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Dark Triad: The “Dark Side” of Human Personality

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From Jonason, P.K., Middleton, J.P., 2015. Dark Triad: The "Dark Side" of Human
Personality. In: James D. Wright (editor-in-chief), International Encyclopedia of the
Social & Behavioral Sciences, 2nd edition, Vol 5. Oxford: Elsevier. pp.
671–675.
ISBN: 9780080970868
Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. unless otherwise stated. All rights reserved.
Elsevier
 Author's personal copy

Dark Triad: The “Dark Side” of Human Personality

Peter K Jonason and James P Middleton, University of Western Sydney, Milperra, NSW, Australia
Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Abstract

Most of work in personality psychology has focused on the Big Five traits. However, recent research suggests the Big Five may
be insufficient in that it is atheoretically derived and may inadequately assess the ‘darker’ sides of people’s personality. An
emerging stream of research has attempted to address this by studying what is called the Dark Triad of personality (i.e.,
narcissism, psychopathy, and Machiavellianism). In this article we attempt to discuss the Dark Triad traits on their own and as
a group, we cover different methodological and theoretical considerations, and end by offering some suggestions for the
future.

Personality psychology, also called differential psychology, has That is, if the traits cost the group like in the case of crime, then
a long history. The field is concerned with systematic variation they are solely seen as bad. We feel this is overly simplistic.
between individuals, what causes those differences, how we can Crime is pursued to derive short-term benefits to the criminal at
document those differences, and how those differences track the cost of others. We would argue that research has only
with real-world outcomes. The best studied set of personality focused on the latter half of this last sentence. Apparently costly
traits are the Big Five traits of extraversion, agreeableness, behavior for the group could have real benefits (e.g., food,
neuroticism, conscientiousness, and openness. These traits are mates) for the individual. Even still, the individual may suffer
based on words identified as adjectives people use to describe from some disadvantages but, if these traits gear an individual
one another (viz., the lexical assumption) through the use of toward maximizing short-term gains as we will argue later,
various factor analytic techniques. While other factor structures these may be costs he or she is willing to pay.
exist (e.g., Cattell’s 16 Factors; the PEN Model), the Big Five
have dominated the last 60 years of research in personality
psychology, finding application in all fields of psychological The Costs and Benefits of the Dark Triad
inquiry.
Narcissism
As popular and useful as the Big Five is and as good as the
Big Five is at covering a broad range of personality traits, it Narcissism is based on the Greek myth of Narcissus who fell in
tends to be limited in two important ways. The Big Five is a set love with his own reflection and was later identified as
of atheoretically derived, descriptive adjectives and it tends to a personality disorder. Indeed, most conceptualizations of
better tap ‘positive’ aspects of people’s personality over ‘nega- narcissism have included some dimension of vanity. However,
tive’ or ‘darker’ sides. This has created two streams of research, there is a general agreement that narcissism is also composed of
both highly informed by evolutionary or interactionist other traits like grandiosity, a sense of superiority, and enti-
approaches to understanding within-species variation. One tlement, although the necessary and sufficient number of
group has focused on expanding the list of basic personality factors is a matter of considerable debate. Importantly, narcis-
traits; developing what is called the HEXACO. These researchers sism is not simply high self-esteem, though it is positively
have focused on the added predictive power of measuring correlated with it. In fact, narcissism has different effects on
individual differences in people’s honesty and humility. aggression depending on the type of self-esteem someone has.
However, this approach is still heavily reliant on factor analytic In those with stable self-esteem, narcissism is positively corre-
techniques. lated with attitudinal aggression, whereas in those with
The other – perhaps the newest – stream has focused on unstable self-esteem, narcissism is negatively correlated with
what are called the ‘Dark Triad’ of personality traits (i.e., attitudinal aggression. Alternatively, those high in narcissism
narcissism, psychopathy, and Machiavellianism). Unlike the aggress in response to ego threat as opposed to other threats.
Big Five or the HEXACO, the Dark Triad traits – as a collective – Narcissism is a disposition toward an egocentric lifestyle, in
were not derived through inductive factor analytic techniques, which the needs of the self is placed above the needs of others.
but were, instead, linked based on theoretical observations One of the hallmarks of narcissism is its inescapable social
about the overlap of the behaviors and nature of these traits. aspect. Narcissists desire admiration and attention, they wish to
Importantly, they also are concerned with ‘darker’ aspects of feel superior within social circles, and this ties them inextri-
human nature. cably to other people. Thus, narcissists employ strategies, which
In this article, we discuss the work on the Dark Triad. In involve improving their relationships with other people. For
particular, we attempt to highlight the apparently good and example, narcissists tend to be overconfident at everything they
bad aspects of these traits. This is essential in that even the do, regardless of how good they are, and report being far more
worst traits confer some benefits if viewed from the proper competent than others at tasks. While most people tend to
perspective. As reviewed elsewhere, the predominant way of overestimate their abilities, narcissists tend to overestimate
seeing these traits may be biased toward prosocial outcomes. their abilities more than others. This overconfidence can have

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672 Dark Triad: The “Dark Side” of Human Personality

a beneficial effect for the person however, as others are more typical of those high on psychopathy. Additionally, some have
likely to see them as good leaders, even if their narcissism tends argued that psychopathy, while having a number of difficulties
to actually negatively influence group performance. For in long-term scenarios, has a number of short-term advantages.
instance, this overconfidence in their ability leads them to For example, the aggression and short-term mating success all
being more resilient in the face of failure. suggest psychopathy might provide some adaptive benefits. If
While it can be difficult for a narcissist to maintain rela- one thing has been made clear in the literature, it is that
tionships in the long term, they do have a number of advan- psychopathy is not the purely negative, maladaptive, and
tages in the beginning stages of social relationships. Similarly, pathological disposition, it is often considered to be.
narcissism has been linked with other factors with positive
social benefits, including higher extraversion, a more affiliative
Machiavellianism
humor style, higher IQ, and a socially charming disposition.
Narcissism may even offer some positive effects including self- While the other traits of the Dark Triad were initially patho-
protective memory biases, the maintenance of one’s self- logical disorders that were adapted into measures for
concept across both high- and low-achieving peer groups, nonclinical populations, Machiavellianism was developed for
increased within-group creativity, and short-term mating social psychological research. Researchers took inspiration
success. That said, narcissism remains linked to poor judgment from Niccolo Machiavelli’s work The Prince to construct a trait
in other areas. Specifically, narcissism has been linked with characterized by cynicism, manipulativeness, and a pragmatic
a higher rate of gambling, as well as an increased amount of morality. This construct, being based on Machiavelli’s work,
money spent on gambling, and these links are mediated by was termed ‘Machiavellianism.’ These traits might be instru-
overconfidence, increased risk acceptance, and focus on mental for princes (and people) to rise in social and political
rewards. Additionally, in tasks where groups of people are hierarchies in medieval Europe and today. The trait is consid-
asked to harvest a slowly regenerating resource, group perfor- ered to have an instrumental way of dealing with others,
mance was worse overall when narcissists were included, as a protean or whatever it takes style of social influence, and an
narcissists would tend to overharvest and exhaust resources opportunistic approach to economic exchanges or work
quicker than others. It seems reasonable to conclude that the behavior. For instance, it is linked with the adoption of both
Dark Triad may have some short-term benefits and some long- hard and soft tactics of social influence in the workplace. This
term consequences. range of tactics may better equip those high Machiavellianism
to influence others to bending to her or his will.
Much like the other factors of the Dark Triad, Machiavel-
Psychopathy
lianism has costly aspects. While high Machiavellian individ-
Like narcissism, psychopathy traditionally was considered uals tend to rank high on social charm and manipulativeness,
a clinical diagnosis and was adapted to measure a nonclinical Machiavellianism is negatively correlated with self-control,
construct in the general population. This construct includes emotional intelligence, and social competency in both inti-
such things as impulsivity, criminality, aggressiveness, mate and exposed settings. However, seeing these as costs
callousness, limited empathy, and low fear. This has resulted in might be overly simplistic. It has recently been argued that
psychopathy being labeled the ‘darkest’ of the Dark Triad traits. limited empathy could itself be advantageous to people
The term carries with it the worst connotations and is a term motivated to take advantage of others. The idea being that if
commonly ascribed to criminals in real life and in the media. In one understood the feelings of others, it might inhibit their
fact, we would contend that the common usage of this term ability to exploit others to their own ends. Indeed, those high
and the tendency to link this term with ‘bad’ people may on Machiavellianism appear to be skilled liars. Nevertheless,
actually interfere with clear thinking about this trait more so like the other two, the costs and benefits associated with
than the other Dark Triad traits. Machiavellianism depend on the context.
Just like narcissism, psychopathy appears to be a mixed bag
of some beneficial and some deleterious aspects. One inter-
esting finding from such studies is that successful psychopaths Overlap and Distinctiveness
(i.e., those that do not get institutionalized) have heightened
cardiovascular stress reactivity and perform better on the Wis- Contemporary research on the Dark Triad has seen a great deal
consin Card Sorting Test (i.e., a measure of cognitive function) of debate as to whether the Dark Triad should be treated as
compared to unsuccessful (i.e., institutionalized) psychopaths. a single construct, or whether it is best to treat it as a three-factor
Furthermore, significant neurological deficits have been found solution. Essentially, this debate revolves around two ques-
in unsuccessful psychopaths, including greater hippocampal tions. First, which explain more variance in people’s behavior,
asymmetry, and a 22.3% reduction in prefrontal gray matter attitudes, and cognition, the three individual traits or a collec-
volume. tive, composite of the three? Second, might the Dark Triad be
Despite being a socially aversive trait, psychopathy is not tapping some underlying latent personality trait?
entirely without benefits. While psychopathy tends to be linked
with low conscientiousness and low agreeableness, it is also
Unificationism
linked with low neuroticism, an ostensible benefit. Similarly,
psychopaths have lowered stress responses in real-world envi- Proponents of the view that the Dark Triad can be used as
ronments such as appearing in court. This fits the general a single construct argue the collective allows for higher-order
pattern of impulsiveness, shallow affect, and sensation seeking, theoretical predictions, whereas the three traits on their own

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Dark Triad: The “Dark Side” of Human Personality 673

show the mechanisms by which the latent construct relates to A Resolution?

certain outcomes. The point here is that the three traits are
The most reasonable position might be to just examine all three
imperfect measures of the same or a similar latent disposition.
levels (i.e., the collective, the three traits, and the parts of the
Taking a logical positivism perspective, they contend that
traits). Doing this will allow researchers to test the conditions
personality traits are convenient fictions that allow us to talk
under which each perspective has its utility and to get a high
about these traits; the traits themselves are not real themselves.
degree of resolution about the loci of the various relationships
Evidence for the utility of a unitary construct comes in
they investigate. We would contend that the collective is useful
a number of forms, all implying there is an underlying core
for making higher level predictions regarding the nature of the
behind the Dark Triad. First, there are a wide range of
underlying core, whereas the prediction at the trait level may
personality traits that appear to link the Dark Triad traits
be more mechanistic. This comes down to the quality of the
together: Agreeableness, dishonest/immodesty, limited
theory one is using to make their predictions. Most personality
empathy, short-term mating, future discounting, and callous-
psychology predictions are on the order of proximal and
ness. Second, factor analyses suggest that the three load on
descriptive. That is, researchers assemble correlates from other
a single factor well and account for over 50% of the variance in
studies to build the case that their two pet variables will be
each construct. Indeed, at least one measure of the Dark Triad
linked. We urge caution here in taking an exploratory approach
returns better fits for structural models that take into account
to examine the subfactors. In contrast, if one has a strong
a latent, global factor. Third, so there is at least one case where
theoretical paradigm (e.g., evolutionary psychology), one can
the latent construct outperforms the three traits on their own
make more sensible predictions but those predictions may not
when assessing sociosexuality. Fourth, it might be that these
be able to focus on any one of the traits if we assume the traits
traits are simply reflections of similar a disposition with
(or at least their measures) are imperfect themselves. Whether
different researchers making the measures, coming from
the Dark Triad is treated as a single construct, a three-factor
different perspectives, and focusing on different aspects of the
construct, or even a construct with more than three factors,
underlying profile. That is, we should not assume that because
should depend on the situation. Ultimately, it is up to the
a given trait as conceptually been about X that the original
researcher – guided by theory – to determine the best approach
conceptualization was correct.
to use for her/his project.
The approaches used to study and understand the Dark
Separationism Triad vary considerably within the literature. This variation
stems from disagreements over what the Dark Triad is, how it
Their opponents argue that some important relationships can
should be measured, and most importantly, how we can better
only be found when examining the factors within the Dark
understand it in future research. What should be clear here is
Triad, and that it is only through this kind of examination that
that the factors within the Dark Triad are conceptually impor-
a fuller, deeper understanding of the construct can be found.
tant and distinct components, and that blindly forcing them
They would contend that simply because there are relation-
into a single construct in every situation, regardless of their
ships between the three does not mean they are equivalent;
differences, loses an important part of their utility. Likewise,
after all, the traits of the Dark Triad were chosen because they
forgetting their similarities and treating the factors as univer-
shared a socially aversive component. It should be expected
sally separate and isolated concepts can be just as bad. While
that any set of traits selected to represent the ‘dark side’ of
there is no clean answer to these problems, future research
human personality should, by definition, share a core of being
might provide some answers, however, long this might take.
‘dark.’ These researchers point the Dark Triad do show some
Until then, researchers are advised to carefully consider these
differences in important ways. For example, while both
points before they commit to any one approach.
narcissism and psychopathy can predict attitudinal aggression,
narcissists tend to aggress toward ego threats, whereas
psychopaths tend to aggress toward physical threats. Other
factors, such as IQ, are related only to narcissism, while only Measurement and Theoretical Issues with the
psychopathy is related to neuroticism, and even within studies Dark Triad
showing similar relationships between the three traits, there is
often a difference in how strong those relationships are. If some Arguably, the first task to making any serious advances in any
relationships can be isolated to a single trait, and we can see science is having standard metrics. Doing so allows researchers
differences in how well each trait can predict other factors, then to all ‘speak the same language.’ Unfortunately, personality
the claim that they are identical seems inadequate. Indeed, psychology tends to resist this trend with most personality
examinations of the various subfactors of narcissism and constructs having multiple measures. The Dark Triad is no
psychopathy have revealed that it is even suspect to treat the exception. There are various measures of all three traits. Early
Dark Triad as unified constructs. For example, secondary work relied mostly on the Narcissistic Personality Inventory,
psychopathy, exploitive narcissism, and Machiavellianism have the Self-Report Psychopathy Scale-III, and the MACH-IV.
been linked with a fast life strategy, whereas primary However, in hopes of reducing subject fatigue, standardizing
psychopathy and grandiose narcissism have been linked with a single Dark Triad measure, reducing bloated specificity, and
a slow life strategy. Additionally, the same cluster of traits reducing contamination from related constructs the Dirty Dozen
related to a ‘fast’ life strategy (i.e., secondary psychopathy, was created. However, as a brief measure (viz., 12 items) it
exploitative narcissism, and Machiavellianism) have been cannot maintain the heterogeneity in the longer (i.e., 124
linked with an evening chronotype. items) measures as has been noted by the scale authors and its

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674 Dark Triad: The “Dark Side” of Human Personality

critics. Nevertheless, it remains the most well-validated, short, perspective, personality traits are evolutionarily stable strategies
published, brief instrument to assess the Dark Triad. Despite its designed by natural selection and shaped by environmental
brevity, it has proved its value in Classical Test Theory and Item contingencies (e.g., harshness and instability in one’s child-
Response Theory assessments, the three traits have different hood) to enable reproductive fitness. Those high on the these
correlates, and the measures appear to cover the range of sub- traits might have a ‘fast’ life history strategy geared toward
traits (e.g., primary psychopathy, vanity) each of the three maximizing immediate returns over delayed outcomes as
constructs contains. would be predicted by the tradeoffs expressed in life history
Putting issues of measurement aside, there are some major theory as seen in future discounting, short-term/exploitive
theoretical considerations. Up until about 2009, nearly all mating and social strategies, and impulsivity. The Dark Triad
work on the Dark Triad was descriptive. This early work was traits could be maintained in the population if some positive
focused more on accounting for the shared correlation among fitness benefit is accrued. What is often disparaged as a malad-
the Dark Triad. However, descriptive work is extremely limited aptive personality can be conceptualized within life history
although it is all-too-common in personality psychology. theory as an adaptive stable strategy on a shorter time horizon.
Thankfully, a number of authors have ventured into different
theoretical paradigms to attempt to understand the nature
Niche-Specialization Hypothesis
of the Dark Triad. We briefly review some of them here.
A number of theories could be lumped into what we will One of the limitations of evolutionary psychology is that it is
call interactionist theories (e.g., nature and nurture). Evidence too reliant on hypothesized ancestral conditions. As an alter-
suggests the Dark Triad traits are heritable with each having native, one might use behavioral ecology to study within-
some degree of susceptibility to environmental contingencies – species variation. In this case, we adopt reasoning by
Machiavellianism, in particular. In addition, the Dark Triad has homology. That is, from what we know from primatology we
been linked with many evolutionarily important behaviors, can reason what the role of personality traits might be.
such as a short-term mating style and a ‘fast’ life strategy leading Personality traits may drive individuals to select certain envi-
some to examine the Dark Triad from an evolutionary ronments over others. In order to avoid predation, find food,
perspective. But if these traits are heritable, how might we increase mating success, primates adopt different niches to
account for the continued persistence of the traits in the survive. This might allow for a pairing of trait and niche. That is,
population? because the human socioecology is so varied, individuals can
specialize in one or a set of environments to their own benefits.
Indeed, those high on the Dark Triad appear to have a prefer-
Parasites and Hosts
ence for the time of the day that would make it easiest for them
Those high on the Dark Triad do appear to have an exploitive, to take advantages of others and to select friends who serve
parasitic, and opportunistic mating style. Might insights from some function instead of just for enjoyment.
germ theory provide a way to understand the Dark Triad? While
reasoning from analogy can have its limitations, we contend
Social Exchange Theory
that thinking of those high on the Dark Triad as ‘parasites’ and
society as the ‘host’ may have some value. Parasites operate on Social Exchange Theory proposes that behaviors can be thought
different timelines. Genital herpes operates on a slow timeline. of as the result of cost-benefit analyses by people attempting to
It infects the cells of the host and uses the host to increase its interact with society and the environment. If a person believes
spread through infecting others, but little more than mild flu- that they are able to extract more of a reward through
like symptoms are observed before the first outbreak. In a behavior than they lose by performing it, then the person will
contrast, influenza operates on a faster timeline. It infects the perform the behavior. Conversely, when the person feels that
host, quickly creating fever and even causing death. Simulta- the cost will outweigh the benefit, the behavior will not be
neously, the host has strategies to avoid infection and mini- performed. If someone does not value maintaining a relation-
mize its effects through the behavioral and biological immune ship, or is distrustful and does not expect others to follow
system. If the Dark Triad is adaptive, those characterized by the through with the reward, then the balance would be shifted
traits need to strike a balance in the timeline of their infection toward anticipating a lower worth to any social exchange. That
and the strategies they use to promote their inclusive fitness is, the relative costs would be higher, and the anticipated
and must ‘trick’ the host. Indeed, people have a heightened rewards would be lower. Such a mind-set could produce
amygdala and orbital prefrontal cortex responses to faces of a short-term orientation favoring immediate, assured rewards,
people who score high on a psychopathy measure and those and would elicit the socially aversive behaviors characteristic of
high on the Dark Triad appear to have adaptive strategies to the Dark Triad. However, while we agree that there are costs
minimize detection. This suggests a coevolutionary arms race and benefits, we are suspicious of apparent the Neo-Classical
between the host and the parasite or the society and the person Economics assumption that humans are rational, calculating
high on the Dark Triad. animals.

Life History Theory Overall

Research on the Dark Triad has exploded in the last 5 years. If we are to continue work on the Dark Triad, we need to keep
One reason for this has its integration within evolutionary in mind that it provides both benefits and deficits to individ-
psychology, in particular life history theory. From this uals in terms of both resource and mate management.

International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, Second Edition, 2015, 671–675
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Dark Triad: The “Dark Side” of Human Personality 675

An evolutionary approach can be used to understand not only behavior in terms of traits, or behavioral descriptors, in which
why the Dark Triad exists, but under what circumstances it can a person’s general behavioral trends are summed up into
be the most beneficial, and the most detrimental. Under- a single constructs. However, preliminary approaches focused
standing what triggers the development of the Dark Triad too heavily on ‘normal’ functioning and neglected the more
would be an integral part of discovering how we can either socially aversive aspects of behavior. With the introduction of
prevent, treat, or utilize Dark Triad strategies. It might be that the Dark Triad, researchers finally had a tool to begin to
societal and occupational niches could be found for those high examine the darker aspects of human personality.
on the Dark Triad, and instead of simply trying to change these
individuals to fit what we consider to be ‘good,’ we might find See also: Authoritarian Personality; Five Factor Model of
various roles for them to fill in society; much in the same way Personality, Assessment of; Five Factor Model of Personality,
that we consider killers bad, and yet employ some people (i.e., Personality Disorder; Personality Theory and
army infantry) to go out and kill. Psychopathology; Personality, Biological Models of;
Personality, Evolutionary Models of; Personality, Trait
Models of.
Limitations and Final Thoughts

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International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, Second Edition, 2015, 671–675
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