American Journal of Educational Research, 2014, Vol. 2, No.

7, 463-471
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© Science and Education Publishing
DOI:10.12691/education-2-7-5

A Correlational Study on Dispositional Resilience,

Psychological Well-being, and Coping Strategies in
University Students
Elisabetta Sagone*, Maria Elvira De Caroli

Department of Educational Sciences, University of Catania, Sicily, Italy

*Corresponding author: [email protected]

Received May 26, 2014; Revised June 21, 2014; Accepted June 24, 2014
Abstract This study concerned the relationships among the dispositional resilience, the dimensions of
psychological well-being, and the coping strategies in a sample of 183 Italian university students aged 20-26 years
and recruited from three Degree Courses at University of Catania (East Sicily, Italy). The following scales were used:
1) the Dispositional Resilience Scale-II to explore the factors of positive attitude, helplessness/alienation, and
rigidity; 2) the Psychological Well-Being Scales clustered in six dimensions named autonomy, environmental
mastery, purpose in life, positive relations with others, personal growth, and self-acceptance; 3) the COPE Inventory
to analyze the five coping strategies defined as social support, reinterpretation, avoidance, problem solving,
humor/turning to religion. Results indicated that high levels of positive attitude were correlated positively with the
strategies of reinterpretation and problem solving, but negatively with avoidance coping, and high levels of
helplessness/alienation were related positively to avoidance. Moreover, high levels of positive attitude were
positively correlated with almost all dimensions of psychological well-being; high levels of helplessness/alienation
were negatively correlated with psychological well-being. Finally, almost all dimensions of psychological well-
being were correlated negatively with avoidance strategy and positively with problem solving coping; in addition,
personal growth was positively correlated with reinterpretation. Implications for future educational trainings,
centered on the effects of resilience and coping strategies on psychological well-being, will be discussed.
Keywords: resilience, psychological well-being, coping strategy, university students
Cite This Article: Elisabetta Sagone, and Maria Elvira De Caroli, “A Correlational Study on Dispositional
Resilience, Psychological Well-being, and Coping Strategies in University Students.” American Journal of
Educational Research, vol. 2, no. 7 (2014): 463-471. doi: 10.12691/education-2-7-5.

procrastinators”. For example, it was observed that

students with high levels of stress and low self-efficacy at
1. Introduction self-regulation reported high levels of academic
procrastination [3], as well as students who were likely to
Scientific literature underlined that the relationships use self-handicapping strategies and inadequate coping
existing between resilience as dispositional trait and with failures showed high levels of academic
psychological well-being, between coping strategies and procrastination ([4,5]).
well-being, as well as between dispositional resilience and The second reason was linked to higher vulnerability
coping strategies, are considered some of the most and lower levels of physical and psychological well-being
interesting topics in educational positive psychology [1], in medical university students than the others ([6,7]). As
in different domains of human development and according reported in Supe’s research [8], higher levels of stress
to the life-span perspective [2]. were found in medical students who used the coping
The aim of this paper was to analyze these relationships strategies as positive reappraisal, accepting responsibility,
in a sample of university students attending the degree and planful problem solving, whilst lower levels of stress
courses (Medicine, Engineering, and Law Degree Courses) were noted in medical students who adopted the escaping
at University of Catania, Sicily (Italy). The choice of these strategy and distancing from difficult situations. More
three groups of university students was addressed by two recently, some researchers discovered that medical
main reasons. The first one was linked to widely diffused university students with low levels of resilience but high
academic status of these students, in our context, levels of optimism showed a great psychological well-
characterized by higher levels of procrastination and being [9].
longer periods of permanence in academic settings,
compared to other students. Accordingly to several 1.1. Dispositional Resilience as Personality
empirical evidences, researchers identified some
psychological characteristics defining the “typical
Trait of Hardy People
 American Journal of Educational Research 464

Resilience has been considered as a dispositional trait through their choices. Commitment is named as the
or personal quality that allows people to overcome tendency to involve oneself in, rather than experience
hardships and thrive in the face of them, typically present alienation from, whatever one is doing or encounters in
in hardy people (e.g., [10,11,12]). This construct was everyday life; highly committed individuals express a
initially defined as a personality characteristic that global sense of purpose that allows them to find the
moderates the negative effects of stress and promotes meaning of the people, events and things of their
adaptation [13], the ability to restore or maintain internal environment. Finally, challenge is considered as the
or external equilibrium under significant threat by means tendency to believe that change, in opposition to stability,
of human activities including thought and action [14], as is a normal condition and that changes are interesting
well as the ability to have positive outcomes in the face of incentives to growth rather than threats to one’s security;
adversity [15]. More recently, resilience has been so, individuals with high challenge are open to all new
considered as the ability to bounce back or recover from experiences, flexible in the face of changes, and tend to
stressful circumstances in order to reach a whole put up with the ambiguity in an exploratory way.
adjustment to environment (e.g., [16,17,18]). Some
researchers argued that highly resilient individuals were 1.2. Psychological Well-being as Factor of
generally better at maintaining their physical and Optimal Functioning
psychological health and at having the ability to recover
themselves more quickly from stressful events than lowly Psychological well-being has been considered as a set
resilient ones [19]. Other researchers found that of psychological characteristics involved in positive
undergraduate students greatly able to bounce back from human functioning ([25,26]) that included several
adversities were more ego-resilient and optimistic resilience-related and hardiness-related dimensions.
individuals, engaged in positive social relationships and According to the Ryff’s “eudaimonic perspective” ([27],
get used to apply the coping strategies of acceptance, [28]), the most important elements of psychological well-
active coping, and positive reframing than those unable to being were represented by self-acceptance (in terms of
do it [16]. Some researchers observed sex differences on self-actualization, optimal functioning, and maturity);
factors of resilience, in the sense that women scored positive relations with other individuals (linked to the
higher than men in helplessness/alienation while men ability to express feelings of empathy and affection for all
reported higher scores than women in positive attitude human beings and to be able of greater love and friendship,
[20]; additionally, boys tended to be more resilient in and identification with the others); autonomy (considered
personal competence than girls [21]. as self-determination, independence, and regulation of
Among the most applied quantitative measures of behavior through internal locus of control); environmental
resilience, it is possible to mention: mastery (in terms of the ability to create environments
- the Wagnild and Young’s Resilience Scale [13] with suitable to his or her healthy conditions); purpose in life
two main factors called personal competence and (including a sense of goal directedness and intentionality);
acceptance of self and life; and, finally, personal growth (defined as the realization of
- the Bartone et al.’s Dispositional Resilience Scale [12], one’s potentialities, continuing to develop oneself as a
including the positive factors of hardiness, named as person and underlining the importance of new challenges
control (that is, a feeling of control over life at different moments of life).
circumstances), commitment (that is, a feeling of deep The paradigm of psychological well-being has been
involvement and tendency to engage fully in life analyzed in relation to other constructs such as resilience
activities), and challenge (namely, experimentation of life and hardiness ([29,30,31]), adaptive coping strategies [32],
changes or obstacles as exciting possibilities for self- sense of coherence [33], humor styles [34], self-esteem
development); [35]. For example, some researchers found that the
- the Friborg et al.’s Resilience Scale for Adults [22], as dimensions of psychological well-being (except for the
well as the Hjemdal et al.’s Resilience Scale for autonomy) were positively correlated with dispositional
Adolescents [23] with a five-factors solution including resilience analyzed using the factors of commitment,
personal strength, social competence, family cohesion, control, and challenge [31]. Also, significant correlations
structured style, and social resources; among psychological well-being, internal locus of control,
- the Connor-Davidson’s Resilience Scale [24], positive functioning, and high levels of self-esteem in
grouping the factors of personal competence and tenacity, younger, middle-aged, and older adults were observed
acceptance of change, tolerance of stress and negative [36]. More recently, in Italian school context, it was noted
feelings, personal control, and spirituality. that the more the individuals were able to choose contexts
The framework of the current study referred to factors suitable to personal needs (environmental mastery), to see
of resilience was constituted by Sinclair and Oliver’s themselves as growing and expanding (personal growth),
model of hardiness [11], according to which the three and to perceive themselves as self-satisfied (self-
factors, called helplessness, alienation, and rigidity, acceptance), the more they were resilient [37]. In addition,
represented respectively the negative polarities of the positive relationships between generalized self-efficacy
three positive factors of dispositional resilience (control, and environmental mastery, personal growth, and self-
commitment, and challenge). Specifically, control is acceptance were found [38]: so, highly efficient
defined as the tendency to think, feel and act as if one is individuals expressed higher scores in these dimensions
influential, rather than helpless, in the face of the various than lowly efficient ones.
contingencies of life; individuals with high control do not Relevant differences for sex and age variables were
ingenuously expect to determine all outcomes but rather found in relation to psychological well-being ([36,39]): in
perceive themselves as being able to make the difference fact, boys scored higher in environmental mastery,
465 American Journal of Educational Research

purpose in life, and self-acceptance than girls, as well as high levels of pessimism were likely to use the
late adolescents scored higher on personal growth and maladaptive strategies as disengagement, denial, and
positive relations with others than adults and the elderly. venting of emotions (e.g., [49,50]). Some scholars found
One of the most famous and complete measures of the that medical university students with high levels of life
abovementioned paradigm was represented by the satisfaction were less likely to use emotion-focused
Psychological Well-Being Scales, created by Ryff and strategies, such as wishful thinking, than the others [51].
Singer ([27,40]) and adapted to different contexts by other Sex differences in the use of coping strategies were
researchers (e.g., [36,39,41,42]). These scales measured found: in fact, girls were likely to use the seeking social
the six dimensions of well-being for each of which it is support and venting of emotions, while boys were likely
possible to reach high vs. low levels of self-acceptance, to adopt the mental and behavioral disengagement [48].
high vs. low levels of autonomy, and so on. In some Girls tended to use the engagement in social relationships
studies ([33,42]), scholars found a good concurrent and the creation of change as coping strategies more
validity of PWBS and significant correlations between the frequently than boys, whereas boys were more likely to
PWBS and other measures of subjective well-being as adopt diversion coping strategy than girls [52].
“life satisfaction” [43], “sense of vitality” [44], and Additionally, women scored significantly higher than men
“optimistic orientation” ([45,46]). on the emotional and avoidance coping styles and lower
on the rational and detachment coping [53].
1.3. Adaptive vs. Maladaptive Coping Among the most cited measures applied to analyze the
Strategies coping strategies, it is noteworthy the “Ways Coping
Questionnaire” [54], used with older adults and composed
From the findings of Lazarus and Folkman [47], coping by eight subscales to assess the following strategies:
strategies were recognized as positive and/or negative confrontive coping, distancing, self-controlling, seeking
dispositions to cope with difficulties and unexpected social support, accepting responsibility, escape-avoidance,
events. Subsequently, Carver and his colleagues [48] planful problem solving, and positive reappraisal.
defined the following adaptive versus maladaptive Additionally, the authors created a revised version for
strategies, extending the marked distinction between undergraduate students, focused on the evaluation of
problem-focused and emotion-focused coping: problem-focused coping, wishful thinking, detachment,
- the active coping was defined as an activity directed seeking social support, focusing on the positive, self-
toward the removal of stressors; blame, tension reduction, and keep to self strategy.
the planning was considered as a thinking about the The “Coping Inventory for Stressful Situation” and the
best way to handle the problem; related version “CISS: Situation-Specific Coping Scale”,
- the suppression of competing activities as elimination created by Endler and Parker [55], were other frequently
of competing channels of information in order to diffused measures used to assess three main strategies to
concentrate fully on the stressors only; cope with stress in multiple circumstances (task-oriented,
- the restraint coping was defined in terms of a waiting emotion-oriented, and avoidance-oriented coping
strategy to deal appropriately with the difficulty; articulated in two sub-scales: distraction and social
- the seeking of instrumental and emotional social diversion) and applied to adolescents, university students,
support as an activity of support seeking from other and adults. Finally, the “Coping Orientation for Problem
sources or people; Experiences”, called COPE Inventory ([48,56]), was a
- the focus on and venting of emotions was considered self-report questionnaire used to measure individual
as a dysfunctional activity fixed on negative emotions for differences in adaptive and maladaptive coping strategies
a long time exacerbating the distress; in undergraduate students.
- the mental and behavioral disengagement as reduction The framework of the current study in relation to
of one’s efforts to solve the problem, distracting oneself coping strategies was referred to the articulation provided
with alternative activities (e.g., watching TV, drinking by Sica and her colleagues in Italian context [57],
alcohol, to go shopping or other diversions); according to which the main strategies to cope with
- the positive reinterpretation and growth in terms of stressful situations in daily life were linked to the positive
direct managing of stressful conditions, modifying reinterpretation of the events meaning and active research
actively the meaning of the same situation; of solutions (in terms of problem-focused coping), the
- the acceptance was defined as an engagement strategy seeking for social support, turning to religion, and the use
functional to both recognize the presence of the problem of humor coping (in terms of emotion-focused coping),
and try to deal with the same problem; and, finally, the avoidance coping.
- the denial as refusal of the existence of stressful
events or avoidance of reality of problems; 1.4. Purpose of Study
- finally, the turning to religion as coping strategy for
emotional comfort with the help of external sources. The purpose of the current study was to examine the
These strategies were grouped in primary and relationships among the dispositional resilience, the
secondary appraisal and considered both as individual dimensions of psychological well-being, and the coping
dispositions in one’s everyday life and as situation- strategies in three groups of Italian university students at
specific coping tendencies. University of Catania, Sicily (Italy).
Several investigations found that individuals with high
levels of resilience, life satisfaction, and optimism tended 1.4.1. Hypotheses
to adopt the positive and adaptive coping strategies as We hypothesized that high levels of resilience will be
task-oriented, active, and planful coping, whilst those with related positively to problem-focused coping strategies
 American Journal of Educational Research 466

(that is, problem solving and positive reinterpretation) (three items), and helplessness/alienation (six items).
(H1a) but negatively to emotion-focused (that is, social Some examples of items included in each factor of
support and humor/turning to religion) and avoidance resilience were: e.g., “My successes are because of my
ones (H1b); high levels of resilience will be positively efforts and abilities” (positive attitude), “I carefully plan
related to psychological well-being (H2); high levels of just about everything I do” (rigidity), and “I often feel
psychological well-being will be related positively to alienated from the people around me” (helplessness and
problem-focused coping strategies (H3a) but negatively to alienation). Participants were presented with the following
emotion-focused and avoidance ones (H3b). instructions: “Each of these statements reflects ways
As a corollary, in relation to differences for type of people sometimes feel. Please I invite you to indicate the
degree course, we expected that medical university extent to which you agree with each of the under-
students will score lower on levels of resilience (H4a) and mentioned statements”. The internal consistency of DRS,
psychological well-being (H4b) and will use emotion- using the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient, was considered
focused and avoidance coping strategies (H4c) more than acceptable and ranged from .61 to .65.
law and engineering ones. For differences about the levels The Psychological Well-Being Scales, created by Ryff
of procrastination, we expected that highly procrastinated and Singer [60], were composed by 64 items, each
university students will score lower on resilience (H5a) and valuable on a 6-point Likert-type scale from 1 (anchored
psychological well-being (H5b), and use the problem- with “strongly disagree”) to 6 intervals (anchored with
focused coping strategies (that is, problem solving and “strongly agree”). These items were clustered in the six
positive reinterpretation) more than emotion-focused (that following subscales: autonomy, environmental mastery,
is, social support and humor/turning to religion) and purpose in life, positive relations with others, personal growth,
avoidance ones, compared to the other colleagues (H5c). and self-acceptance. Some examples of items included in
Finally, accordingly to sex differences emerged from each factor of psychological well-being were: e.g., “I have
previous and above-mentioned studies, we expected that confidence in my opinions, even if they are contrary to the
boys will be more resilient than girls (H6a); boys will score general consensus” (autonomy), “I am quite good at managing
higher than girls on environmental mastery, purpose in life, the many responsibilities of my daily life” (environmental
self-acceptance, autonomy, and personal growth, while mastery), “I am an active person in carrying out the plans I
girls will score higher than boys on positive relations with set for myself” (purpose in life), “I know that I can trust
others (H6b); finally, girls will be more likely to use my friends, and they know they can trust me” (positive
emotion-focused coping strategies than boys while boys relations with others), “I have the sense that I have
will be more likely to adopt problem-focused and developed a lot as a person over time” (personal growth),
avoidance strategies than girls (H6c). and “I like most aspects of my personality” (self-
acceptance). In this study, we used the short version with
1.4.2. Participants 18 items, translated and applied to Italian context by Zani
The sample consisted of 183 Italian university students and Cicognani [59]. Participants were asked to indicate
(94 boys and 89 girls) recruited from the degree courses of the extent to they agreed with the mentioned statements.
Medicine (n=60), Engineering (n=61), and Law (n=62) at The internal consistency of PWB was satisfactory (α=.71)
University of Catania, Sicily (Italy). Demographic and ranged from .68 to .75 for each subscale.
information were collected at the beginning of the fall Finally, the COPE Inventory [48], recently adapted to
semester of academic year 2013-2014. Participants were Italian university students by Sica and her colleagues [57],
chosen with random sampling method among those was formed by 60 items, each valuable on a 4-point rating
characterized by low (48,1%), intermediate (20,2%) and scale from 1 (anchored with “I usually don’t do this at all”)
high “procrastination” (31,7%). The age of university to 4 intervals (anchored with “I usually do this a lot”).
students ranged from 20 to 26 years (M=22.8, sd=1.4). This inventory was functional to analyze the following
five coping strategies: 1) social support, 2) positive
1.4.3. Measures and Procedure reinterpretation, 3) avoidance, 4) problem solving, and 5)
We used a self-report and anonymous questionnaire, humor and turning to religion. Some examples of items
administered in a small group setting by an expert included in each coping strategy were: e.g., “I talk to
researcher, consisting of the three following scales: the someone to find out more about the situations” (social
Italian version of Dispositional Resilience Scale-II (DSR- support), “I make sure not to make matters worse by
II: [11,20]), the Italian short version of Psychological acting too soon” (positive reinterpretation), “I refuse to
Well-Being Scales (PWB: [58,59]), and the Italian version believe that it has happened” (avoidance), “I concentrate
of COPE Inventory ([48,57]). my efforts on doing something about it” (problem solving),
The Dispositional Resilience Scale-II was a 18-item and “I laugh about the situation”, “I put my trust in God”
version scale, elaborated by Sinclair and Oliver [11] and (humor and turning to religion). Participants were
recently translated and adapted to Italian context by Prati presented with the following instructions: “We are
[20]. This scale was useful to explore the six factors interested in how people respond when they confront
typically integrated in the constructs of resistance and difficult or stressful events in their lives. There are lots of
vulnerability to stressful events in everyday life: 1) ways to try to deal with stress. This questionnaire asks you
commitment, 2) control, 3) challenge, 4) powerlessness, 5) to indicate what you generally do and feel, when you
alienation, and 6) rigidity. Each item was rated according experience stressful events. Obviously, different events
to a 5-point Likert-type scale, from 1 (corresponding to bring out somewhat different responses, but think about
“strongly disagree”) to 5 intervals (corresponding to what you usually do when you are under a lot of stress.
“strongly agree”). We used the 17-item version with three- Indicate what you usually do when you experience a
factors solution: positive attitude (eight items), rigidity stressful event”.
467 American Journal of Educational Research

The internal consistency of COPE was satisfactory for solving (M=34.30, sd=5.60), and social support coping
total scale (α=.81) and Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of (M=31.65, sd=6.97), whilst tended to use the avoidance
each subscale ranged from .68 to .88. (M=26.19, sd=6.57) and humor/turning to religion coping
(M=16.55, sd=4.85) in a reduced way (F(4, 728)=438.10,
1.4.4. Data Analysis p<.001).
Data analysis was performed by means of the Statistical Significant sex differences for coping strategies were
Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS 20 for Windows 7) found: it meant that girls reported higher scores for social
using t-tests, ANOVA, and Pearson’s linear correlations. support (M-boys=30.22, sd=6.79; M-girls=33.16, sd=6.88;
Additionally, we applied linear regressions with stepwise t(181)=-2.90, p=.004), but lower scores for humor/turning to
method using factors of resilience and coping strategies as religion coping (M-boys=17.37, sd=4.75; M-girls=15.70,
predictor variables and psychological well-being as sd=4.83; t(181)=2.27, p=.02) and avoidance strategy (M-
predicted variable. A p-value of .05 was used to determine boys=27.46, sd=7.32; M-girls=24.85, sd=5.40; t(181)=2.73,
statistical significance in all analyses. p=.007) compared to boys. These evidences underlined
Sex (boy vs. girls), procrastination (low vs. that girls were more likely than their colleagues to use the
intermediate vs. high procrastination), and type of degree coping strategy focused on seeking of support from other
course (Medicine, Engineering, and Law Degree Courses) people and resources; on the contrary, boys were more
were used as independent variables, while scores of DRS, likely than girls to adopt strategies centered on the
PWB, and COPE were used as dependent variables. avoidance and the minimization of stressful situations,
refusing the existence of stressors and the use of
humoristic and religious coping style.
2. Results and Discussion Differences for procrastination and type of degree
course were not found in relation to the coping strategies.
2.1. Dispositional Resilience
2.4. Relations among Constructs
Descriptive analyses for the factors of dispositional
resilience showed that university students scored higher Pearson’s linear correlations were carried out between
on positive attitude (M=3.66, sd=.53) than rigidity the factors of dispositional resilience and coping strategies
(M=2.52, sd=.88) and helplessness/alienation (M=1.80, (DRS-COPE), the factors of dispositional resilience and
sd=.62) (F(2, 364)=334.71, p<.001), with moderate sex dimensions of psychological well-being (DRS-PWB), and
differences only for the factor of positive attitude the dimensions of psychological well-being and coping
(t(181)=1.97, p=.05): so, boys obtained higher scores strategies (PWB-COPE).
(M=3.74, sd=.54) than girls (M=3.58, sd=.50), indicating DRS-COPE. As observed in Table 1, statistical
that they tended to express higher levels of control and analyses showed that the positive attitude was correlated
personal commitment in reaching of established goals positively with reinterpretation and problem solving
compared to their colleagues. No significant differences coping but negatively with avoidance; also, the rigidity
for procrastination and type of degree course were found. was poorly and positively correlated with avoidance;
finally, the helplessness/alienation was positively
2.2. Psychological Well-being correlated with avoidance. These data meant that
university students with high levels of dispositional
Descriptive analyses carried out for the six dimensions resilience, specifically in relation to the ability to deal with
of psychological well-being demonstrated that university challenges and manage their own environment, were
students reported higher levels of personal growth likely to solve stressful situations by modifying the
(M=14.81, sd=2.34), autonomy (M=14.20, sd=2.41), and meaning of them in positive terms, and to search new and
positive relations with others (M=14.01, sd=2.55), than multiple problem solutions. Additionally, university
levels of environmental mastery (M=12.56, sd=2.11), students with high levels of alienation were likely to
purpose in life (M=12.48, sd=2.41), and self-acceptance minimize stressful events refusing the existence of the
(M=12.62, sd=2.48) (F(5, 910)=44.05, p<.001). same stressors.
Results showed significant sex differences for personal No relevant and significant differences for sex,
growth (M-boys=14.49, sd=2.40; M-girls=15.16, sd=2.23; procrastination, and type of degree course were found
t(181)=-1.94, p=.05), positive relations with others (M- about the correlations between the three factors of
boys=13.63, sd=2.85; M-girls=14.42, sd=2.13; t(181)=-2.11, resilience and coping strategies.
p=.03), and purpose in life (M-boys=12.06, sd=2.53; M-
girls=12.92, sd=2.20; t(181)=-2.43, p=.01): so, girls scored Table 1. Dispositional resilience and coping strategy: linear
higher than boys on these three dimensions, indicating a correlations for total sample (N = 183)
greater feeling of continued development and sense of COPE
DRS
realizing of their potential, a strong sense of empathy and I II III IV V
intimacy, and a good sense of directedness. No relevant
I .07 -.31** .32** .42** .11
differences for procrastination and type of degree course
were noted. II .14 .17* .03 .06 -.01
III .05 .35** -.07 -.10 -.01
2.3. Coping Strategies Levels of significance for (*) p<.05 and (**) p<.01.
DRS-I: positive attitude; DRS-II: rigidity; DRS-III: alienation
Results of descriptive analyses for coping strategies COPE-I: social support; COPE-II: avoidance; COPE-III: positive
indicated that university students were greatly likely to use reinterpretation; COPE-IV: problem solving; COPE-V: humor and
the positive reinterpretation (M=38.49, sd=5.63), problem turning to religion
 American Journal of Educational Research 468

DRS-PWB. As reported in Table 2, high levels of students who saw themselves as growing and expanding
positive attitude were positively correlated with all and open to new experiences tended to cope with
dimensions of psychological well-being, except for unexpected and negative events by modifying the meaning
purpose in life; so, it indicated that university students of difficulties.
with high control and personal commitment in reaching of Sex differences were observed about the significant
established goals and overcoming of stressful situations correlations between dimensions of psychological well-
expressed a psychological condition characterized by being and coping strategies:
generalized well-being. -only for boy, autonomy was negatively related to
Additionally, high levels of helplessness/alienation social support (r=-.30, p=.004); positive relations with
were negatively correlated with all dimensions of others were negatively related to avoidance (r=-.38,
psychological well-being, except for purpose in life: these p<.001); finally, self-acceptance was positively related to
data revealed that university students with strong feelings problem solving (r=.34, p=.001);
of alienation and low sense of personal power were -only for girls, environmental mastery and personal
characterized by reduced generalized psychological well- growth were positively correlated with reinterpretation
being. (respectively, r=.32, p=.002; r=.42, p<.001) and problem
Also in this case, relevant and significant differences solving coping (respectively, r=.30, p=.004; r=.50,
for sex, procrastination, and type of degree course were p<.001); relations with others were positively related to
not observed about the correlations between factors of social support strategy (r=.30, p=.004); finally, self-
resilience and psychological well-being. acceptance was related positively to reinterpretation
(r=.30, p=.005) and negatively to avoidance (r=-.36,
Table 2. Dispositional resilience and psychological well-being: linear p=.001).
correlations for total sample (N = 183) The deepening of these relationships, carried out by
PWB means of linear regressions with stepwise method, showed
DRS
I II III IV V VI that psychological well-being was predicted positively by
I .28** .45** .46** .27** -.03 .42** positive attitude of resilience (β=.24, t=3.90, p<.001) and
reinterpretation coping strategy (β=.18, t=3.24, p<.001)
II -.09 -.03 -.14 -.15 .04 -.18*
but negatively by helplessness/alienation (β=-.28, t=-4.76,
III -.28** -.33** -.35** -.36** -.05 -.44** p<.001) and avoidance coping strategy (β=-.36, t=-6.21,
Levels of significance for (*) p<.05 and (**) p<.01. p<.001) (R=.707; R2=.489; F(4, 182)=44.50, p<.001).
DRS-I: positive attitude; DRS-II: rigidity; DRS-III: alienation
PWB-I: autonomy; PWB-II: environmental mastery; PWB-III:
personal growth; PWB-IV: positive relations with others; PWB-V:
purpose in life; PWB-VI: self-acceptance. 3. Conclusions
PWB-COPE. As shown in Table 3, statistical analyses
showed that autonomy, environmental mastery, personal Findings of the present study highlighted the
growth, positive relations with others, and self-acceptance correlations among the dispositional resilience, the
were negatively correlated with the avoidance strategy; on dimensions of psychological well-being, and the coping
the contrary, autonomy, environmental mastery, personal strategies in university students at University of Catania,
growth, and self-acceptance were positively correlated Sicily (Italy). According to H1a, we hypothesized that high
with problem solving coping; finally, personal growth was levels of resilience would be related positively to problem-
positively correlated with positive reinterpretation. focused coping strategies but negatively to emotion-
focused and avoidance ones (H1b): results confirmed that
Table 3. Psychological well-being and coping strategy: linear university students with positive attitude linked to
correlations for total sample (N = 183) challenge, commitment, and control (that is, factors
COPE typically owned by highly resilient individuals) were
PWB
I II III IV V likely to adopt problem-focused strategies and avoid the
I -.12 -.42** .16* .28** -.09 escape from the stressful events. These data were
II .04 -.36** .19* .27** -.01 consistent with findings of Smith et al. [16], Li and Yang
III .10 -.41** .32** .35** -.02 [61], and Beasley and her colleagues [62].
IV .21** -.31** .13 .07 -.06 In relation to H2, we predicted that high levels of
V .07 -.20** .02 .06 .05 resilience would be positively related to psychological
VI .10 -.27** .25** .27** .07 well-being; also in this case, results confirmed that
Levels of significance for (*) p<.05 and (**) p<.01. university students with positive attitude expressed high
PWB-I: autonomy; PWB-II: environmental mastery; PWB-III: psychological well-being in almost all dimensions. These
personal growth; PWB-IV: positive relations with others; PWB-V:
results could be considered similar to those obtained by
purpose in life; PWB-VI: self-acceptance.
COPE-I: social support; COPE-II: avoidance; COPE-III: positive Picardi et al. [31], Hurtes and Allen [63] and in line with
reinterpretation; COPE-IV: problem solving; COPE-V: humor and the findings of Beasley et al.’s research [62], according to
turning to religion which the more the university students were resilient and
These findings demonstrated that university students hardy the more they felt themselves psychologically
with a great personal autonomy, ability to create a context healthy.
suitable to personal needs, sense of openness to Finally, according to H3a and H3b, we expected that high
experiences, feeling of trust with others, and positive levels of psychological well-being would be related
representation of self-image tended to cope with stressful positively to problem-focused coping strategies but
situations in proactive way, finding new solutions through negatively to emotion-focused and avoidance ones.
the analysis of different possibilities. Moreover, university Results showed that university students who expressed a
469 American Journal of Educational Research

condition of psychological well-being handled actively positive attitude as resilient disposition and
problems and stressful events, without resorting to reinterpretation as adaptive coping strategy predicted
avoidance and escape strategies. These evidences were in positively conditions of psychological well-being in
line with the findings of Park and Adler [64] and Stewart academic setting, while helplessness/alienation and
et al. [7] in a sample of medical university students. avoidance as maladaptive coping strategy had negative
The absence of significant correlations between effects on well-being. In this direction, it would be
dimensions of psychological well-being and the specific necessary to arrange supporting activities for university
humor/turning to religion coping in these groups of students (e.g., resiliency and hardiness trainings [69,70];
university students was in contrast with the evidences programs centered on academic self-efficacy and self-
found in Kazarian and Martin’s study [65] only for humor enhancing [71,72]) functional to empower resilience and
coping style: so, affiliative and self-enhancing humor tendency to use adaptive coping strategies.
styles were positively related to high psychological well- Future investigations in academic context will compare
being. Additionally, only for religious coping, this lack of groups of regular university students with groups of highly
correlations was in contrast with Maltby et al.’s findings procrastinated ones on dimensions of well-being, resilience,
[66] according to which high levels of religiosity as and the use of coping strategies in relation to different
coping mechanism positively predicted high levels of educational trainings. In addition, the authors of this
well-being. investigation underlined the importance of an integrated
One of the most interesting results emerged by the qualitative and quantitative approach that could be extensively
present study was given by significant relationships of functional to understand the intrinsic and extrinsic
alienation and avoidance with low levels of psychological academic motivations to university students’ procrastination.
well-being; it meant that the more the university students
felt themselves as helpless and alone individuals,
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