ANATOMY

• Anatomy deals with the structure of the body and its

parts; in other words, the names of the parts.

• The inside of the human body is a crowded place.

Tissues and organs push and press against one
another. There is no free space, and no stillness either.
Human body parts shift continually in relation to each
other, as we move about, breathe, sleep, and eat.
• It is necessary to learn some useful terms for describing
body structure. Knowing these terms will make it much
easier for us to understand the content of the following
learning units. Three groups of terms are introduced
here:
• Directional Terms
• Planes of the Body
• Body Cavities
DIRECTIONAL TERMS:

Directional terms describe the positions of structures relative to other

structures or locations in the body.
• Superior or cranial - toward the head end of the body; upper
(example, the hand is part of the superior extremity).
• Inferior or caudal - away from the head; lower (example, the foot is
part of the inferior extremity).
• Anterior or ventral - front (example, the kneecap is located on the
anterior side of the leg).
• Posterior or dorsal - back (example, the shoulder blades are
located on the posterior side of the body).
• Medial - toward the midline of the body (example, the middle
toe is located at the medial side of the foot).
• Lateral - away from the midline of the body (example, the little
toe is located at the lateral side of the foot).
• Proximal - toward or nearest the trunk or the point of origin of a
part (example, the proximal end of the femur joins with the
pelvic bone).
• Distal - away from or farthest from the trunk or the point or
origin of a part (example, the hand is located at the distal end of
the forearm).
PLANES OF THE BODY

• Coronal Plane (Frontal Plane) - A vertical plane running from side to

side; divides the body or any of its parts into anterior and posterior
portions.
• Sagittal Plane (Lateral Plane) - A vertical plane running from front to
back; divides the body or any of its parts into right and left sides.
• Axial Plane (Transverse Plane) - A horizontal plane; divides the body
or any of its parts into upper and lower parts.
• Median plane - Sagittal plane through the midline of the body;
divides the body or any of its parts into right and left halves.
 LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION OF BODY
• The human body is the sum of its parts and these parts can be studied at a
variety of levels of organization.
1. Chemicals:
a. Atoms are the simplest level.
b. Two or more atoms comprise a molecule.
c. Macromolecules are large, biologically important molecules inside cells.
2. Organelles are groups of macro-molecules used to carry out a specific
function in the cell. Levels of organization of the human body
3. Cells
4. Tissues
5. Organs
6. Organ system.
7. The 11 Body (Organ) systems functioning together, to make up an
organism.
• Cells are the body’s smallest structural functional unit, which are
grouped together to form tissues, each of which has a specialized
function e.g. blood, muscles, bone.
• Different tissues are grouped together to form organs, e.g. the heart,
stomach and brain.
• Organs are grouped together to form systems which performs a
particular function that maintain the homeostasis and contribute to the
health of individual.
• Maintenance of a stable internal environment of the body is called
homeostasis. Homeostasis is regulated through control systems which
have receptors (sensors), a set point, and effectors in common. al.
Examples are:
• Homeostatic mechanisms regulate body temperature in a manner
similar to the functioning of a home heating/cooling thermostat.
b. Another homeostatic mechanism employs pressure-sensitive
receptors to regulate blood pressure
Each individual uses homeostatic mechanisms to keep body levels
within a normal range; normal ranges can vary from one individual to
the next.
5. Many of the body's homeostatic control negative feedback
mechanisms. a. Responses move in the opposite direction from the
change
Cell Structure
• Ideas about cell structure have changed considerably over the years.
cells as simple membranous sacs containing fluid and a few floating
particles.
The human body develops from a single cell called the zygote after
which cell division follows and, fetus grows along with cells with
different structural and functional specialization develop.
A cell consist of a plasma membrane enclosing a number of organelles
suspended in watery fluids called cytosol. There are many different
types, sizes, and shapes of cells in the body. For descriptive purposes,
the concept of a "generalized cell" is introduced. It includes features
from all cell types. A cell consists of three parts: the cell membrane,
the nucleus, and, between the two, the cytoplasm.
Within the cytoplasm lie intricate arrangements of fine fibers and
hundreds or even thousands of miniscule but distinct structures called
organelles.
 • CELL MEMBRANE
• Every cell in the body is enclosed by a cell (Plasma) membrane. The cell membrane
separates the material outside the cell, extracellular, from the material inside the
cell, intracellular. It maintains the integrity of a cell and controls passage of materials
into and out of the cell. All materials within a cell must have access to the cell
membrane (the cell's boundary) for the needed exchange.
• The cell membrane is a double layer of phospholipid molecules. Proteins in the cell
membrane provide structural support, form channels for passage of materials, act
as receptor sites, function as carrier molecules, and provide identification markers.
• NUCLEUS AND NUCLEOLUS
• The nucleus, formed by a nuclear membrane around a fluid nucleoplasm, is the
control center of the cell. Threads of chromatin in the nucleus
contain deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), the genetic material of the cell.
The nucleolus is a dense region of ribonucleic acid (RNA) in the nucleus and is
the site of ribosome formation. The nucleus determines how the cell will function,
as well as the basic structure of that cell.
 • CYTOPLASM

• The cytoplasm is the gel-like fluid inside the cell. It is the medium for
chemical reaction. It provides a platform upon which other organelles can
operate within the cell. All of the functions for cell expansion, growth and
replication are carried out in the cytoplasm of a cell. Within the cytoplasm,
materials move by diffusion, a physical process that can work only for short
distances.
CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES
• Cytoplasmic organelles are "little organs" that are suspended in the
cytoplasm of the cell. Each type of organelle has a definite structure and a
specific role in the function of the cell. Organelles include the nucleus,
mitochondria, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysomes
and the cycloskeleton.
 • BODY TISSUES

• Tissue is a group of cells that have similar structure and that function
together as a unit. A nonliving material, called the intercellular matrix, fills
the spaces between the cells. This may be abundant in some tissues and
minimal in others.
• The intercellular matrix may contain special substances such as salts and
fibers that are unique to a specific tissue and gives that tissue distinctive
characteristics.
• There are four main tissue types in the body: epithelial, connective, muscle,
and nervous. Each is designed for specific functions.
 • EPITHELIAL TISSUE
• Epithelial tissues are widespread throughout the body. They form the
covering of all body surfaces, line body cavities and hollow organs, and are
the major tissue in glands. They perform a variety of functions that include
protection, secretion, absorption, excretion, filtration, diffusion, and sensory
reception.
• The cells in epithelial tissue are tightly packed together with very little
intercellular matrix. Because the tissues form coverings and linings, the cells
have one free surface that is not in contact with other cells.
• Opposite the free surface, the cells are attached to underlying connective
tissue by a non-cellular basement membrane.
• This membrane is a mixture of carbohydrates and proteins secreted by the
epithelial and connective tissue cells.
• Epithelial cells may be squamous, cuboidal, or columnar in shape and may be
arranged in single or multiple layers.
• Simple cuboidal epithelium is found in
glandular tissue and in
the kidney tubules.
• Simple columnar epithelium lines
the stomach and intestines.
• Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
lines portions of the respiratory
tract and some of the tubes of the
male reproductive tract.
• Transitional epithelium can be
distended or stretched.
• Glandular epithelium is specialized to
produce and secrete substances
 • CONNECTIVE TISSUE:

• Connective tissues bind structures together, form a framework and

support for organs and the body as a whole, store fat, transport
substances, protect against disease, and help repair tissue damage.
• They occur throughout the body.
• Connective tissues are characterized by an abundance of
intercellular matrix with relatively few cells.
• Connective tissue cells are able to reproduce but not as rapidly as
epithelial cells. Most connective tissues have a good blood supply
but some do not.
• Numerous cell types are found in connective tissue. Three of the
most common are the fibroblast, macrophage, and mast cell. The
types of connective tissue include loose connective
tissue, adipose tissue, dense fibrous connective tissue, elastic
connective tissue, cartilage, osseous tissue (bone), and blood.
 • MUSCLE TISSUE

• Muscle tissue is composed of cells that have the special ability to

shorten or contract in order to produce movement of the body parts.
• The tissue is highly cellular and is well supplied with blood vessels.
The cells are long and slender so they are sometimes called muscle
fibers, and these are usually arranged in bundles or layers that are
surrounded by connective tissue.
• Actin and myosin are contractile proteins in muscle tissue.
• Muscle tissue can be categorized into skeletal muscle tissue, smooth
muscle tissue, and cardiac muscle tissue.
• Skeletal muscle fibers are cylindrical, multinucleated, striated, and
under voluntary control.
• Smooth muscle cells are spindle shaped, have a single, centrally
located nucleus, and lack striations. They are called involuntary
muscles.
• Cardiac muscle has branching fibers, one nucleus per cell, striations,
and intercalated disks. Its contraction is not under voluntary control.
 NERVOUS/NEURAL TISSUE

• Nervous tissue is found in the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. It is

responsible for coordinating and controlling many body activities.
• It stimulates muscle contraction, creates an awareness of the environment,
and plays a major role in emotions, memory, and reasoning.
• To do all these things, cells in nervous tissue need to be able to
communicate with each other by way of electrical nerve impulses.
• The cells in nervous tissue that generate and conduct impulses are
called neurons or nerve cells.
• These cells have three principal parts: the dendrites, the cell body, and
one axon. The main part of the cell, the part that carries on the general
functions, is the cell body.
• Dendrites are extensions, or processes, of the cytoplasm that carry
impulses to the cell body. An extension or process called an axon
carries impulses away from the cell body.
• Nervous tissue also includes cells that do not transmit impulses, but
instead support the activities of the neurons.
• These are the glial cells (neuroglial cells), together termed
the neuroglia. Supporting, or glia, cells bind neurons together and
insulate the neurons.
• Some are phagocytic and protect against bacterial invasion, while
others provide nutrients by binding blood vessels to the neurons
The neuron is the basic unit of the neural
system. It has a cell body, dendrites, axons
and axon terminals. Dendrites and axons
are the slender processes.
The cell body of the neuron contains a
nucleus, rough endoplasmic reticulum,
Golgi apparatus, etc.
The cell body of the neuron carries out the
basic life processes of the neuron. It is the
biosynthetic center of the neuron.
• The dendrites are a type of motor neurons that have a large surface
area. They are also short in length.

• The dendrites have a large area so as to receive signals from the other
neurons. The incoming message is conveyed by the dendrite to the
cell body. Therefore, they are called the receptive input region.

• The cell body has a cone-shaped region, from where the axon arises.
Axons are very long and thin. They are more wire like and can go up to
several feet.
• This design of the axon helps in the reliable and quick transmission of
information. The main function of the axon is to conduct the signals.
It is mainly responsible for the generation and transmission of
impulses away from the cell body.

• The axon routes the nerve impulses from the cell body to other
neurons or an effector organ. The axons can also have many terminal
branches. The axon terminals that are present at the end of the axons
are connected to other neurons.