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02 Sensors and Variables Estimation

1. The document discusses sensors and variables estimation for mobile robots. 2. It describes different types of sensors including proprioceptive sensors that provide internal state information and exteroceptive sensors that provide environmental information. 3. Specific sensors discussed include odometry sensors, orientation sensors, optical encoders, inertial measurement units (IMUs), sonar sensors, radar sensors, and infrared telemeters.

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Hanael Ngadi Tsoudoudou
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25 views57 pages

02 Sensors and Variables Estimation

1. The document discusses sensors and variables estimation for mobile robots. 2. It describes different types of sensors including proprioceptive sensors that provide internal state information and exteroceptive sensors that provide environmental information. 3. Specific sensors discussed include odometry sensors, orientation sensors, optical encoders, inertial measurement units (IMUs), sonar sensors, radar sensors, and infrared telemeters.

Uploaded by

Hanael Ngadi Tsoudoudou
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Systèmes robotisés intelligents

Smart Robotic Systems

Sensors and Variables Estimation

Gilles TAGNE
[email protected]

1 1
Sensors and variables estimation

Summary:

1. Sensors for mobile robots


2. Variables estimation
3. Multi-sensor fusion

2 2
Sensors and variables estimation

Purpose:

Usual problem in robotics:


• Where am I? // In which configuration am I?
• Where should I go? // What configuration
should I reach?
• How to get there?

➔ We need sensors to get data and we need


some algorithms to use them!

3 3
Sensors for mobile robots
We have two class of sensors:

• Proprioceptive sensors: provide information on the


internal state of the robot
➔ Example: get the relative position of the robot.

• Exteroceptive sensors: provide information on the state


of the environment
➔ Example: get the absolute position of the robot.

Sensors can be:


• Passive / Active
• Analog / Digital
• Logic / Smart

4 4
Sensors for mobile robots
Classification example:

5 5
Sensors for mobile robots
Sensors for position measurement:

▪ Odometry sensors:
Use encoders to measure the rotation of the wheels and/or
steering angles.
Pros: proprioceptive sensor → always able to give an
estimation of the position.
Cons: accumulation of error.

▪ Orientation sensors:
Use gyroscopes or accelerometers to measure speed of rotation
or accelerations.
Pros: proprioceptive sensor.
Cons: drift over time (error integration)

6 6
Sensors for mobile robots
Odometry sensors
Measurement of wheel speed rotation
➔ Estimation of the robot's displacement
Most common daily use: dead-reckoning (estimation of the
position of your car in a tunnel into which you can’t receive GPS)

Two types of odometry sensors:


• Relative optical encoder

• Absolute optical encoder

7 7
Sensors for mobile robots
Optical encoders

How does it work?: a ray of light aim at a


photosensor and is periodically interrupted by a
perforated disc that turn with the shaft of the motor.

➔ Measuring the position consists in


counting the number of impulses.
(example: step motor)

8 8
Sensors for mobile robots
Relative optical encoders
Those encoders usually measure the speed of rotation from which we can
easily retrieve the position.

Same principle than the previous example but with two engraved tracks
shifted by 1/4th of the period → allow to get the direction of rotation and to
improve the resolution therefore the precision. (2 tracks = resolution x4)

9 9
Sensors for mobile robots
Relative optical encoders

10 10
Sensors for mobile robots
Relative optical encoders

A compromise has to be made between:


- low resolution → high noise especially at low speed
- high resolution → need high frequency counting electronics

Pros:
- Low cost (but price increase with the resolution)
- Few cables (usually 5)
- Small size

Cons:
- No absolute position → need a recalibration procedure!

11 11
Sensors for mobile robots
Absolute optical encoders
Same use of light through a wheel, but with an engraved binary code.

Each position of the axis is a number on Nbits ➔ absolute position!

12 12
Sensors for mobile robots
Absolute optical encoders
Be careful about which kind of encoder wheel you have!

13 13
Sensors for mobile robots
Absolute optical encoders
Be careful about which kind of encoder wheel you have!

« Natural » binary VS Gray code

14 14
Sensors for mobile robots
Absolute optical encoders
Each position is on Nbits ➔ Sensor resolution = 2N

Each new track on the wheel ➔ Resolution x2 but price ≈x4 !

Pros:
- Absolute position

Cons:
- More expensive (price increasing with resolution)
- Slightly bigger component
- More cables (one for each track + power)

15 15
Sensors for mobile robots
Resume: Optical encoders for odometry
Pros:
- Low cost
- Easy to integrate

Cons:
- We never know exactly the diameter of the wheel (tire
pressure, ground condition…)
- Wheel drift on accelerations/brakings

➔ Cumulative error on the position estimation!

➔ Need the support of complementary sensors to


correct the localization estimation of a mobile robot.
16 16
Sensors for mobile robots
Resume: Optical encoders for odometry

17 17
Sensors for mobile robots
Resume: Optical encoders for odometry

18 18
Sensors for mobile robots

Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU / Compass)


➔ Widely used to measure accelerations and orientation
(phones, GPS, VR headsets…)

19 19
Sensors for mobile robots

Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU / Compass)


Typically, one sensor per type needed on each axis:
● 6DOF = 3-axis accelerometer + 3-axis gyroscope
● 9DOF = 6DOF + 3-axis magnetometer
● 10DOF = 9DOF + barometric pressure sensor (altitude)

➔Additionnal feature: thermometer for self-calibration.

➔Need to be placed as close as possible to the gravity


center of the robot or its position relatively to this point
must be known precisely for the conception (and use) of
the robot model.

20 20
Sensors for mobile robots

Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU / Compass)

Gyroscopes:
➔Gives angular velocity in degrees/s or rad/s.
➔Has constant bias which is affected by temperature.
➔Bias changes over time (bias stability).

21 21
Sensors for mobile robots

Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU / Compass)

Accelerometer:
➔Gives acceleration in m/s2 or g.
➔At rest an accelerometer measures the gravity vector pointing up.
➔Accurate long term (no drift) but not short term (noise).

22 22
Sensors for mobile robots

Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU / Compass)

Gyroscope:
➔Measures magnetic field strength on each axis in Gauss (unit
of magnetic flux) or µT (unit of magnetic field strength).
➔Points generally towards magnetic north.
➔Can be distorted by nearby metals or electronics.

23 23
Sensors for mobile robots

Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU / Compass)

24 24
Sensors for mobile robots
Telemetry:
Principle: To measure the time of flight to get the distance.
Transmitter and receiver are close so we measure the echo.

Can be done using:


- Sound waves (ultrasound)
- Electromagnetic waves (radio)
- Light (mostly infrared)

25 25
Sensors for mobile robots
Sonar / Ultrasonic sensors:
Proximity and distance measurement
Sound waves that reflect on the obstacles Advantages: Precision,
low cost

Drawbacks: Maximum
frequency of
measurements, cone
angle of opening
➔ Check min and max
range!

26 26
Sensors for mobile robots
Sonar / Ultrasonic sensors:

Directivity patterns for two different sonar sensors.


27 27
Sensors for mobile robots
Radar / Doppler / proximity sensor:
Distance and Speed measurement
Similar to ultrasonic telemeter but with electromagnetic waves (radio)

Advantages: Low cost, Highly


industrialized

Drawbacks: Waves carried by air


therefore unusable at high speed,
aerodynamic effects that deteriorate
the signal, absorption of the signal by
certain materials

Main applications: Parking


assistance

28 10
28
Sensors for mobile robots
Infrared telemeter
Proximity and distance optical measurement

Advantages: Measurement acquisition frequency,


precision, short range
Drawbacks: Low distances <5m (Typically <2m), what
about transparent materials?
29 29
Sensors for mobile robots
LIDAR
• Rotating laser with high acquisition
frequency
• 180/360° Precise distance
measurements
• Mainly used for mapping

Example (characteristics):

30 30
Sensors for mobile robots
LIDAR
Can provide 2D or 3D data in an array of
data or in a point cloud
➔ Depends on the need and the
computational power available (need
to apply a transform to each point to
get their absolute position)
➔ Laser can be problematic with
some surfaces (mirrors, windows…)
➔ Depending on the need there is a
choice to be made between the
frequency of acquisition and the
precision (resolution)

31 31
Sensors for mobile robots
LIDAR

32 32
Sensors for mobile robots
Cameras (Vision)
2D Cameras important features:
- Resolution
- RBG // BW or Grayscale // IR (need
infrared light emitters for night vision or a very
sensitive sensor for thermal vision)
- Frame rate (FPS)
- Apperture & Sensitivity
- Fixed / Adjustable focal length
- Rolling or global shutter
- Connectivity (USB? CSI? Other?)
- CMOS / CCD
- Horizontal & Vertical FOV

33 33
Sensors for mobile robots
Cameras (Vision)
2D Cameras important features:

• “Eye to hand” → “Caméra deportée”


• “Eye in hand” → “Caméra embarquée”

≠
34 34
Sensors for mobile robots
Cameras (Vision)
2D Cameras variation: Omnidirectional camera
- Use of optical lenses or shaped mirrors to get a 360° picture.
➔ Nice idea but need to use time-consuming computer vision
algorithm to compensate the optical deformation before any
processing of the image…

35 35
Sensors for mobile robots
Cameras (Vision)
2D Cameras variation: Stereovision
➔ Two 2D cameras used to get precisous depth information
= cheap 3D camera!
➔ Based on how our eyes work with our brain
→ The distance between the cameras must be
known precisely!

36 36
Sensors for mobile robots
Cameras (Vision)
2D Cameras variation: Stereovision

Easy and cheap but results


are not very precise…

37 37
Sensors for mobile robots
Cameras (Vision)
3D Cameras:
Time of Flight (TOF) cameras = TOF sensor matrix
= Infrared telemeter marix
➔ Low resolution, often short range but good precision
➔ The higher the resolution or range, the higher the price!
➔ More and more integration into new smartphones
so it might become cheaper and better in a near future…

38 38
Sensors for mobile robots
Cameras (Vision)
3D Cameras:
Structured IR light = projection of an infrared pattern
➔ The distortion of the pattern show the depth variations
➔ Good precision and resolution
➔ Quite unexpensive
➔ The data fusion with a RGB camera gives a RGB-D camera

39 39
Sensors for mobile robots
Cameras (Vision)
3D Cameras:
Structured IR light = Example of the D415 and D435
Intel RealSense cameras

40 40
Sensors for mobile robots
Cameras (Vision)

41 41
Sensors for mobile robots
Cameras (Vision systems)
Advantages:
• Usually cheap and easy to use
• Allows customed 2D/3D data depending on the need
• Combined with computer vision algorithms it can give a lot of
information about the environment around the robot and allow it to
achieve many tasks (tracking a target, recognize object or faces,
detect patterns…)

Drawbacks:
• The form factor of some camera may not be easy to integrate in
constrained environment
• Useless without computer vision algorithms that need some
computation power to run in real time (if possible)
• Those algorithms can provide false positive detections

42 42
Sensors for mobile robots
GNSS* sensors:
GPS (Global Positioning System)
- Measuring the absolute position of a point in a
fixed landmark (the center of the earth)
- 3 satellites signals needed (4 is more robust)
- Only for outdoor navigation
→ Useful for position recalibration
- Differential GPS (DGPS) → 1-3 cm precision

Advantages: No drift
Drawbacks: Low frequency <5Hz (typically 1Hz),
unavailability of satellite signals (indoor, under water…)
*Global Navigation Satellite System-
43 43
Sensors for mobile robots
Other sensors:
A lot of sensors exist for all your needs !

44 44
Robot components: sensors
What levels of processing for those sensors ?
➔ How much processing power? Which board process the
data?
Low

Electronics: the sensor which detects bumping into obstacles


=> binary data or analog value through ADC.

Signal Processing: microphone sensor for recognizing a voice


=> filtering, clipping…

Computation: a camera to find your best friend at the party


High => algorithm, machine learning…

Low Medium High


45 45
Sensors for mobile robots
Classification example:
• Analog sensors
• Digital sensors
• Logic sensors

Exercise: Build an array


sensors of the following
robots :
• Pepper
• Turtlebot 3 Burger
• Turtlebot 2i
• ISEN Mobile robot

46 46
Variables estimation
What need to be estimated?
• Noise from the data of a sensor (odometry, IMU) or
from any other component (resistance, motor…).

Why?
• Data is too noisy → Impossibility to measure precisely
• Very expensive sensor so we want the best precision
and we need to remove precisely the noise

How to estimate?
• By developing a mathematical estimator
• By filtering the data (Kalman filter)
• Combining or merging many information

47 47
Variables estimation
Mathematical estimator:

We make several measure with the sensor and notice some


fluctuations on the data → there is noise!

Most of the time we use a linear model:


𝑦 =𝑎𝜃+ 𝜔
with: 𝑦 = measured data
𝑎 = known parameter (gain...)
𝜃 = real sensor value
𝜔 = random noise

We will use statistics to characterize the random noise


➔ Hypothesis: 𝜔 is a non zero mean Gaussian white noise

This is a simple example but building an estimator of a system is


a really complex task that needs a lot of data and math skills!
48 48
Variables estimation
Kalman Filter:

Widely used for filtering random noise.


Use the mathematical model of the system and more statistics!
The equations of the Kalman Filter algorithm may seem complex but the most
important is to know how it works and to know how to use it!

Based on 3 simple steps:


1. Prediction: Based on the mathematical model we
estimate the value that has yet to be measured.
2. Measure: We get the raw data read by the sensor.
3. Correction: We calculate the difference between
the estimation and the measurement, and we
update the mathematical model.

The recursive use of this algorithm over time ensure the error to
be null over time as the error is removed at each step.

49 49
Variables estimation
Kalman Filter:

Other existing similar algorithms


depending on your need and your
available computation power:
- Extended Kalman Filter
- Unscented KF
- Particle Filter
…

➔ More to be seen in the chapter


on Localization!

50 50
Multi-sensor data fusion

Purposes of data fusion:


• More robust estimation of the robot state
• Analysis of the robot near environment
• Planning for future actions

Data fusion examples:


• Odometry + GPS = Robust vehicle localization
• Odometry + IMU = Robust simple position for small mobile robots
• Camera + Odometry + IMU + US + Lidar = Development of the
robot dynamic local map (SLAM)

51 51
Multi-sensor data fusion
Data fusion Methods:
• Probability theory
• Theory of possibility
• Theory of fuzzy sets (fuzzy logic)
• Theory of belief functions
• Decision trees
• Rule bases
• Nearest neighbors
• Neural networks
• Bayesian networks
• Markov chains
• EFK
• UKF
• Particle Filtering
• … Kalman Filter!
52 52
Multi-sensor data fusion
Application of the Kalman Filter to data fusion:
The odometry data (red)
accumulate error over
time.

The fusion of the


odometry and IMU data
provide a much better
result but still has a huge
error in the end.

➔ Data fusion is not


magical!
➔ It helps to get more
reliable data from
sensors but absolute
positionning is always
required for precision!
53 53
Multi-sensor data fusion
Application of the Kalman Filter to data fusion:
The same way we considered our sensors data to be noisy,
we can merge two data from different sources by
considering that each one has some statistic error.
➔ A lot of applications: position and LIDAR data fusion

54 54
Multi-sensor data fusion
Application of the Kalman Filter to data fusion:
The same way we considered our sensors data to be noisy,
we can merge two data from different sources by
considering that each one has some statistic error.
➔ A lot of applications: 2D image and Depth data fusion

55 55
Multi-sensor data fusion
Application of the Kalman Filter to data fusion:
➔ A lot of applications: 3D image + position = 3D map

56 56
Next steps…
• Locomotion
• Localization
• Trajectory planning
• Robot Control
• Power supply
• Practical work

57 57

Common questions

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Multi-sensor fusion combines data from different types of sensors to improve the accuracy of a mobile robot's location estimation by mitigating individual sensor errors. For example, odometry sensors alone can accumulate errors over time, leading to drift. By integrating data from odometry with Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) sensors and GPS, more robust vehicle localization is achieved. Furthermore, combining cameras, odometry, IMU, ultrasonic (US), and LIDAR data facilitates the development of a dynamic local map using Simultaneous Localization and Mapping (SLAM) techniques, overcoming the limitations of individual sensors .

Relative optical encoders measure the position based on the rotation of the wheel, offering advantages such as low cost, small size, and few cables. However, they do not provide absolute position data, requiring recalibration and leading to cumulative errors without correction. Absolute optical encoders, on the other hand, provide a precise, encoded position on each axis, eliminating the cumulative error but with trade-offs including higher cost, larger size, and the need for more cables due to the increased complexity of encoding each position uniquely. These encoders require more computational resources to integrate into the system and higher resolution demands translate directly to higher costs .

The placement of an Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) significantly impacts its performance in measuring a robot's motion accurately. Ideally, the IMU should be located close to the robot's center of gravity to ensure the measurements reflect the actual movements of the robot without additional dynamic effects, such as sway or rotational torque, that could arise from being placed at an extremity. Precise knowledge of the IMU's location relative to the robot's center allows for correct calculations of displacement vectors and enhances the accuracy of the robot's dynamic model .

Stereovision cameras provide depth perception by using the principle of parallax from two slightly different viewpoints, much like human vision. The main advantages include being a relatively affordable option for obtaining depth information and being based on well-understood principles of binocular vision. However, they have disadvantages such as requiring precise calibration (exact knowledge of camera separation) for accuracy, and they often result in less precise depth measurements compared to more advanced 3D cameras or LIDAR systems .

Multi-sensor data fusion is critical in developing a robust dynamic local map for Simultaneous Localization and Mapping (SLAM) due to the complementary nature of different sensors. Each sensor may have specific advantages and limitations; for example, LIDAR provides high-resolution distance data, while cameras capture visual information critical for object recognition and feature detection. Fusion techniques like Kalman Filtering allow these different data sources to be combined, enhancing completeness and accuracy. This results in more reliable and consistent mapping, accommodating various sensor anomalies or data gaps, which single-sensor systems might fail to address .

The performance of magnetometers within an IMU can be significantly affected by various environmental conditions. Proximity to metallic objects or electronics can distort the magnetic field readings, compromising directional accuracy. Additionally, changes in temperature can alter the sensor's intrinsic characteristics, leading to errors in orientation data. As a result, careful sensor calibration and sensor fusion strategies are essential to mitigate these impacts and maintain reliable performance under varying environmental conditions .

Acoustic sensors, such as sonar, use sound waves to measure distance, relying on the echo from objects. They are commonly used in proximity detection and low-resolution mapping, particularly in environments where visibility is limited. Sonar has advantages in terms of low cost and robust operation in diverse environmental conditions. In contrast, light-based sensors like LIDAR use laser light for high-resolution distance measurements and are crucial in applications requiring precise 3D mapping and obstacle avoidance. While LIDAR provides detailed mapping capabilities, it is generally more expensive and may struggle on reflective or transparent surfaces .

A Kalman filter helps reduce noise in sensor data by predicting the future state based on past and current measurements and correcting the prediction with the actual sensor readings. It operates in a recursive manner, performing in two stages: prediction, where it estimates the robot's future position using a mathematical model, and correction, where the prediction is adjusted based on actual sensor data. This process effectively filters out random noise and minimizes estimation errors over time, providing a more accurate and reliable navigation solution for robots .

Classifying sensors into categories like analog, digital, and logic is essential in designing robotic systems as it affects data processing and integration strategies. Analog sensors provide continuous data and require conversion to digital signals for processing, introducing the need for additional components like ADCs (Analog to Digital Converters). Digital sensors deliver data in a form readily usable by digital processing units, simplifying integration. Logic sensors output binary data that can be directly interpreted by digital systems. Understanding these classifications helps in selecting the appropriate processing architecture and designing efficient data pathways within the robotic system .

LIDAR sensors are crucial for robotic navigation due to their high precision in measuring distances and creating maps of the environment. However, challenges include issues with reflective surfaces like mirrors and transparent materials like windows, which can distort laser readings. Furthermore, there is a trade-off between the acquisition frequency and precision; higher precision demands more computational power and resources. Solutions to these challenges include data fusion with other sensor types, such as cameras and ultrasonic sensors, to correct distortions. Additionally, algorithms like SLAM can be utilized to continuously update and refine the robot's understanding of its environment despite these challenges .

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