friction between

bones during movements

Minerals
Inorganic substance
 Carbohydrates Organic substance

CoHi2Oo (Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen)

->
Ratio of hydrogen atoms: Oxygen atoms = 2:/

Monosaccharide
-> "One sugar"
-> Solube in water, taste sweet
-> Olucose (TE). Fructose (***). Galactose (**L**(
->
Reducing sugar
One substance loses electrons/hydrogen, another substance gain electron/hydrogen
·

Can be test by Benedict's test

1) isaccharides
-> "Double sugar"
-> Soluble in water, taste sweet
->
Reducing sugar
·

Except sucrose

-> Maltose (IEEEC

·

Glucose + Glucose Maltose+ water

=

-> sucrose (TEC

·
Glucose + Fructose- Sucrose +water
-> Lactose (L*
·
Olucose + Galactose = Lactose + water
Polysaccharides
-> Condensation of a large number of monosaccharides
->
Insoluble/slightly soluble in water
Do not
give sweet taste
->

->
Glycogen (A)
·
storage form of carbohydrates in animals & human
·
In muscles
·
Can be broken down to glucose when cells needs energy
->
Starch (iTAS
·
Plants store starch for energy reserve

·
Can be broken down to glucose when cells need energy.
->
Cellulose (***)
·
Main component of cell walls in plant
·
Structural carbohydrate
->
Combining two monosaccharides
·
Condensation
Removal of water molecule
->
Can be break down to monosaccharides

Hydrolysis
·

Addition of water molecule

 Biochemical test
Glucose test strip
->
For testing glucose
-> Procedure
Note the colour of dry glucose test strip
·

Add glucose solution to the well of spot plate.

·

Dip the strip into glucose solution and remove it immediately

·

·
Observe any colour change
#glucose is present, it causes the strip to change colour

Benedict's test
-> For testing reducing sugar
·

Maltose, lactose, glucose, fructose, galactose

->
Procedure
·
Add Benedict's solution to test tubes
·
Place the test tubes in boiling water for 5 minutes

·Observe changes in mixture

->
Result

Reducing
·

sugar
brick-red precipitate is formed
·
Non reducing sugar

No observable change
Iodine test
-> For testing starch
->
Procedure
·

Add iodine solution

·Observe any colour change

->
Result
·

Starch
colour of iodine solution changes from brown to blue-black
·

Without starch
Colour of iodine solution remains brown
 Lipids
Insoluble in water ,
soluble in organic solvent
/

Triglycerides ( fats & oils )

→
Condensation of 1 glycerol molecule and 3 fatty acid molecules
→
Energy reserves [ common function )
→
Mammals

Fat stored in adipose tissues

•

•
Acts as insulating layer to reduce heat loss
→
Plants
•
Produce oil and store in seeds

Phospolipids
→
Condensation of 1- glycerol molecule ,
2 fatty acid molecules and 1 phosphate
group
→ Main component of cell membrane

cholesterol
→
complex molecule consisting of carbon rings
→ For making cell membranes lipid hormones and .
vitamin D

Grease spot test for lipids

Add drop of oil and distilled water separately filter paper
→
a
cooking on

→ Put the filter paper on a watch glass and leave it there for 10 mins

→
Cooking oil leaves a persistent translucent spot
→ Water spot disappear after drying
 Proteins
Made up of carbon , hydrogen oxygen nitrogen
, ,
& Sometimes sulphur
Basic unit of protein is called amino acids

Amino acids
→
Form by
•
A central carbon atom
•
An amino group C- NHZ )

A
carboxyl group C- COOH )
•

•
A side chain C- R group )
→ 20 types of amino acids
•
Differs inside chain ( side chain defines the type of amino acid )
→ Joined by condensation
Amino group of 1 amino acid bonds to the carboxyl group of another
•

amino acid as water molecule is removed

R2

IN AÉ
H ° " °
-
- c' + in d- c-
-

/ '
it
'
* OH It OH

Camino acid 1) § (amino acid 2)

"

¥ :
=§¥
peptide
bond

H R P ) R2
,
d-
,

N -
C -
C -
N - + H2O
/
H it A ti '
OH

→
Amino acid sequence determines the shape of a protein molecules ,

which serve different functions in organisms

D) ipeptide
-> Condensation of 2 amino acid

Polypeptide
->
Formed by many amino acids >2

->
Protein molecule may possess one or more polypeptide chain

Formation of a protein molecule

->
Hydrogen bond cause polypeptide chain to coil and fold into a
variety
of shapes
-> coiled polypeptide chain may further fold up into a more compact structure
with aspecific 3-dimensional shape
->
Multiple folded polypeptides may combine to form a
single protein

Functions
->
Forming haemoglobin, enzymes, antibodies & certain hormones
->
Component of various cellular structures
cytoplasm
*
·

For the formation of new cells

·
cell membrane
For growth & repair of tissues
body
-

->
source of energy when body is short of carbohydrates & lipids

Protein test strip

-> Note the colour of dry protein test strip
->
Dip the strip into solution and remove it immediately
->
Observe any change of protein test strip
colour
->
Repeat with distilled water as a control
 Nucleic acid
Nucleic acids
→
Types of nucleic acids
•
Ribonucleic acids CRNA )
•

Deoxy ribonucleic acid ( DNA )

→ Made up hydrogen oxygen nitrogen phosphorus
of carbon , , , ,

→
Play important roles in heredity & protein synthesis

Nucleotide
→ Basic unit of nucleic acids
→
3 component
•
5- carbon sugar

Deoxyribose → DNA

Ribose → RNA
•
A nitrogenous base

Adenine → DNA / RNA

Thymine → DNA
Guanine → DNA / RNA

cytosine → DNA / RNA

Uracil → RNA
•
A phosphate group
→ Condensation of nucleotide
•
2 nucleotide = dinucleotide ,
>2 nucleotide =
poly nucleotide
Phosphate group of 1 nucleotide & 5 carbon sugar of another nucleotide
May form poly nucleotide with a sugar phosphate backbone
•
-

RNA molecule DNA RNA

Deoxyribose Ribose
→
single polypeptide chain
A T
, ,
G C
,
A V G
, , ,
C

DNA molecule Phosphate grp Phosphate grp

→
Two polypeptide chain coiled around each other C Double helix )
→ Two chain held together by hydrogen bond
•

Hydrogen bond → to keep the double helix stable

 Animal cells
Ribosome Cell membrane
_

mitochondrion \
) Nucleus membrane

Nucleus

Cytoplasm
Nucleolus

Ribosomes Vacuole

Rough
endoplasmic reticulum Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

cell membrane
→ Made up of lipids & proteins
→
Differently permeable
•
can control the movement of substances to enter & leave the cell

cytoplasm
→
Jelly like substance that is mainly made up of water , proteins sugars
, , fatty acids
→
Holds all organelles in a cell

→ site where biochemical reaction take place

Nucleus
→
Surrounded by nucleus membrane ( double membrane )

Nuclear poles exist nuclear membrane to allow exchange between

•
on

nucleus & cytoplasm

→ Contains DNA ( genetic material of life )
→ Controls protein synthesis and all activities of cell

Ribosomes
→ Site of protein synthesis
Rough endoplasmic reticulum ( Rough ER )
→ With ribosomes attached on the surface
→
Transport proteins produced at ribosomes

smooth endoplasmic reticulum ( Smooth ER )

→ Without ribosomes
→ Involved in synthesis and transport of lipids within the cytoplasm

Mitochondrion
→
Surrounded by double membrane
•
Outer membrane :
smooth

•
Inner membrane :
highly folded to form finger like
-
projections
→ Main sites of aerobic respiration
Organic food substances are broken down to release energy in the form
•

of ATP
→
Number of mitochrodria in a particular cell depends on it 's
energy need

Vacuole
→
Enclosed by a membrane
→
Only a few small vacuoles in animals
 Plant cells
Ribosomes
Cytoplasm
-vacuole
Smooth endoplasmic
reticulum
Chiroplast
Cell Wall

Nuclear
Mitochrodrion Cell membrane

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

Nucleus
Nucleotide
membrane

Cell membrane
-> Made up of lipids & proteins
->
Differently permeable
·
can control the movement of substances into & out of the cell

Cytoplasm
like substance that up of water, proteins, sugars, fatty acids
->
jelly is mainly made
->
Holds all organelles in a cell

-> Site where biochemical reaction take place

Nucleus
->
surrounded by nucleus membrane (double membrane (
Nuclear poles exist nuclear membrane to allow exchange between
·
on

nucleus & cytoplasm

-> Contains DNA (genetic material of lifes
-> controls protein synthesis and all activities of cell

Ribosomes
-> site of protein synthesis
Rough endoplasmic reticulum (Rough ERC
-> with ribosomes attached on the surface
->
Transport proteins produced at ribosomes

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (Smooth ERC

-> Without ribosomes

-> Involved in synthesis and transport of lipids within the cytoplasm

Mitochondrion
->
surrounded by double membrane
·
Outer membrane: smooth
·
Inner membrane: highly folded to form finger-like projections
-> Main sites of aerobic respiration
Organic food substances are broken down to release energy in the form
·

of ATP
->
Number of mitochrodria in a particular cell depends on it's energy need

vacuole
->
Enclosed by a membrane

Large central vacuole

-

·
Fluid inside vacuole = Cell Sap
->
Plant cell become turgid when vacuole is fully filled which provides

support to plants

Cell Wal
->
Made up of cellulose
->
Thick, rigid layer covering cell membrane
->
Fully permeable to water & dissolved substances
-> Protects and give shape to plant cells
Internal
membranesac Outer membrane

Chloroplast
->
Found in green plants Inner membrane

-> surrounded by double membrane

->
Contain green pigment (Chlorophyll for photosynthesis)
 Comparisons
Animal cells & plant cells

1
Animal cells Plant cells

SHAPE irregular Fixed by cell wall

SIZE Smaller Larger

CELL
WALL
X
vacuole None / few small large Central
vacuoles vacuole
Chloroplast
X
Position At the centre At one side

of nucleus
 Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
Eukaryotic cells (Animals, plants ... (
->
Animal cells, plant cells ...

Cells that have nucleus by nuclear membrane with DNA

·

surrounded

->
Eukaryote
·

Organisms that composed of many cells

->
Complex structure

Prokaryotic cells (bacteria... (

->
Prokaryotes
·
Made up of single cells
->
Simpler structure, smaller
-> DWA lies freely in cytoplasm
->
Cell wall is presented but not made up of cellulose
- No membrane bound organelles
·
No endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria & Chloroplasts
 Levels of organisation in animals
Molecule

Chlorophyl
->
DWA,

Unicellular organism

Organelle
->
Nucleus, chloroplasts

Cell
-> Heart muscle cell, mesophyll cell

Tissue
->
Heart muscle tissue. Mesophyll tissue

Organ Muticellular organism

->
Human heart, leaf

System
->
Circulatory system. Root system

Organism
->
Human, plant
 Microscope
Light microscope
-> use lenses to refract and focus light from specimen to form magnified image
-> Examines living cells & preserved cells, used to look at biological processes
in living cells
->
Magnification not high enough to see all structures in cells
·
can only be magnified to 1000 times

Transmission electron microscope (TEM

-> use a magnetic field to focus the beam of electrons through a
thinly sliced
specimen
->
Reveals detailed internal structures of a
specimen
->
High resolution image
·Magnified up to 10000000 times

scanning electron microscope

-> Scan the surface of 3-dimensional specimen with
a an electron beam
-> Reveals detailed external structure of a specimen
-> Produce images magnified up to 500000 times

#lectron microscope

(Transmission electron microscope & Scanning electron microscope

-> Cannot examine
living species
·

Specimens must be completely dehydrated & chemically treated

->
Images are in black & white

·Colour added by computer software

 Light microscope
Eyepiece
→
Magnifying lens that the eyes look through

coarse adjustment knob

→ Raise or lower the stage for rough focusing

Body Tube
Arm

Nosepiece
→ Holds the objective of different magnifications ,
can be turned to switch
between different objectives

←
Eyepiece
Objective coarse +merit
lens closest to the specimen Nosepiece actus knob
→
Magnifying ✓ Fine

stage dip
bᵈeY→ >
✓ adjustment
knob
→
Hold the slides in position on the stage Objectives → ← Arm

-
stage stage
stage I dip
denser
→ Slide is put here for observation Mirrors
Iris

condenser
[ Base diaphragm
→ concentrate the light reflected from the mirror onto the specimen

Iris diaphragm
→
Regulates the amount of light passing through the condenser

Mirror
→ Reflects light to shine through specimen

Total magnification Magnification of eyepiece magnification of objective

= ✗