WEEK 7 THE ENDS OF THE HUMAN ACTS

The Ends of Human Acts

a. The meaning of end
b. Kinds of end
c. End as good
d. Kinds of good

Learning Objectives:
1. Define end and explain its importance.
2. Identify and explain the different types of ends.
3. Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic ends.
4. Analyze the relationship between ends and goods.
5. Identify and explain the different types of goods.
6. Compare and contrast instrumental and intrinsic goods

DISCUSSION

The Meaning of End

An end is a goal, purpose, or aim. It is something that we strive for or desire. Ends can be short-
term or long-term, individual or collective.
• The final goal of ethical action. This is the state of affairs that we are trying to achieve by
acting in accordance with ethical principles. For example, some people believe that the end
of ethical action is to achieve happiness for ourselves and others. Others believe that the
end of ethical action is to promote justice or fairness.
• The reason for which an action is performed. This is the motivation or intention behind the
action. For example, we might perform an action out of a sense of duty, out of love for
another person, or in order to gain a reward.
 Examples of ends:
• To get good grades in school
• To get a job
• To get married and have children
• To make a difference in the world

The End of the Act itself and the End of the Doer
The end of the act itself is the natural termination of an activity. It is what the act is intended
to achieve. For example, the end of the act of eating is to nourish the body. The end of the
act of reading is to understand the text. The end of the act of playing basketball is to score
points and win the game.
The end of the doer is the personal purpose intended by the person performing the act. It is
the reason why they are doing the act. For example, someone might eat to satisfy their
hunger, to socialize with friends, or to impress a date. Someone might read to learn
something new, to relax, or to escape from reality. Someone might play basketball to have
fun, to stay in shape, or to compete against others.
The end of the act itself and the end of the doer can be the same or different. For example,
if someone eats to satisfy their hunger, then the end of the act itself and the end of the doer
are the same. However, if someone eats to impress a date, then the end of the act itself and
the end of the doer are different.
It is important to note that the end of the doer does not necessarily make an act moral or
immoral. For example, if someone steals money to feed their family, then their act is
immoral even though their motive is good. On the other hand, if someone gives money to
charity to impress their friends, then their act is still moral even though their motive is not
entirely pure.
Ultimately, the morality of an act is determined by a number of factors, including the end
of the act itself, the end of the doer, the circumstances in which the act is performed, and
the potential consequences of the act.

Kinds of End
• Proximate end is the immediate purpose of an action. It is what the action is intended to
achieve in the short term. For example, the proximate end of eating dinner might be to
satisfy one's hunger. The proximate end of going to work might be to earn money.
• Remote end is the ultimate purpose of an action. It is what the action is intended to achieve
in the long term. For example, the remote end of eating dinner might be to maintain one's
health. The remote end of going to work might be to provide for oneself and one's family.
• Intermediate end is a purpose that is desired as a means to achieving another purpose. It is
a step on the way to achieving the remote end. For example, studying for a test might be
an intermediate end towards the remote end of getting a good education.
• Ultimate end is the highest or most important purpose. It is the purpose that is desired for
its own sake, and not as a means to achieving something else. For example, some people
believe that the ultimate end of life is to be happy. Others believe that the ultimate end of
life is to serve others.

Moral Implications
The kinds of ends that we pursue have important moral implications. For example, if we
only pursue proximate ends, then we are likely to make decisions that are not in our best
interests in the long term. We might also make decisions that are harmful to others.
If we only pursue remote ends, then we might lose sight of what is important in the present
moment. We might also become too focused on our own goals and neglect the needs of
others.
It is important to strike a balance between pursuing proximate ends, remote ends, and
intermediate ends. We should also keep in mind our ultimate end when making decisions.

Examples:
Proximate end:
• We should be mindful of the potential consequences of our actions, even if we are
only focused on the immediate outcome.
• We should not use others as mere means to achieve our own ends.
Remote end:
• We should consider the long-term consequences of our actions, and not just the
immediate benefits.
• We should be prepared to sacrifice our immediate desires for the sake of our long-
term goals.
 Intermediate end:
• We should not become so focused on achieving our intermediate ends that we lose
sight of our ultimate end.
• We should be willing to change our plans if necessary, in order to achieve our
ultimate end.
Ultimate end:
• We should choose an ultimate end that is consistent with our moral values.
• We should strive to live a life that is in accordance with our ultimate end.

The Ultimate End

- Socrates: Socrates believed that the ultimate end of man was achieving eudaimonia, which
can be understood as human flourishing or a state of moral and intellectual well-being. He
argued that knowledge and virtue were essential for this pursuit.
- Plato: Plato, a student of Socrates, saw the ultimate end of man as reaching the realm of
the Forms, where perfect and unchanging ideals exist. He believed that the pursuit of
wisdom and the realization of eternal truths were central to human fulfillment.
- Aristotle: Aristotle, another student of Plato, emphasized eudaimonia as the highest good
for humans. He argued that it could be attained through virtuous living, rationality, and the
fulfillment of one's potential, in accordance with the concept of "virtuous activity of the
soul."
- Epicurus: Epicurus believed that the ultimate end of man was the attainment of ataraxia,
a state of tranquility and freedom from physical and mental pain. He thought this could be
achieved through the pursuit of moderate pleasures and the avoidance of unnecessary
desires.
- The Stoics: Stoicism posited that the ultimate end of man was living in harmony with
nature and the rational order of the cosmos. Virtue and wisdom were central, and Stoics
sought to maintain inner peace and tranquility through the acceptance of events beyond
their control.
- The Hedonists: Hedonists, such as those influenced by the philosophy of Epicurus,
asserted that the ultimate end of man was the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain,
often emphasizing immediate and sensory gratification.
- Augustine: Augustine, a Christian theologian, considered the ultimate end of man as
achieving union with God and eternal salvation through faith and moral living.
 - Aquinas: Aquinas, a Christian philosopher, aligned with the idea of humans' ultimate end
being communion with God. He emphasized reason, ethics, and divine grace as means to
this end.

- Kant: Immanuel Kant proposed that the ultimate end of man was the realization of moral
duty, acting according to the categorical imperative, and pursuing a world guided by
rational and moral principles.
- Sartre: Existentialist Jean-Paul Sartre believed that humans had no predetermined ultimate
end and that they were condemned to be free, requiring them to create their own meaning
and values.
- Heidegger: Martin Heidegger saw the ultimate end of man as the authentic experience of
"being-toward-death," a recognition of one's mortality, which could lead to an authentic -
and meaningful existence.
- Merleau-Ponty: Maurice Merleau-Ponty, an existentialist phenomenologist, emphasized
the lived body as central to human existence, with the ultimate end being the embodied
engagement with the world and the creation of meaning through perception and action.

End as Good
Ends can also be classified as good or bad. A good end is something that is worth striving
for. A bad end is something that is not worth striving for.
Examples of good ends:
• To be happy
• To be virtuous
• To make the world a better place
Examples of bad ends:
• To be rich and famous at any cost
• To get revenge on someone
• To harm others

Aristotle defines "good" as the activity of the rational soul in accordance with virtue. He believed
that the highest good for humans is to live a life of virtue, which is to use our reason to pursue our
potential for excellence.
Aristotle argued that every living thing has a unique function or activity, and that the good of that
thing is to perform that function or activity well. For example, the good of a knife is to cut, and
the good of a human being is to reason.
Aristotle also believed that virtue is the excellence of the soul. He identified a number of different
virtues, including courage, temperance, justice, and wisdom. He argued that virtuous people are
able to reason well and to act in accordance with reason.
Therefore, Aristotle's definition of "good" is as follows:
The good is the activity of the rational soul in accordance with virtue.
This means that the best way to live a good life is to use our reason to pursue our potential for
excellence in the various areas of human life, such as our relationships, our work, and our
intellectual pursuits.
Here are some examples of what Aristotle would consider to be good:
• A doctor who uses their knowledge and skills to heal the sick.
• A teacher who uses their passion for learning to inspire their students.
• A parent who uses their love and wisdom to raise their children to be good people.
• A citizen who uses their vote and their voice to make their community a better place.

Kinds of Good
1. Essential Good
An essential good is anything that is necessary for human survival and well-being. This
includes things like food, water, shelter, clothing, and healthcare. Essential goods are typically
in high demand and have a relatively inelastic price, meaning that people are willing to pay
more for them even if the price goes up.
Examples of essential goods:
• Food: bread, rice, meat, vegetables, fruits
• Water: drinking water, bottled water, water filters
• Shelter: houses, apartments, shelters
• Clothing: shirts, pants, shoes, jackets
• Healthcare: doctor visits, hospital visits, prescription drugs
2. Accidental Good
An accidental good is anything that is not necessary for human survival, but that still
provides some benefit or pleasure. Accidental goods are typically less in demand than essential
goods and have a more elastic price, meaning that people are less willing to pay more for them
if the price goes up.
Examples of accidental goods:
• Entertainment: movies, video games, music, sports tickets
• Luxury goods: jewelry, cars, designer clothes, vacations
• Convenience goods: fast food, bottled water, pre-made meals
3. Real Good
A real good is anything that has intrinsic value, or value that is independent of human
desire. Real goods are typically things that are good for us, even if we don't always realize it.
Examples of real goods:
• Education: learning, knowledge, skills
• Virtue: honesty, courage, kindness, justice
• Friendship: love, companionship, support
• Health: physical and mental well-being
4. Apparent Good
An apparent good is something that is perceived to be good, but is actually harmful or evil.
Apparent goods often appeal to our lower desires and can lead to addiction, destruction, or
even death.
Examples of apparent goods:
• Drugs: alcohol, tobacco, heroin, cocaine
• Gambling: casinos, slot machines, lottery tickets
• Revenge: harming others in retaliation for a perceived wrong
• Lust: excessive sexual desire
5. Perfective Good
A perfective good is something that helps us to become better people. Perfective goods
often require effort and sacrifice, but they lead to a more fulfilling and meaningful life.
Examples of perfective goods:
• Education: learning, knowledge, skills
• Virtue: honesty, courage, kindness, justice
• Wisdom: the ability to make good decisions and live a good life
 • Contemplation: reflection on the meaning of life and our place in it
6. Non-Perfective Good
A non-perfective good is something that provides us with pleasure or satisfaction, but does
not help us to become better people. Non-perfective goods are often harmless, but they can
also be distracting and prevent us from focusing on more important things.
Examples of non-perfective goods:
• Entertainment: movies, video games, music, sports tickets
• Luxury goods: jewelry, cars, designer clothes, vacations
• Comfort foods: candy, ice cream, chips, soda
7. Perfect Good
A perfect good is something that is completely good and fulfilling. It is something that we
can desire without any reservation.
Examples of perfect goods:
• God: the supreme being, the source of all good
• Heaven: the afterlife, the place of perfect happiness and fulfillment
8. Imperfect Good
An imperfect good is something that is good, but not perfect. It is something that we can
desire, but with some reservation. All earthly goods are imperfect.
Examples of imperfect goods:
• Education: learning, knowledge, skills
• Virtue: honesty, courage, kindness, justice
• Friendship: love, companionship, support
• Health: physical and mental well-being

Greatest Good
Socrates: For Socrates, the greatest good was achieving eudaimonia, a state of moral and
intellectual well-being through the pursuit of knowledge and virtue.
Plato: Plato believed the greatest good was the realization of eternal truths and the attainment of
the realm of the Forms, transcending the imperfect material world.
Aristotle: Aristotle's concept of the greatest good was eudaimonia as well, which could be reached
through virtuous living, rationality, and the fulfillment of one's potential.
Stoics: The Stoics considered the greatest good as living in harmony with nature and the rational
order of the cosmos. It involved maintaining inner tranquility and virtue through acceptance of
external events.
Epicurus: Epicurus thought the greatest good was ataraxia, a state of tranquility achieved by
pursuing moderate pleasures and avoiding unnecessary desires.
Augustine: Augustine, a Christian theologian, saw the greatest good as achieving union with God
and eternal salvation through faith and moral living.
Aquinas: Aquinas, a Christian philosopher, agreed with the idea that the greatest good was
communion with God, emphasizing reason, ethics, and divine grace.
Kant: Immanuel Kant believed that the greatest good was fulfilling one's moral duty and acting
in accordance with the categorical imperative, which would lead to a world governed by rational
and moral principles.
Nietzsche: Nietzsche had a different perspective. He saw the greatest good as the realization of
individual will to power, emphasizing self-affirmation and embracing one's desires and instincts.
Sartre: Sartre, an existentialist, believed there was no predetermined greatest good. Instead,
individuals were free to create their own values and meanings, accepting the existential
responsibility that comes with freedom.
Kierkegaard: Kierkegaard, another existentialist, focused on the subjective experience of the
individual. He saw the greatest good as achieving authentic faith and a personal relationship with
God, emphasizing individual choice and commitment.

Happiness
Happiness is a positive emotional state that is often characterized by feelings of joy,
satisfaction, and contentment. It is a state of well-being that is often associated with a sense
of purpose and meaning in life. Happiness can be experienced in a variety of ways, and
what makes one person happy may not make another person happy.
Natural happiness is happiness that is derived from natural sources, such as relationships,
health, and success. It is happiness that is based on our innate human needs and desires.
Natural happiness can be fleeting, but it can also be a source of deep and lasting joy.
Supernatural happiness is happiness that is derived from a transcendent source, such as
God or a higher power. It is happiness that is based on our spiritual beliefs and values.
Supernatural happiness is often seen as a more enduring and fulfilling form of happiness
than natural happiness.
Here are some examples of natural happiness:
• Spending time with loved ones
 • Achieving a personal goal
• Experiencing the beauty of nature
• Helping others
• Feeling healthy and vibrant
Here are some examples of supernatural happiness:
• Feeling a deep connection to God or a higher power
• Experiencing a sense of purpose and meaning in life
• Living in accordance with one's spiritual beliefs and values
• Feeling forgiven and loved unconditionally

CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the concept of "end" in ethics encompasses the goals, purposes, and
motivations behind human actions. These ends can vary in nature, from essential to accidental, real
to apparent, and perfective to non-perfective goods, all of which have moral implications. Striking
a balance between different kinds of ends is crucial to making ethical decisions.
Furthermore, the ultimate end of humanity varies among philosophers and belief systems.
Socrates and Plato emphasized the pursuit of knowledge and virtue. Aristotle focused on
eudaimonia through virtuous living. The Stoics promoted living in harmony with nature and inner
tranquility. Epicurus sought ataraxia through moderate pleasures. Augustine and Aquinas
emphasized union with God. Kant centered on moral duty and the categorical imperative, while
Nietzsche and existentialists like Sartre and Kierkegaard explored individualistic and subjective
conceptions of the greatest good.
Lastly, happiness, a positive emotional state, can be either natural (derived from human
needs and relationships) or supernatural (rooted in transcendent sources and spiritual beliefs),
offering different paths to fulfillment and well-being. The pursuit of happiness, alongside the
consideration of the ends we aim for, plays a significant role in the ethical choices we make.

SOURCES
Agapay, Ramon B. Ethics and Filipino: A Manual on Morals for Students and Educators. Manila:
Glen, Paul J. Ethics, London: Herder Book Company, 1965.
Google and Youtube
Old notes/handouts Ethics