mmD MEN-AT-ARMS SERIES

MILITARY 222
TH AG 0
AMERLAN
THE AGE OF
TAMERLANE
Text by
DAVID NICOLLE PHD
Colour plates by
ANGUS McBRIDE
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TIll" ,1.l:C' 01 Tamed,ene. - I :\ lc.'fl-al-arms !oCriC':S: 221
I. :\luugol Empire. T,II11CI"I:1I1f'
I. Titll' II. :\lcllridC", .\1110;115
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 TlteAge ofIamerlane

dyna ly h :lablished i. full f drama, VI IOn s

Tile Lame Conqueror and d feat at th hands rvariou r in luding
th I urful Qara and q 0 unlu ('Black' and
T~m 'r1an or amburlan, a h was kn wn in 'Whit h p) Tur mans. B-1 wi. a bri f hI' n-
various I art· of ur pe i one f the m 51 ology of the ar-torn years Ii'om around Timur's
eXIra rdinar c nqu mrs in histor. ithjn hal a birth t hi. dyna ty' lIap in th al'l y'arso
lif<:lil'l'l> hj.' armies' iz d huge t rritori ,. [r m th the I Jth n tur .
hurd'r, of M ng Ij I Pal. tine ancl nat tia.
lighl, .lal s ac pled-at lea I n minall - 1335 D alh f 1 "t d ccndant or
Hul u
. tart of c Ilapse of II-Khan (M ngol)
Timur's over! I'd hip as th y owe red beft re his
auth rit ill tran.
apparent! irr ·i libl anni .. His pa was al.
Birtll t.!I Timar lIenr Ki 'h.
mark'd b mas acres lhalouldid c en Iho' of the
Yuan (Mungol) d n:t driven out of
'longol. for. h I' a vag'r . mall w neler that lhe
.hina bing.
r~lnl' uf lili omplcx and ni hun ri h chara I r
Timur becume ruler uf TraIl. 0 ·(min.
pI' 'ad int Europ h re Timur becam lh'
Till/ur ;I/lIade.\ kllllflmZIII.
slIbje I II t only f :hrisloph I' IIarl we" fam u:
Timar i'll'adcJ ]agalai lerriLo'..)! as far as
play Tal/lbcr/alllc Ihl' Creal but also of work I
IOllgolia.
Spanish, Fr n hand oth 'I' Engli h writ r as well
Birth l'Til1IUr'ii' n. hahrukh.
as German, ltalian and z b comp r.
Traditional . tal Ii. hmcnt of ur' man
Tht' r al am rlane I' Timur-i-L nk-
( ara 'unlu an I q Qc yunlu d n-
(Timur th Lam ) - ame from a [amit o[
asti in Kurdislan I'm nia < n I zar-
Tul' ifi d M ngol ari to rats th Barlas Ian.
hajan underJalc rid suzcr inty.
Th y d minal d a 'maU I rril r u t h f amar-
qancl,and w'dallegian'etoth on olJagalai The warriors of 14th C. Iran wore many type ofannou.r. In
this Persian [Link] cript from Sbiraz at least four horsemen
Khans wh had rul d mu h of en Ira] . ia have mail hauberks whiJe the bor e in the centre is protected
r II wing lhe fra menlati n f n his Kh n by lamellar armour and a rigid chamfroD on it head. (Kirsh-
i-5arnaJc Ayyar, c.1335 AD, Bodleian Lib., Ms. OU5. 381, f.39v,
Empir> in th late 13th entur Timur, who e Oxford)
nam m an 'ir 11 nc', v ntuaU w n th titl
, n nqu r d L I'd f th n 'limat ' and
Sahib Qjran ('L I'd f th FOrlunat I sLial
onjun Ii 1\'). H had all' ady gain d the ni k-
Ilam' 'Lam' aft r bing truck by. v ral arrows
during a minor skirmi. h in t : one hit Timur in
th· right leg, anoth I' in th right arm, p rma-
nend damaging b lh. (Th s w und w r
rirm d wh 1\ '[imur's t mb wa opened by
ar ha ologi·ts in 1941.) t around th ame time
Timurwa als wound din th right hand-by hi
own fath r abr a ordin t n LOI~.
Timur's a lonishing life ouIel fill th pag f
several if Il-al- I'm b k' and lh SLOr of Lh
 Toq amish 1 . 0111(': rul ror h 'olel n Death of Timur.
H I'd'. R vi\al r
Prince or Moscow eI 'fcats lei 11 a t'rl1
11 rel'arm atb,HtI of'Kulikoo·jld. go ernol's.
Timur invade.1 ..[Link]/I and eastem hall, hahrllkh iz s Samarqand.
ra/J/llre.1 HI'f(lI. Def! at f J layrid: of Iraq b ar
Timul' irwadeJ we 'Iem Ira 11 , caPIUTI' Qo unJu.
obriz. ara lInJu Ideal Timurid alii sat
Timur capture hJaha.n alld. '!Liraz. I atLI rKur Riv r.
Timur invades Colden Horde. difeal' ~ oq- . hahrukh" exp ·clitiolJ into \ e~tcrn
law ish (II baIII e oj Kundll<.r!w. [ran and against art unlu.
Timl1r invade:. [Link] Iran. Iraq, Georgia, • hahrukh kf!'ats Qara «) lInlu at
Golden Horde. seizes BaghdadJorJirsllime. Ihree-da . battle nfAlashgird.
QllUl11' n Sultan Ba azit clef! at: rll- Wars b '1\ C'11 Timuri 1 lu.~b .B 'f( and
:ad'r. c t b ttl (r i poli.. r ngol:, d f at or lugh Beg.
I 398-g9 imur i71 ode. India defeats. 'ulian '?f Delhi Periodi zbeg raid. fl"Ol11 11 ,rth into
al bollie qjDrlhi. Timurid I"hwarazm.
Timur iI/vade lnalol ia, 1';0, (;I'or u i(/, hahrukh' exp 'cliti n int cst'rn
dljeals At/amluks, ca/Jtnr/!' ALeppo and Dam- Iran againsl ara 0 IIllu; Timurids
n CW, ·ei<.e5 Baghdad./or ecol/d lime. defeat· I sc {' hW'lrazm alld n rtll rn Trans-
l/O/71a/l. ullllfl BlIyazjl al battle '!fJlnf..aTll. oxania t zb 'g .

I Gt n. _ Gcnonc
1391-2 Russia Ven. _ [Link]
8.,.z, - Byzontlne.
......>137S·6 ~1392'6
On. - Onomon,
---_~ 1398-9 \. Loc. - Locol fulcra
~ 1399-1404
( Sor. - Sarbodors
\,,

Timur's Empire & Campaigns

1447 [Link] of'Shahnlkh. revolution, thci\·lllslim peoples relied 011 tra-
1447-49 Timurid civil war!>. dilional ramily or lrihal loyalties, reduced their
1449 ;>.lul'derol'Ulugb Beg. binltrat<.' and hoped lor bClier times. Agriculture
145- Uzbcgs involved in Timurid eivil wars. rCtrcatcd as the populalion slumped. Huge .areas
1453 Oltoman capture of [Link] rcvened to nomadism. while somc isolated groups
([Link] COllStalltinople). like the Arab bedouin may actually ha\'C escaped
Aq Qoyunlu dcfcat Til1lurid Sultan the plagues relatively lightly. III Europe there was
Aim S.a'id. a rapid cconomic recovcry but the i\fiddle East
'I·un·tlman OJlra Qoyunlu overthrown stagnated alier the Black Death which, of course.
by Turcoman Aq Qoyunlu in Armenia. returned in a series orlesser epidemics during what
\\cstern Iran, Iraq. somc hislorians [Link]{' called the 'Coldcn Age of
Prince of ~"loscow defeals Colden Bacteria'
I-Ionic amlY al bailie of Ugl'a River. The fullest evidence comes from Egypt ami
eOcctivc liberalion orRussia f!'OIll ;>'1011- Syria, whcre lhe i\lall1luk mililOiry dite ,II first
gol domination. escaped the worSl ravages ol"thc Ulack Death but
Anarchy in Transoxania, colk-Ipse and suflered along with cw'ryonc else in suhsequent
fi-agl'llClltalioll of"I'imurid power. epidcmics. The rcvcnues fmlll lhcir iq/a estates fell,
Dclcat of' 'I'urcom:ln Aq Qoyunlu by as did theil' standards 01" military discipline.
Persian Safilvids al baltlc of Shurur, The panel. in Ihi"tnanullcripl It'[Link] in Shira:r., '34' A.D, ",how
collapse of Aq Qoyunlu. [Link],oI [Link], .nitn.. t...nd ... riou .. type.. of weapoo.
Thue inelude .. tridenl sitnihor 10 the 1IlIIian ronco, .... Iraiflht
Tinwrid Prince Babar conqucrs "word, probably a [Link] aod whal coutd be Ih., [Link]-guide
1\ rghan iSI a n. frOIn a n ....d. This doevice turn..d lin ordinary bow into a
ICtnpO"'ry cronoow. (~1unjs.J Ah...r, Mu".,utn of An, ;ov,
Dt'ath ofTilllurid Sultan Husayn Bay- 45,385, Cloeveland)
<jara of' Khurasan. ClleClivc end of
Timurid dYllaSty.
Timurid Babar of Afghanistan con-
quers northern India, crcalion of
i\lo,g-ul dynnslY which lasts umil Brilish
Raj in 1857.

Timurs I#rld
Ti11lur was fortunate, nOI only ill the Celestial
Conjullction of stars .al his birth bUI also in the
p(llilit'al and 1llililary circumstanccs in which hc
p,n'w up. "1'11(' 14th Ct'lltllry was a lime oflurmoil
and war ililhe Muslim world as it was in Europe.
Thl: Black Death had ravaged the area, weakening
oncc ll1i~hty SlnIC$ like the i\IOllgol Colden Horde
north ufthe Cilspian Sea. Less is known .. bout the
plag-ue ill Iran ilnd the t-\l'ah areas hut it certainly
cOlltriblllcd 10 instability, decimated the popu·
lation, hit tracle ,md undermined lhe semi-feudal
structure which mainlaillCcI not only govcl'llll1ents
hUI also .armies. ~'Iuslilll reaction to the Black
Death diflcred from that in Europe. [Link] of'
ollthlll'sts or rcli,g-ious hysleria, urban unrest or

5
 lim peoples of Iran and lbe Middle East to doubt
whether tbe Transoxanians were still really
Muslim.
The mid-14th century had been n chaotic
pel'iod or civil wars within thc .JaKatai Khanate,
during which the once nourishing NtslOrian Chris-
tian communities of Central Asia wen~ obliterated.
I'aradoxicfllly, howcver, the cities of Transoxania
witnL'SScd a revival or tl'dde and prosperit)'. Even
during Tillltlr's lifetime business was conducted in
'Keheki' dinar:; namt.'d after Kibak, the last truly
enoctivc Jagatai Khan, whose name is slill recalk'd
in lhe ko/),k, lhe smallest unit orR ussian cun·cncy.
There docs not seem to have been any similar
revival in Iran where the r-,'longol II-Khan state
hnd collapsed in the mid-14th celllury. The land
Thill relatively crude illulllrlldon from lIouth,w"'lIlcrn Ir.n which was to fall before Titlltlr's furious assault lay
WIl" n'llde during Timur'. life and include. inlerest;ng
delail". Perh"p. the mo"l imporlanl arc [Link]" whi.,h .ee.. re divided belween the Karls of the cast and lhe
Ih", lurbaned ...an'.lamellar ,[Link] to h..[Link]. (Shahnamah,
'37' AD, Topkapi Lib" Ms. " .. :t. '5", f.• osr, hnanbull
Muzaffarids orlhe west, both of whom bad begun
as Mongol v:lssals. A series of minor dynaslies
Bccausc the Mamluks wcrc recruited from slaves, ruled Afghanistan and tbe Caspian coast, while
lar~cly brou~ht in from southcrn Russia, Egypt's the Sarbadars held an area south-cast or the
military elile was able 10 maintain its numbers, Caspian. These Sarbadars were an interesting
Elscwhere tlw frceborn eliles of Iran. Iraq and though short-lived dynasty whose name meant
Turkey may have declined both in numbers and 'beads on the gallows'. They arose as Shiite
mili t:l ry q uali ty. peasallt rebels against the last Mongols and were
Tirnur's homeland of TransQxani" did nOl es- involved in almost constant warfare against their
cape the Black Death, l)ln here lhe situation was neighbours. These neighbours were in tlll'n united
more complicatcd. The steppe Mongols had rever- in rcgarding lhe Sarbadars as a dangerous threat
ted 10 their traditional nomadic ways following the to all existing order in which the world was
hrcak-up of Cenghis Khan's Empire. In lhe dominated by Turks and Mongols-II01 by Per-
westcrn ;lIld central steppes they ,vere now largely sia n peasa n ts!
Tllrcified in speech and customs. Even where they Further west Iraq and A'[Link] (north·
retained a distinct idcntity lhe Mongols of the western Iran) wcre ruled by theJalayrid dynasty
Jagatai Kkanate were few in llumber and mixed in which, descended from a Mongol tribe, had done
origin. In fact thc Jagatai Khanate consisted of much to ['estore the damage the Mongols had
two dissimilar regions: Transoxania in the west earlier inflicted on Baghdad. To the north, beyolld
and .\Iloghulistan or the 'Land oflhe Mongols' 10 tlte Caucasus moulltains, the Mongol Golden
lhe casl, [Link] was largely nomadic wilh Horde stll·vived but was also falling apart. Never·
few 1O\vns and lillie agriculture. The Muslim failh thelcss this Golden Horde kept firm control over
was spreading but was as yet so superficial that the the vassal princes of Russia. South oflhe Caucasus
people were regarded as being Olltside lhc l'vl uslim Christian Georgia was expanding lowards lhe
world by the urbanized, agricultural and deeply Caspian Sea and down into Armenia, an arca it
~lllslim inhabitants of Transoxania. Here, in lhe contestcd with Turks, Kurds and even some small
western pan of the Jagatai Khanate, a Mongol Mongol tribes. In Anatolia the Seljuq Sultanatc,
elite still dominated the country but was rapidly anersurviving llle Mongol lerroI', had collapsed to
losing control over the cilies and even the fenile be replaced by a series of liny TUl'kish cmiratcs of
river vallcys. Meanwhile the spread of dubious whom the Ottomans were but one. As these little
'folk Islam' practices led the more orthodox Mus- states squabbled over the ruins of Seljuq and
6
Mongol authority, freelance mercenary soldiers
and adventurers oHcred thcir services to local
rulers or lought on thcir own account, bringing
anarchy to town and country alikc.
The Genoese not only dominated Black Sca
trade but occupied various ports on the north coast
ofTurkey as well as part of the Crimea in southern
Russia, while European Crusaders had seized the
rich city of Izmir on the Aegean coast. With
hindsight the 14th cClllury is secll as a period of
ChriSliall catastrophe in the Near East as the
Turks swept into Europe. At the time, however,
this was not so obvious-a fact which innuenced
Christian Europe's attitude to Timur-i-Lcnk and
his successors.

TiInur and his conquests

Ti11111r's career was unequalled since Alexander
Ihe Greal ill tcrms of constant balllcficld success.
Only in his youlh, while recovering his lillnily
estates south of Samarqand, did TimlJl' face oc·
ensional defeat. He took on all his neighbours and
heat every onc. He was undoubtedly a great
g-cllcral yet, unlike Cenghis Khan, 'rimur was no
sta!Cslllan. Hc led his armies on campaigns whose Some of Ihe manuSCriplS made ;n Baghdad ahordy before
Timur devaSlaled Ihal city lIhow .rmour in considerable
brutality was unmatched until the 20th century; detail. Here a Persian hero's armour ill of fine lamellar
yet he failed to destroy any of his main foes, despile conslruction, probably worn over a mail-lined IUn;C. He .1,,0
weara metal vambracell to proteci hill lower ar..U' (SJUlh-
defcating them in batlle. Evell more remarkable namah, c"39O AD, Topkllpi Lib., Ma. H ..... 2':)3, f'73r,
blanbul)
\I!as the fact that Timur was over 4,0 years old
before selling OUl to conquer an empire. His consolidating powcr ill his homeland or Trans-
energies had previously rocused upon seizing and OXilll ia. tvl ost ofTi III ur's la tel'l if{; was su bseq uc1l11 y

Ikfore collapsing benealh Timur's repealed ; .....a8;on., Ihe spent 011 campaign; yet he rt:mained an inefficient
Jalayrid rulers orlnq were greal palron" of an. Thi. picture conqueror, constantly returning 10 j~lcc stubborn
of an Iranian hero .[Link]. myor demon w•• probably [Link]
in Baghdad .round '380 AD. The honem••'. body .rmour if< 'rc.;bels',11 thing Cenghis Khan rarely had to do.
hidden benealh hiSlunic but be h.a. mail a ..e.,whanging
froRl hi. helmet. ([Link], Topkapi Lib., Ms. H.z. 2'52',
Timur's aims also dinered li'om those ofCenghis
f'48r,4Ianbul) Khan. For example, he apparently had no wish to
rule the vast but poor sleppes orCelllrall\sia and
southern Russia. His cxpcdilions HI lbe north or
north-cast were intcllded to crush the remaining
Jagatai Khans and ensure lhat the Golden Horde
never became a threat to his rear. Even Tilllur's
campaigns in Iran, Iraq, India, Syria, the Call ca·
sus and "natalia were largely for loot. Booty and
the skilled crafislllen whom his troops dragged
back to Samarqand werc to enrich Timur's home-
land. Evcn where he did eswblish a permancnt
administralion it generally proved inefTicicnt alld
short-lived. In fact the clIett of Timur's wars,
beyond lhe frontiers ofTransnxatlia itself, was to

7
complelc til<" e!('stl"ul'lifll1 stal'lee! h) the t>.lung:ols hi" 111, st ill Ii II Ic 1\\ (·d 1 ht·i r 1 r"d i til/[Link]"1/ (II" codl' uf
and whirh had bC'l'll c)I1l) pat'tiall~ repaired by tribal I:t\\ as linalis('d h) (;('ll~hi" Kh,cll. Tillllll"
their SlHTt'S"OI~, II<· ruined lraclt' ami n'duced added lht: Isbillit' \/lIIri" k1!;.d cock in \\ hat miKhl
populations II) .1 Mlllll'tinu'.. st;tK~erill~ amoullt. ha Ie: bcen a pori t ica I t:lt't ic 10 \\ in I ..b mi(- I'd il!;iolls
though again l'()llll'llIl>llrar) chnHli( len; probabl) SllppUrl. TimuI' ,,1'0 Ic)()l. [Link]' 10 "p,lrt· :\lu,lim
cX:lg:l{erated 111(' ("'''..:Irlll fir tilt, <!("\a"t:t1iun. Timur shrilll"S dllrin~ his fJth('I'\\i,t· dC'\.I"t;llill~ nllll-
mil{hl han' I>ct'n a Kl'l'at ~oldin, hut ill pure!) pail!;Ib. thuu~1I lhen' \\('l'l' lHlt,lhk e'(ot'lltioll": lht:
hislOrical IeI'm" II(' ('ould he "C('II :h thl' ~n'atNt "t'lwrable L'llla~~.td Grl'at ~Iu"flm' ill Dam'[Link]
bandit or all tillle. Iii.. clllpin: ~t1 rclJ apart, \\rh, furc'>:amplc, hUl'lwd ill \\11;11 Illil{ht h.l\t' ht'CJ1
thoug:h hi.. dC'''Cl'llCbnt .. did h()le! nllt(h or t'astern an accident. Timur',!, HI\ 11 !"t'lil,(iCllh kdilll,'" art·
Iran :tlld .\ft:lwlli"lan. ,[Link] \\dJ .IS I"rall"O":lIIia. [Link]\\ II. but hi' did mala' .. KI't'.ll ,Ium Ill' pict).
I"hcl"l', ironical!), tht") I'llit'd ()\cr one of till' litH'Sl ami \\:h t'\{,lltuall) huril'd ,tt tilt' fi't't or :\"m'
OO\\('riul!;"nl":1rl and ,lrC'hiu'(llll'{' in tht" hi..tor) of Sayyid B:I raka, :t ~'I inl \\ hI) h ..d HIlt-n'd him ..d,ict'
Islamic ci\·ili~;ttiull. Ihrou~ll(}ut mUl'h of hi, lilt'.
Timur dcspis('d till' Tajiks nr Ir:llliall-.. pcakill~ Despitc such publil- pict). Timur.i·Lt·nl.. rc·
urban and ,l~ricultural pupul;ttiolt of Tram-
oxania, L' nlil.c Ihe nllturc<! militar) dill's of 1ll0:.t
of.h(, :\lu..lim \\ode!, Timllr (':llllt' fmm a rough
frontier pro\ ince and \\ <15 him<;elf \irtuall) un-
t"dlH'att~, Y('I he \\as h) IItl 1lIt::\IIS il{lIorallt: he
spoke ~l'\ l·rall,lI1~llag:t"[Link] a broad kllO\\ It'(lg:t, of
political .1Ild militar) afl:lil..... :Iud rCl{ankd himself
as an cxpen 011 reli,c;iuu.. nl,ltll'rs. The t>.lolll:;:ols.
('\{'II tho..;(· ,.. hc) h,HI ,[Link] convcrted to

0 ..", or Ih" fi ..""1 ..........criptll r ....... a"shd"d WlII...."d" by

J"oayd.1 5,,1I.... i i.. '3" A.D, belW"",,", To..." .... two",;"."r" or
th." diy, 0 .. 00.. "'S" a "'''q"i"hed _rrior w"ars ord.... ry
l"m",lIar armo"r Oy..r a "[Link]"",ved mail "hirl ....hil" Ih"
viclor lOeC.m" 10 have an early ver,,;oo or ...aiJ.a..[Link]
cuira"". Both or Iheir ....;m.l" .lliO h.y" hone-armo..r, thai
on the riShl bei"S; orlarse lealher la... "n.", Ihat on 1h",lcfl or
..arrow iron lam"I1.". "'nOlh"r JIlIS" "how" Ih" a ..d",,,t
P"n;".. Emperor "'..""hi ......... Hi... ~ ..ard" w"ar Iypical
T;murid h.l" and C1lrry Iheir r"ler's ..lor", IOmall "h..i"Jd .nd
bow. (nr"",Rom"n~"byKh.....jll Kirr.." ..I, Briti"h Lib., Ms.
Add. c8,,:J, London)

8
lained a typical i\lolI.l{ol love or alcohol in largc
quanti lin; and his d rUll kClllWSS bn'a Ille.: provl.:t"bi., I,
~h':lll\dlik, ill a lranSp.,rnH altC'lllpt 10 ding to
till' Iet":r ifllot lbe spiril or Islamic law, the only
[Jeopk who wcrc allowl'd to drink wine at Timur'~
rl)Ul'l Wl'rt Chri:Hians, olhers being rcstrlclt:d to
allernati\'C rorms of' beverage, Huge amountS of'
[i)IKI, as WC'I I as d rin k a lid wotllf'n, wcre 'consllllled'
at Tilllur's COUl'l with an allllost l1Iodel'll dedi-
cation to ,o'l~picuUllS l'onsump!iIIH, Thf' stat liS of'
Tilllurid \\'i\'e~ and cOllcuhill . . S was remarkably
lihera tcd atld itideI'd inn L1ellt ial, fu rt hc'r ()!ll'lld ing
nnhO<.II)x i\Juslim upillinn,
Clo~c 10 the (:lId or his lili: and durin/{ an almOSI
ol'1~iastic \\f'ddin~ f"ilst thal preceded his lasl
l';\mpaig-n, the semi-nipplnl. h,l!l:hlind Timur
slill joined in Ih(' dOl ncing. Li kc most such Tim urid
n'lchratiOlls, tlw fl'-aSI wok plan' in tile open air
:llld ill I('llt~ \\'ho~c SlllllPIUOlIS dccoraliOll amazed
\\'C'st('l'll visilUrs like the Castilian ambassador Ruy
(;()Ilzales Cla\'iju, III [Link] Timur had a parli,[Link]
10\1' fill' rim' Ic'nt~ ;llld, according 10 C]:wijo, his

audiCIH'c pavilion W;I~ ~quarc, each side measurillg

a hundred par{'~. (ls \\alls Wl're of black, white and
) ell ow :-ilk hands wilh oVI'rhanginE{ porticos ~up­
poned by pillars, Its lall dOllled roof was held up
hy Iwelve blue, g:old and other colOllred pillars as
thick as a 1ll;\Il':-; bod}', 011 top urlhe dome was a
silkc'n tlllTet with hal tlcmetlts, the entire struci un' This iIIuslral;on from Sh;u"" 1397 AD, sho............ rrior;n a
full m..il haubc:rk plus lo....,r arm ..... mhuc.,,, including n.. ps
Ill'i IIg secu red lIy ni Il1Slltl ropes. The ill1crior nf litis 10 prOle.,1 lb., b ..ck" ofh;s hand", Uis h.,hnl"1 h",s pendanl "",r·
immense tCllt was blll'd with n:d tapestric... de- flaps la.,,,d 10 illl rim a" ....,1100"" mail ....."nf.i', (Sh"ninlinan-
namtoh, Brililih Lib"M", Or, "780, f''''3''', London)
('orated wilh ca.l{lcs at l'arh {'Ol'lH:r, alld ill~id('
.'lOod a rais('d dais \\ !lere Tilliur 1ll'ld COUI'\. Other
roya I or pri Iln:l} tell IS ~tund a rUUlld, inelud ing 011(' spl'ar brandishl'd l'~n'pl Ihl' blll'(" ur luve that
lhat s('l'\'{,d a~ it mosque, all being cilclosed hya I}('nl by t:mbra('l'.'
silkell \\ a 11 wi til ;ltH II ht'l' ba ttlcmcllted pon ieo on:r Thuugh I\r":lh~hah's h:lIn'cl orTilllUr" J;te-Illml'd
iIs {'Ill r:lllCC, li'om his OWl I .... utlcrill,l;" al I Ill' "ollqul'ror'~ 11iIrld~, Ill'
III additiOil 10 I(JOd, drink, song: and dance, ('ould not hdp adll1irillg thl' mall. Acnlrrlirl~ tv
('Illntailllllent 011 lhl' \\'cddin,t;" feast includcd :tern· Ahm<ld I\rah~h<lh, Tilliur 'did Ilut Jm'c' j('~t or
hats, par:lclcs offon'igll gifts such as ostriches alld a Edschood; wil alld sporl plea"l'd him not. I-It' was
gir:dlc li'om Eg-ypt, as well as elephant and horse not sad in :tdvC'r,il~ Ilorjoyrul ill prO~I)(:rilY, Hedid
r:I('Cs. Finally Ti nlll I' issued an edkl which permit- IIOl ;dluw in hi, fOmpan) allY ubsn'lw talk Ill" talk
ted all lill"! liS of plcasu re a lid, as IIII.' 11 Ilsyrn pat IIClic ofblnodshed or caplivil), rapf', pIcHld,... Ill' \'iol·
chronicler ,\hnwd i\rabshab wrotc: 'every sui lor ation ol'lIH' han'm. 11(, was spirited and h"a\'l' and
haslened 10 hi~ dcsire and every JoveI' lllei Ids inspired O1\\e and olll'dinln', lie Jun'd hold ami
bdo\'ccl, without anyOlle harassing anodler ur brave soldi{'I'!'> h) Whchl' aid Iw ('IWIH'd thi' IOl"ks of
superior (kalill.~ proudly with inferior, whether in t{,'l'ror and lorl' in piq'c's OWll Ii kl' Ii, lll~ and III rough
Ihe army or a mOIl!-\' cilizens", nor was lhe s\\'ord them and thl'il' hatllc'~ oV"l'lurnt'd the- Iwig-hl:; nf
. ,
drawlI except the swurd ofcontcmplation, nor lhe mountains.

9
 Tim"r's Army
Legend has Timur·i·Lcnk reduced to ont follower
in 1362, but ill realit)' be led a mixed army built
aruund :.t core of Hlithful Turco-Mongol tribal
troops. He probabJ)' inherited a small following in
his role as a member urlhe feudal elite arK ish near
Samarqand. Trihal nomads may have beell the
most warlike clement in Timur's rapidly expand-
ing army, but the fcud<ll aristocracy from settled Th .. looming walls of Ankara'. Ciladd dat.. from many
p .. riods. Th.. IOw.. rll ar.. do,... II.. C and protrud.. to provid..
agriC'ultural areas providC'd another pillar of sup- ""u:.. II .. oc artilt..ry baslionll, Almollc wichin !lighc of thi"
port, asdid the cities. Among: the latter were urban Citad..1 T;mur routed ch.. Ouontao army ill 1402 AD buc
wh ..n""1 Tintur'" Empir.. prov"d a .hort-tivcod cr.... tion, ch ..
militia forces known as sarbm/urs I)lH, like the Ottomanll r ..v;v..d 10 crcaC., II ,nil'" which .... durcod into
mod ..rn lim ..lI. (Autbor'" pholograph)
5i mila rl y na Illcd I'll lers of north-eastern I ran, they
proved to be turhulent and potentially revolution-
The oullill(' of one soldier's Iii..: was, however,
ary. Success bred success IOf Timur, and he was
wrilten down. He came from a cultured mlher
generally able 10 expand bis army before major
than tribal or nomadic background, won faille as a
campaigns.
noted warrior and al.'lO wrote poetry, and in the
III a mixed reg-ion like Transoxania. on the
closing ycars of his life rctired 10 the desel"l as a
frontier of Islam, it is not surprising to find
~'Illslim hermit.
din!:rCl1t religions as well as cthnic groups rep-
Nomads remained. however, tlJ(' harkholll' of
resented in 'I'itllllr's suppostdly ;Vlllslim army. J-lis
Timur'.<; power. ~Iost came from Transoxal1ia,
enemies probably exay;gerated the I;\(,t, but
from ,~o tribes which claimed Jagatai Mongol
pagans, shamanists, Zoroastrians, Christians and
origin. Each provided a military contingent ac-
others were all found bcncilth Timur's ballner.
cording to ilS size and in return the tribe enjoyed a
The army which invaded AnalOlia in J,~02, for
leg~dly free, tax-exempt status. Such nomad troops
example, included men from Transoxania, the
wt'rc led by their own aymak oOlccrs and alsu
steppes of'l'llrk('stan, India and Iran; while the
provided elite units. ivlilitary roles were l:lrgc1y
force that set out to invade China in the year of
hereditary and one guard unit, the i!,Ol/fdli", had a
Timur's death bad Transoxanians, Jagatai lvlon-
long tradition going b:lck 10 lvlol1go1 times, By
gals, Khura"anis, Mazandaranis and Sistanis from
Timur's days, in fact, these gau{fhill had almost
Iran, A(~hans, Turcomlltls from Anatolia. Azar-
become a tribe in their own right.
bayjanis, Persians from Fars and Iraqis-there
Transoxania still bad a largely Iranian·
wc're prohably Armenians as well. Some of these
speaking native majority in the 151h century and it
troops Illust h:l\'c had cxtraordinary slOries to tell
\\'as from these Iranians that the turhult·tlt,\(lrbad(lr
OfSllcil UllllultllOUS times. but few wen: recorded,
militias wcre drawn. Tltty defended Samarqand
against theJagatai Khan's I:lst attempt to rctake
Transoxania early in Timur'.., carecr, for which
TitllLlr rewarded them by executing: their leaders
as 'rcvolutionaries', Nevertheless Till111r Ilad a
high regard for the sarbadar.r' military capabilities,
employing those of neighbouring Khurasan as well
as lhosc orlbe Transoxanian cities. Most wOllld, of
comse, have been infantry skilled in siege warf:'ue.

Th.. va.. c..... mbling Citad..1 of KUlayba larg ..ly dale. from
Ib.. Byzantilt.. "ra. H.,r.. Tin:tur .."tabU"bed II b ..adquarl.. n
whil .. hi" aroni.,. [Link] W"~I..rlt Altacolia lUI far al h:n,ir
aod Ih.. A..g..'" coa"l. (Author'" pholograph)

'"
 In
d

hi

hi.

(",
e··
(9.
. ..
: :

o m 30
~

~.
c
~
o30

[Link] in the 15th C. howing Cirad I entral market-

place and main mosques (aft r Ma son); B-unexcavated
site-plan of 12th-13th C. fortre ofKwniyan at trar, a hase
ar .. during ome ofTimur's campaigns (aft r Akhisbev); C-
plan of 14th-15th C. fortre s of Zhany Dary in Kbwarann.
Thi region was of major strategic ignificance during
nruggl b (ween Timur and the Golden Horde, and later
between the Timurids and Uzb s. (After Tol tOY)

aJ:

int
ur oman
ag in t the ri ing

al r d Timur th
II
 Ihe Golden Horde in 1391 \... as ahOllt 200.000
-'\ strong-a not impossible figure despite the logist.

.~
ie.1I problelll~ of the day.
Timllr Iwokl' the oldJa~atai tribal structure into
.,. '. nc\\ military formatiulls, primarily to forestall the
development of rival power centres. Leadership
was cllIrustcd to Timllr's own liJllowcrs or his
r:.. mily ;IndJagatai forces \\er(' gradllall) scltll,d in
newly conquered territor). In additiulllO units uf
horsc·archers there \\ere infalllr) l'[Link]('!I and, of
increasing imponance, siege ellgilleers, \\ ho could
not be rccruiuxl from the tribal nomads. :'\I05t
military terminology remained :'\Iongul or Turk-
ish. /I and IIII1J referred 10 large tribal [Link]~n
to a similarly large unit of theoretically 10,000
men. Ha~ara. a I>ersian \\ord for 1,000. s("'('ms to
have been ndoplt.'<! b), both Turks and ~Iongols
wclll)('fore Timur's time, \\ hile smaller formations
of from 50 to OIlC thousand nwn were givcn the
~Iongol namc of q05hun. Likc ~lolIgol armies
before lhem, Tilllurid forc"(."'s were divided into
decimallillits, though hO\\ far this \\ as reflc..'Cled in
realit~ is unknO\\n. A rorps or sllb-<;eclioll of an
ordu army was [Link] tt<rml.'<! a Jau), while
auxiliary forces could 1)(' known as IJnshar. Such
A_OIII; tbe mo,u y'"e..;o o::rlpt. ill the Top pi lightly equipped, fasHno\'ing raiders pla)l~d a
Palaeo:: Lib....., ...., Iwo vol" .,. D(lh.. raUb [Link],...,...,p- leading role during Timllr's Anatolian campaign.
book. colluted by sa Ouoma.. Suh.....ad iodudiaS pio::t"r"
in olherwi_ "akaown .n)'I..... Some .0::1001.... believe lhey Officer r:lIlks were by 110 meows rigid. Some senior
wen painted in c....'... 1 Alii. dOl ..i..! Timu..'.lif..um" while
othera lhiak they were rnadll' de.. lhe T ....o::o....... ....:Je... of
men were known as sardars, a Pt'rsian wurd which
'Slh C. Arm"..i•• nd Au.. [Link] lh,"' Iwo fool.-Iclin-a a"'" survived as 'Sirdar' into the 20th century British
armed with curved daSS""" .. brlt..... "s, bows _d "hield"
while their quiver. are of. type not .. "ed by hon_reb"...... Imperial Army. Other officers included senior
(Fuih Album, [Link] Lib.,1'>b. HlIZ. 'z',S3, ff'3-..J'. b .... bul) emirs, millg-bash;s in charge of ',000, )'u~-bashis
leading 100 and ol/-hashis heading len men, Such a
and wule! be called llie l\larco Polo of the 15th system mirrored that of the Ottomans, both armies
CCIlIUI) . drawing upon similar military traditions,
As Titllllr settled his Jagatai troops, many or
Organisation their leaders IIlIlSI havc bC('1l ~ivcllli('r~ \\'hl('h ,htls
111 gCI1l:ral TiIllUl"s arm)' was closer to that of drew Iht'lll into the [Link] ditt, of the :'\'1 uslim
Gcnghis Khan and his 1\longol successors than to world, Under Timlll"s SUtTCSsors milil:ll'y fiefs
Ih(' armit:s of 1_ltll ("('niliry ~lllslim stales. Horse- bccamc known as sUJ'llfgllll/ which dearly had
archers wen.'tlw Ill(j~t numerous troops in both the much in common with the e"istin~ Islamic if/la and
central ann) \\ hich ah\ ays ~ta)('d with Timur and latC!' Ottoman li"'(lI" sysll'ms, Unlike EUl'opean
in variom I"f'f,;ional forccs. Th(,"S(' regional armies fc-udallit'fs these l""tatc~ remained the pl'opcny of
answcrcd directly to Timur and could be sum- the ruler .llld could be cllllfisratcd :11 3n)' lime.
Illom-d to battle \\ithout l'cfcrcnce to local govern- L'n1ikt' the old ;q/a, howe\'er. Ihe su,l'urglwi ga\"t~ its
ON. The o\'er;lIl sil.l' ofTimlll"'s armies varied and, holder conlrol o\'~r local administrtltiOIl and jus·
like all Illedit·\ al forces, iJi hard to estimate. I t was tice a~ \\ ell a... taxlil in l'etm'I'l rbr military scn;n'
c1ead~ I:lr.';c b) 15th cClllury standards and, willl a specifi("(1 nurnl)('r of follow('rs. Unlike the
;'l('l'ortlilll-; to Timur himself. " lorc.... hc led against iq/n the Tilllllrid SII)"/Irl!.hlll C\'cIHuall) became her-

12
I'([ila!')' and lhus mu<:h c10slT to 1lH" European fid~
Somc ruyu/:t!.hfllJ wcre also CllunnOllS, consislln,g- of
~'JlIjre provinces or greet( cities,
POI) llH'lll was regular in Timur's arlll)', ns wen:
p\'ll!'inlls for retired soldiers, all Ixin,t;' dra\\'n li'om
pl'Ovincial revenues, Dran animals and hurses
('Ollld be I'equisitiorwd li'om tlll' people:, while:
\ariO\Js members or tile nobility were cnlnlstcd
willr lhe mailltenance alld increase of" cavall')
horse herds. Timur's armies also made consider-
:lhk Lise or war ek'pbants, The)' wcre 11('t the (irst
hlall1it· l<lI't"es to do so bUl they caust:'d eunsider-
able impact by using rill'S!' mllssi\'c beasls all
\'arious ~Iiddlc [Link] campaigwi, Thl· SpiH1ish
e11V/1Y Clavijo desnibed the elcphants al a wed-
ding I(~sti\'al as ll<lvill~ lheir hides paintcd red.
J..\l'ec:t1 illlClotlwr 'Ol/lllrs, eileb wilh a silk-t'u\'cn:d Ahno,n idenl;"aIIO Chine"., "avalry [Link] Ihe.... IWO hor"....."n
;n Ihe Farm Albu.m. Only .. Per";"D inll"riplion and minor
\\'Ulxkll castle on its back: lhese castles also had duail" of drawing I'''.'''' th" pictur" ;n an (..Ia...;" "on'",.',
n"re ;1>, however,linle reaSon to doubt Iha, Tin,ur'" army
tlags al each ('orner. and carried fi\"{· or six soldiers and those of his ealilern foe" indud"d ",uch hur",enu'o. SOJne
whill· a driver rock Oil the heast's neck. Fi!{hting may "ven have u,,~ Ih" .." Chinese_lilyle n'a",,;ve double.
ended [Link].... n". (Hum AlbUIn, Topkapi Lib., M". Haz,
ekph;ll1ts h<l.d cUITcd wmrd-likc bla(ks lai>tclH.:d to "'53, f.87 r ,l,uanbul)
their short/·ned tusks. They wcre trained LO ad-
\,;111('(' in lirle abreast in a series or short jumps or
IlIgh or horse-lnil Slarldard. Tilllllr irlspl'c,till,~ t,;[("ll
rlJ.. . ht~, Cll t t in~ Ll pw:.t rds and dowl rwa rds wi t h their
ill turn dressl,d ill full rq~alia \\ ith an erminc head-
tmks;1l carh move
dress [Link]'d I"illl Ol nlll}-I·IlI·]"USll·d goldl'rl <:1'/)1\·11,
Enormous military re\'ie\\'s wcre a major fCaturc
Every soldie:r had his spe:<tr, mare:, da~!{lT, lealher-
01" the Timurid arm)', as they bad becn since tl\(·
<:O\'e:rec! shield. 1)0\\' and quiver of :~o arTO\\~,
early days of Islam. Some w('re organised ill
i\lall) <I1~o carried tw" ~\\lJnl~. an ordinary salm·
Transoxania during- lhe rew intervals of peace
011 the len and a ~hon('r\\l"apon nll\ht, right: I\hill"
\I IIiie- ot hers wcre held deep i ll.~idc encmy lerri tory.
an eli It' or Ireav) cavalry rode armoun'd horsl:s,
[n SUdl cascs the reviews WCft' designed to check 011
sOl11e bcing ar11ll"d with lass(ls, Tlrl: n·,'it'\\ I;l.~ll'd
an ann{,~ discipline and cquipmCll\ as w(·11 as
tWII days ;\nd e:n(kd \lilh a might)' roll ofk\·tlll'·
irltilnidalill,l{ a foc, In 1:$91 'rirllur reviewed his
drums and the shuutirlJ..:: nrllw TllI'ki~h 1\ ar-lT~­
illvading army sumcwhere south of the Ural
"SUrlllI! (Chargc!)·, A silllilar rl'\'il'\\ W,b hdd
mounlains in \he heart or the Golden Horde
oUlside Sivas ill AllaLI)lia ill !.[Link]'! 1)('I(m· the: gTl'at
Khanate. [\·cry division was drawn up behind its
lmllie of :\nkara, lien' \';\l'iOll.. . unils WlTe: distin-
guished by hal'ing their ;\l·rnclIrr. saddl/·s, ljlliw·rs,
bdts, spear-pcnnl)llS, .. hields and batlllc:r'i all or
r(·d. purple, yCllllw, 1\ IrilC or [It her such t:ulour.
Some historians ha\'e aSsllmed lh", ·nn1lJr·,~ anll~
wa,~ ont ortbe: first l(lITe~ sil1l;e: arH'll'lll lillles to ust
rt'i1I11rlif(ll"lllS; btlt lilt' ick:l had !JcC'n ,well II/It \HlI~
III Hyzanliurll hill lhl'Ollglrlltrt Illllch or lilt"

Soon., of Ihc [Link]" fatU, Albul" [Link]"t< "how

Chinese costu.n., such at< a hat wilh ear,n",p" worn al the top
orlhill pict·ure. Stu;Sht t<wordt< of. 'ype seCn io bolh Chioes"
[Link] earlier Cenl.r,,1 A"ian arC also [Link], But olhcr [Link]..,
lik., the ",mlary belt !tod """,s;,,e mac.. or the [Link]
fisure, are Iypically hlam;", (f"a/ih Album, [Link] Lib,. Ms,
Ha;e. \lIS]" f'''9''. hlanbul)
medieval Ldamic world from at least Abhasid an abundance of bread Timur's tl'OOpS, or at least
times and was still common among the :\'Iarnluks. the majority of Ihem. apparentl}' preferred rice
The marching order of a Timurid army was with their meat. :\Iobilc wooden bath-houses \\'cre
similarly well or~allised though perhaps less mag· creclcd to enable mcn 10 allend the lutmtlm 'Turk-
nificent. Timur himselfnurmally lravelled behind ish bath' bcc:tuSt:. despite Ihe pn.'scl1cc of 110n-
a vanguard ofsevcral iI/111m regiments. Next came ~ll1slims, this was ostcnsibly an Islamic army
the bulk of cavalry units, followed by the infantry unlike the unwashed hordes who follo\'\Icd Gcnghis
and a baggage train carrying Timur's mobile Khan. \\'estern visiLors were also amazed by the
court, treasury, armoury. spal'c uniforms and relative sobrieLy ofLhcsc mobilc military cities, lhe
mher t-"(luipmcllI. The baggage tmin was itself drunkenness of Timur's coun apllarently being
protccled by large cavalry formations and was reserved for particular occasions. They could.
followed by the soldiers' families with Lheir own however, be very noisy. with all the bustle and
waggons, LenLs and herds. Some importanl Lents animal noises of an Islamic city pluo; the rrequent
were carrit-xl inLacL aboard huge cart". In camp the blaring oftrumpcts.
men's tents were piLched in regular streets around Since Timurid attiLudes LO women owed more 10
the royal cnclosure. Such encampments resembled Mongol than LO r..1 uslim custom it is nOt surprising
regular towns with butdu:rs, cooks, bakers, mer· to find mention of female warriors. This eaused
chanLS selling fruiL and \ egctablcs. armourers. raised eyebrows among Islamic chroniclers.
blacksmiths. coppersmiLhs and saddlers. DespiLe Lhough it should be remembered thai even in the
Crusader era women members of the [Link]
Aaot.h"r mimtur" La CIU.a,,~ IUrl" i. tki. illuu.... tio.. or. elite could don armour in defence or a castle.
baul" betw""",, ..0 ...." ..." .....d ior... try. Th" ror..."" Ii!ht wit.h
.pe.......d tridnns, d,,, [Link]"r [Link].. ! lI"..Lialir t.h" ......" During his invasion of thc Golden Horde Timur
~.po •••• tho"" [Link]! lor root ..Idi" in oth"" perhaps
early Timurid F.(ilJ Album [Link].,.. (I".tib Albu.... Top-
ordered women camp followers to put on spare
bpi Lib.,I'o1•. lb.a. :1053> [Link], 1.,•• b"l) helmets and mililary gear and to protecL the camp

•
<
 while their menfolk roell' in S('arcb of the foe.
Ahmad Arabshah stmcd that women actually
fought in close combat, while Clavijo referred to a
race ofmystcriolls warrior 'Amazons' who, living
sollle IS days' march from Samarqand. consorted
with their neighbours only once a year. They
supposedly followed the Greek Christian rile and
were subjects of the Chinese Emperor rather than
or Timllr. Presumably Clavijo's talc echoed tlte
existence of Nestorian Christian Turks in what is
now Chinese Central Asia, a people who tradiLion-
ally permitted their womenfolk equalily in both
peace and in war.
Relatively little is known about Timurid flags.
banncrs and heraldry. Timur himself used an
cmblem of threc' circles renecting the 'fonun:He'
r('lcstial conjullnion at his birth. Military flags
wcrc certainly llsed 10 convey messages and orders,
as lhey had long done in Muslim armies. The
signal/or the pillage of an enemy camp or city was
the raising of a black banner ovcr Timur's royal
enrlosure. A 'pOIl)' express' system virtually ident-
ical to that uscd by the ivlongols was also employed The dec:oraled po..tal or Tirnu..'ll Aq Sarai 'While p,tI..c:e'.1
by the Timurid.'), with }'lllli (Mongol) or c!W!Jlll' Ki.h (onoch'ro Shakh..i b"J w....1tuOlll .... Ii....ly COyo:red wkb
b ..i!htJy colou..iM LiJ Thei.. iDMC ..iplioo.. and !eoonel..ic
(Persian) postal stations along the main roads arid palte...... could be "n:n ro .. mileland p ..odaimed lbe power or
the conque..o ... Timu..•.. palace ill now enti..dy ..[Link]. wich
tlc"i government mcssengcrs carrying the ruler's only lbi. c:..urnblin! mODumenlal !aLeway .Landin!.
orders to all corners of his empire. The postal
stations wcrc plan:d a day 01' a hall:day'!\ riding which appeared ill Ishlll1i..· art shonly al't('1' his
apart, some baving '200 spare horses kept at death, based upon a Turro1llan style. The bulk or
eonstant readincss. Also spaced along these routes Timur's troops, p:lnirularly those of Jagat<li
wcrc go\'crnment sluds to provide a supply of origin, still won.' their hair in ivlongol pigtails. The
mounts for Ihe e1cltu and, presumably, lhe army. army remained. in Hie!. more traditional in its
Thc au thori t)' of tlclti~ to req uisi! ion whate\'cr they dress th:1 n ot her scctions or' J'i III urid socict y.
needed from the local populace was so great that Like all th..· main :o..liddle Eastern nrmies,
they were feared throughout the empire. People Timur's troop.~ underwent rigorous trallllllg.
ran away at tbcir approach as il~ as Clavijo statcd, Wrestling was already :t popular sport and se(:ms
'thc Dcvil in person wereolltbcir heels'. to havc' had Illuch in ('Ollllll(ln with the traditional
Despite cOllScious imitation of the [Link] em· wn::stlingstill sel.'lI in Turkey and Iran. M llch 1110l'C
pin: lhen' was a noticeable decline in Mongol important, however. wen' vast hunting ex-
SI)'lcs Of(·OStUtlll· during the Timurid era. This was peditions organised all the same lines as those
true at COUI'l ,wd even in the arm)'. though it was introduced 10 Ihc Islamic world by Gcnghis
1I10S1 obvious in I ran. Blllky fashions of cssellt ia II y Khan's ~lol1gols. TI\(lu.s:lllds of troops in their
Chinese orig-in werc replaced by closer-fitting proper military units would .~urfC)und a IargC' tract
Iranian ~al'ments. Turbans replaced Turco- of territOry and then gradually mo\'(' inwards
~longol caps, which were fast becoming associated forcing all the game into :I small area where it
with Central Asian ·paganiliTll·. Timur him.'Sclfdid. rOll lei be s13 u/.{h teredo Sut:h hUll ts look da p Ol'(:\'CIl
howcver. introduce a new pat\(Tll of military weeks and C'very mov(' was like a c<lreful militarr
headgear so that his mell could recognise eaeh manoeuvre. This nol cmly ga\'C' the mcn practice in
other. This m;;I)' have heen the fur-trimmed kalpak archery and other combal skills but. mOl"(' import·
,.-,
 -.
,..
•
---- - \\",'1'1' ;11;1 Iml 1,1111. In till' hrid"il!Il'1"\ al.s l)elwlTlllli!>
lat.·r l':l III pail4lli'. "' 'illl 1I1' r,:nsli rt'd llial his ;lrtllY was
I;I\'ishly ri..asled, led and l'rlll'riaillcti. Dn'(ls 1,1"
llerl!i~rn \1 ('r'C 11<1l11nl~ ("t,II·hrall'd II) Ilflil'i;ll p'ltl"
hut \Il'n' I'l'llarded IJ~ pl'lml"li.)11 Or' tilt' rank of
l(/I"kl/(/II'h~ro',This(')lwmpt,>d a tn;lI1 frollllilxatioll,
l'lllilled him lu kl'l'l' the loot hl' I\Utl ill \Iar,
a<llllilit'd !tim lilliit' I'tl)al ,Hldi,'IlCl' \Iilhlllli prior
.. pptlillllll~l1l. ga\,t· him a plilll' "I" 1IlIlHlllr t)11 all
slall' 'Jl"I·;,~iIHIS ;llld t"renl Ilim li'l,m prl)~l,{"lllilJn
uUlil lhl' nlnlh time he COllltlliltl"d a p,lrticul:lr
ninlt'! Such pri\'ikgt,:. 1\l'l"C' inheriled h) lhe
Ilill'rilJl"'s I;tmil) (11l1il IJII' ~t'\l'lltll ,l.(l'l1n;llilln,
lIlliit' t'omparal)ll' PIISlhlllllt1lLl; ,I\\;lrds wert'
heap<.:d UPOIl lht' I:lmily 01" a ~oldi("l' 1\ bo dit'd
A new school of detailed aod col(lurful "dunk [Link] perl;-,rmin,l{ II::ats ut"hl"l"ui~ln,
de"eloped under Ihe Timurid dynasty. Thill manullcript was
painted in Yazd tWO year" after Timur's durh. II shows .. The fierc\' di~('"iplinl' "l"cn in Ti11lur\ al"lll} \\as
Pen;'..' herll slaying a dragon with hi" ani....al_headed ""I.('e.
Ue hali neither armour nllr e"en Ihe double-breasted lunic firmly bas('d upon ~Iongol lllili1ar~ :l1litudl"s, as
normally worn by Turc.... Mongol warriors, (Anthology or reflect cd ill till' \Iurd,~ or an l':ll'l) !.llh l'~'lltury
poem¥. Topl... pi [Link]., Ms, U"",. 7!1i, hcanbul)
soldiel' Ilbo said. 'Th....\Iongol is IIH' ~Ia\'<: ofitis
,(1111) , te~1 eel IIII iI l'll-llnl III;' Iif Ill. specd Ill" n'~p()ll~f' sllvt'r"l"i~11. He il; lIC\'<.:r li·t'c. J-1i~ ~m'cl'l'ig'[l is hi~
In Ilrdl"r~ alit! I'HII1ll1l11111·;,tiolis. !\\I ,~:lll1t' was bt'Ill'1:I(·tur, hl' docs not St'rTt' him Iill' IllOnt'y.'
allfmt'd 11l1'~Capt' atldllo killill,~ Illok place hl'liwc Timur's Iroops \I('IT, of COllrM'. paid but illl'ir
till' tlnkl' w;,~ gi\I'll. I\llltlltl)!;h 11l1lllill14 pro\'l(kd dedication .seems 10 have bc(:n undiminished,
lillnl, ;,~ f)ll olle p;lI'III'III,lf O1'1'aSi11ll dl'!'p inside Islarn also illlposed ils OWII disciplilil', parI icularly
(;1,ld,'lI 11(!t'(1!- IITrilf!t"}, gn';11 111l1l1h('l"~ (II' ~bill ill l'I:ligiou~ mal tel'S. TIlt, Etn lhal Titllur's arm)'
a(lilllals \\1'1'1' al other linlt's Il'li w 1'01. This sho\\s \\'a5 excused tile midtliglH prayt'r aftcr reaching
lhal lilt' IUIIlI \\ as pril11,lril) :t lnililar~' eXt'rTisl' bill the north of Golden I-Iordc Lcrl"ill)r")' wberc, ill
.. Iso. \ll'rhap~. ,I ell'11It11l.~lr;llioll ol'milil;lr} might. midsullllllcr, lhert' 1\:1:. 110 Irue ni~hl illdicale!\ tl1::11
l'er~{JI1:d c\(:unpi<' by I hI' otlil'l'r I'llrpS and l"\t'n prayel's hen" oiller'wise rigurousl} l'nlorccd.
h~ Tilliur ltin"dr "II("(JlIral4nl a ('ull or l'l)llrag-t' SlCl"Il di~tiplill(, was n:nainly mainlaim:d insidt'
\Vilhill the al'I1\~. Tinllll' (,('!"lailll} lOok part ill cnemy lerTitory, but 011 Ihost' nl1'C occasions wht'n
fig-hlill,r.: againsl tile <.;ok!ell H'Jrdt, until. a.s lilt' \lnits prow'd disloyal punishmenls cuuld I}(' either
~~I'l)phnnli(" '::lIflll'l/fllllflh lJiugrapll~ pUI ii, 'his fierce 01' mild. A tribal unil whit'li Ihreatened
arruws lien' all ~PI'III, his ~pt'ar hrokt'll, but his re\'olt nl Khojand in 1376 onl), had ils ultlJ or unil
"\,,rd ~lill IJralidisJlt'd'. Thi~ M'l'lTL~ \U haVe' IWl'1l disbanded, lhe 1'<.:lllllanlS bdllg illcorporalt'd illlO
quitl' lIorl1lal le,r Tillllll' \\ 110, \'arJitT ill !tis can','I', ollter regilllenls, Punisll111elll for dd;':al ('ould hI'
Ilarllll't'll ('hallell~('d II) "111g-1t- (l)Illbal by Ihe ruler Severe il" it was ICiI Ihal the Iroops wen: at fault.
or Urgallj dLlrill.~ his ~il'g"e (Jr lhal cit), Ti1llur Du ri llf; Shah rll kh'~ r('ig-n olLe a nny IO~1 mosl or iIS
:lITqllt'd amI :q)llI'an'd Iwlilrc lhl' lIIoa[ cdling lti~ borses during a reI real ,llld was di~banded ill
OPPOlh'Ilt'~ lIallll'. IHII lhl' lattcr 10'11 his IICI'V(' and humilialion. A perhaps apocryphal story ldb how
r,.·lilcd [" lun! lip. N01 ~uq)j'i~ing"l)' Till1ur's pcr- Tilllur' S<l\\' n man tloddill,~ ul1'lo ,~Iecp in lhe saddle:
~Ollat n'pul:llitlll \\';\~ high among: his 0\\11 mell durill).; a lon,~ march, He mUllt'rcd, hall'lO himsc1l;
am!. iUlllrn, Ihl' <lI'('OUllls IlI"Timur\ war~ art' I"ull thn I Ihe mall should be execu lcd a ud a ft'\\ mi n u \('s
01" l;llt'~ 01" cXlraurdinar} daring- b) nOic('l's and laler a stonc~t~\{'ed ollie('r pres('nted the conqueror
l'Olllnlllrl ~{)tdil'r~, wilh lhe unfOrtunal<.: soldier's head, whcreupon
GI'ntT(l"it~ \\"a~ al~" I'Xpt'('lcd 01 ;, Turkish or Timul' praised God that he enjoyed such ullqucs·
7\1011.'-:01 ruler and in Ihi:. Till111r played his part to liolling obedil'llCC. Oflicers ga\'C il personal oath or
Ill(' 1"1111. ('\CIl in lho~l'I'ad) day" wh('n his (clftunes loyallY and sllllcl"l·d ~e\·l'rt· ptlllishlll('1l1 forderclii'-
lion of dUlY. A st'llior COlllmallder \\'110 showed hy Toqtamish. Khan ()fth{' Gold ell Hurde. in Ihe
wwardice ill tbe field would be shaved like a lilC(' ofTimur's invasion was tlle traditional i\lon-
IIOm:ll1. his lace paintcd wilh l'Ouge, dressed as a gol one ofdl'awin.l{ the Icw en;r dceper inllJ barrcn
Wllmall and llliide 10 run barefoot throllg"h Samar- hostik terri wry. Till1tlr'~ a rill)', hown'cr. m'lin-
qalld, [\'en failun: in baltic could resul, in an tain('d illi disciplille. It rdllSt:d to be drawn illto
qnirTl' having his lcet publicly bealen wilh the ambushes, cross....d all obstaclcs inrludin,l.{ large
'1//llllI(ulli. On the other hand few of Timur'$ foes rivers, marshes ,\lId forests. SllppltllH'llll'd its food
could claim such stern discipline and as a result supply with wid....-nmg:ing hUllts and l'vclllually
their ,Innics ran'I)1 match\-'CI'rirnurid forces. lrapped Toqlamish with his back against (he
Vnlga and Kama Rivf'I',~ WI thf' IllJl'th('rn edg-e or
the Eurasian steppe,;. Unabk 10 I'("lrcat f'unlll.:l' the
,S'tmfegy, Tactics ami Golde.:11 Horde.: :I1'll1)' turlle.:d at bay, and was
thoroughly defeated <II 111\' hall k Ill' KUlldu'[Link].
Timur ma~ 1'\ Cll ha\'e used mon' sophisticated
Siege HVljilre slrateg-y dllrill.~ his 1399 11°,1 c""lpai".pl acrus~
t\nalolia and the i\liddll' Ea<;t. Facing: Tilllur Ilcre.:
Timur.i·Ll'llk was an illlJ{I\'"llOr in military aflhirs Ihe pllw('rllli Oltolllam aod i\lal1lluks whilt' lIlt'
as wdl as b,-'ing ;1 fille general. He was abo Jala),rids h,ld rf't:lkcn Iraq to his 1'1';11'. The mili-
regarded as Olle of the fillest chess-players of his tary hislOrialt SirJohll Glllbh Sll,l.{g('SIS lhal Tilllur
cla} . chess ha\'i rig fornu,:d pOl rt ofa ~ Iuslilll prin\'(:: 's {It-cided on a rapid ,hru"t illlll ,\llatoli" to thrOII'
milital')' traillillg li,lI' Illilny centuries. In addition
III chess like thai played lotlay, Timur used the Jad slaying $isrrlO, fro... a Georgian Chrisl.'an manuseripl,
Though oftcn eonsid"red to b" '31h C, Ih" [Link]". and arn,our
'Crcat G;IIllC' Ilil!1 two camels, two g-iralTcs, 111'0 in Ihi" iIluslralion strongly sugg"sl lin "arly 15th C d"'''.lf so
il would illus,rale the C<lui"mcnl ofG"orgi"n armi".. during
M'lllries, 1\1"0 siq!,c eng-incs and a wadI" or minister Ih" Timurid pC'rind,,, lim" when I.r"nian, Turkish and lal"
a~ wdl as 110rlllaJ chess· pieces. Other versions used By,."n~in" Iradilion.. mi"ed in Ih" Caucasus r"gion (p""Jtrr,
Ms. A.• 66.'), f.20s, M"nuOieripl Ins1. Acadcmy of Scicnc"..,
oblong and even l'CIund boards. How far this Thilisi, USSR).
innuclH:cd Tilllur's tactics is unclear: hut his
rcgimcnb had sqMrale alld di"tinet assembly
an'a", while Timur used deceptiv(: routes, rapid
Illan.:hes and till' stratc,1(Y of t I,,:: indirect approach.
I Ii, abo kllew when III retreat and was ahk to uSt'
this as ;l positiVI' tani(' Iwcausr or Ihe iron disci-
pline onlis arlllie~. \';U'LOLIS detailed aU'ounts also
shol\' Timur's arlllY using- Ill:luing and even Iheir
It'lHS to cross Illarsht's ill I raq, Elsewhere Timurid
horsemen would pnl their bowcases. qui\'t'rs and
~cabhards across d1eir backs when obliged to walk.
For (CnlUrlcii tIll; llomads of Celltral Asia had
I)i'('n pre!;."il\~ a~aillst the fenik agricullUral land
nf'Transoxania wherc lor'll armies had dcq::lopcd
tlTi;ctin' defcnsive systems. 'riIllLlI', Ilflwever,
III I"lH:d III\' ta bits lIy goi ng omo till' ollcnsi V(:
ag:ainst the nomadic caMcrn rump or [Link]-alai
Khanate. These liule-knowll but highly suc('csslLII
call1pai~ns arc among his most alllazill~ mililary
arilievellll'nts. in wllich prolcssioll,ll Islamic
armics penetrated dcep intO the mountains anel
"tcppes (II' what an.' [Link] Chincse Central Asia,
Sfl\'icl Kazakhstan ;md Khirgizia. Thc tactic Il.~ed

'7
 Caltpiall Sen by lhe Uzhoy channel. Larg'l' boats or
hargocs could lise this and suhstantial ships nT-
tainl)' S;likd lhe Caspian, Tilllllr lllade WiL' ul'holh
during hi~ im'asions 01"1101'1111'1'11 I ran, Al thl' sanw
lime hl' wa:- fully aware or Ihe \\ ider pulitic;tl
silu:ttiOIl in lhe Ncar and !\Iiddk East, ~(,l'kin,1{ all
illlli-Otl(Jm;ll1 aliialH.'l' with Chri,'lian princes in
An<llolia ;Ind l'\TIl makin,l.:" COlltact with Euro-
pe'llls, I-Ie was ('crt;liltly !Lupin/.( for naval suppOrt
whell hi' fi)l'lTlcd,tll alliallC'c \\ ilh B~ I,:lntinc Islan-
hul (CoIIslalllinople), Byzantine TrabzOl1 on the
Blad; Se;t Coast aile! 111(' C<:110eSl' trading: OUIPOSIS,
Tinlllr did not. hm\'I'\'('I', g:el 1l1l' '..!o g-alkys he
Mo'" oftht isolaloNl m;nialun" in Ihe farm A/bumsare in an del11;lmlnlli'01n TralJzOlI, nul' llIl11:h help from tht'
idtn!ifi('d 1"lam;c ,,1)'1(', Thi!l [Link]('_!Ic('n(', probably front •
copy of the $[Link].h, dale .. fro... Ihc early 'Sth C, and was olher 1I~I\'al PO\\'\TS,
probably [Link] in Sh;ra"" The horse .. hav(' lam('lIar horse- 'I'imllr's abilily to Irick hi~ !("j('s Iwcan1\' pro\'('r-
ann our whil(' Ih(' warrior" w('ar lant('lIar cuira""(,lII t'ilh('r
O"er (Iefl) or under (righl) "cal.,.lined brigandine.., The biOI!. On on'asions Iw \\'()llld leign Sirklll'SS ill frOll1
di"membered figure in the boUom-l('f, eorn('r li(,11 b('!Iide a
war-drum, (f'a,;b Alb",.,. Topkapi Lib.• Mil, Ha"', a 153, f,war, or [(lreig-n amb:\.~sadur:- (\'olllilillK boar':- blood,
IManbul) according [0 a \'isilill,({ archbishop 1'1'<1111 Iran), I-k
would ha\'e rumours spread lhal hi~ army II as
h is ~tl'll1lg-I'~C ellerll ~, 1hi: 01lOm,In SIII1<ln Ba y,lzi t, Edlin,£;" apan or would <)1'{kr hi:- IrOI'ps 111 scallcr in
ulrbalalll'I' before C1'u~hillg' dll' :\lamluks in S~.,.ia l'Olll"ll~iOl1, eOldidl'nt Ih;1\ such diM'iplilled rq!;i-
amI cht' wL'akel' .Jalayrids in Baghdad, Ollce lhis melllS would r('assemhk at till' lilll(' ([lid pi act' Ill'
\\'a~ dun{' Ti11l11r returned \\ illl his rull mighl II) ordcred, ,\gail1S1 a larger til<' he \\llule! sClid Dul
SI'IC h' accounts \\ il h Bayazil. I'lal1lled orolherwisc, slIlall groups ol"lllell [I) Jig-Ill 1:t1sl' camp fires anoss
Ih i~ n'm,l iliS UlH: of' lile mo"l remarka hIt' episodes ill n('ig:hhouring: hills 10 make hi:- IIlI'n army appeal'
Illl'die\'al mili lary hi~llll"), largcr, or lI'ould han' bOI"$l'nWl1 trail brallches of'
'rilllUr'" aSlOnishing ,l.:"ra~p ofgL'opoJilirs is rdlc('-
, .'
ted ill !lis di\"(:r.~iot1 urdu: 11ler:lli\'L' easl wesl Irade
hCI\I'(,:L'll Europc and Chilla SOlllh\\'ard~ 10 rlow
Ihroug-h his owtlcmpirl', To O1ehicH' lhis he sat:kcd
llH' Italian Blat'k Sea lrading post 0["ra1111 011 Iht'
Riwl' DOll, \'irlually "hlileratl,d Ihe Colden
Ilurek's \'olga cities ofSarai amI Astrakhan, ;Inc!
Ihus smashed lhL' old Stl'PPC lrading rUllle, Ther,'-
aher lllercb:lllt~ lra\'t'lInl along a 1110re ,~outh(,:rly \ 'll
ruute through Trahzllil alld I ran, payillJ( lolls If) \ 11' .
, . J
Til'l111l' as the}' \\Tlll,
. 'j' .
FIJI'" man raised ill CI'ntral Asia, "'ill1tJl' slll)w(,d ./.
:1 l'elllal'k;\hk gnlsp or Ilaval 1'1)11('1', 111 the IsclL
n'lllury ,he Amu Dar):1 (OX liS) Rin'l", whiC'h
markl'd tht, fronlier bctW\'ell Tr;ll1~f)xatlia and the
rI'sl 01' Ihe i\l11slim wurld, \\'as linked 10 thl'

Anothe.. minialu ..e f ..om alOlll copy ofthe [Link]>ahlihoWli

a war..;or placing the ..",Yered h .... d of hi" fo'" upon a .. pea.r,
The victim'li hd ...el li('", On Ihe g..ound .nd i" one ofyery few
repr"'lienlalivell of a hdn,el wil.h a fac.,......"k visor, Compar-
,
able hUI laler "i"o..ed heln'elll ",urv,,,e and are gen"'rally
r('(('rroNlto as 'Tartar', Thi", nu"'c:ripl date'" front tht ('arly
'5th C, and w""" probably ad(' in Shira~, (fat;b Albu......
Top"ap; Lib" M", Ha;p;, 2153. ('35r, htanbul)

,"
 liTes 10 raisl' dusl enough t(W a Ihr Kre,ltcr force.
Timur's spy srn'icc was lerrif~'ing, reportedly
hadllg inliml,crs among thc rdigious establish-
111(-lllS. hazaars and e\-ell .l!o\"(Tnment ministt:rs of
ri\al .~Iatl'~ as Ildl ::IS among merchant e<tnl\'ans
11t;11 niss-nosscd tin- j\liddk East. Among them
II ('rT lIwn and women spt'akin~ Arabic. Creck and
Hdm'I\-Snlllt.: pOSill,g- as ,Jews alld quolillg tllC
Talmud ill Aleppo's main s)"nag-og-uc. l\n inlernal
jlf,lin: or 1'>C("U ri I)' 1(lff't' ("nmisl ed of ;)genls k 11011'11
:t.' kOllr/f!li ,1I1el harsh penaltif's ;Iwaitl·d IhcN'
llll'lltiollt'd unt:l\'(HlralJly in their r\'porcs_

The uses of terror

Tilllur's Iroops ;Ire said 10 h:l\'c burned his ll:lTnt.:
inlO che forests of Ihe Altai i\IOllntains ncar
.\11J1l~oli:l. and Timur hitnsdf had a carved slunt.:
('rn-led dcep ill Coldell Hor{!c lerrilOrr to mark his
pa~i\ag:t-this munumcrll is now displayed in Ihe
I-Icl'lnita,l!e i\llli\(.·Ull1. Lcningrad, Ir"rimur is re-
membered lor 'lIl)'lhing il is for his use oflerror as a
milit;\I') or political weapon_ He was flat alolle ill
Irying In h;l\'c ri\'~d ruler"!> assassinalnl. nor was
maSSHCI'e ra 1"1.: in l\ Iiddlc EaSlel'll Wit r!;l re followi flg
the i\longols' arrival on the scene. BUI whntas Here the m ..in char..ct"'r, Sultan [Link], ..lone. we....,;. full
lamellar cuirasli, po:rhap.. Iiugge"ti..ng Ihat in ..Orne [Link] of
Gcnghis Khan bu\(:bncd coldly and with a spcci- early '51b C. Iran lamellar wall reu .....ed for Ihe .,Iile. Otber
fir cnd in view. TilllUI" indulgt:d in acts 01' appar- ,loldieu have Ilcal.,..lined brigandinell Ihough lheir hors"",
carry lam.,lIar defence", (Antholog,' of Sulta .. hk,.nder,
Cllt!) POilllkss sadism. Tht: Slory that hI' kept the Shira:r. "<1'0 AD, Gulbenlcian Lib" Lisbon)
Ottoman Sult:tIl Bayazil in an iron cagc is airnosl
rtl'tainly a legend, bUl Tilllllr did order lhe StOIlt', which werc en tiI'd Y consll'uctcd from mell \
cxtcrmi na tion or bl illd ing of Ihe el1\ irc i\ IlIza rrarid skulls SCt in clay'. In Sabzawar live eaplives wcre
I'rillC'dy family so as to rcmovc potclllialthreillS 10 cemented betwecn day and bricks Co rarlll
his I'll If'_ 'minarels'_ Tirnur's tmops gcnerally CillTicd OUI
Al the othtT l'xlrellH: 'fimur's mell devastated such brutal orders withouL compunction. though
\\'lIole provinces. The ellccts have deady bcen when laId to wipc out Lhe cJltin: population of
cxaggl"rac,;d bUI In Sistan, in south-westnn Ar.. Isfahan somc soldi('rs wcre reluctant Co slaughter
g:hanistan_ all t'lllire agricultural systCm based fellow i\luslims. To salve their cOflscictlccs lhey
upon a Ii-agile irrigalion llctwurk \vas so d;lll1aged bribed less scrupulous colleagucs 10 collect lheir
lhat il has 1101 rCC(J\'crnl to lhi~ day. The urban quola orbeads.
ri\'ilisalion ()f the Coldell Horde along the \InIga Members 01' Ullorthodux l\luslirn groups sui:
River was similarly shattered beyond repair. rered particularly from Timur's unrestrained
Titnur's twO sicges of Baghdad pUI the sC<ll on the policy of massacre. These includcd Llle cormnu~
decline or Ihac oncc great city. ruining repairs nistic III/flY, Shiile i\luslillls ol"nonhcrn Irall and
ulldertakl'lI 5irl(:(' the l\longols captured BaKhdad the similarly Shiih' !JuwiliJ or 't\s~assins·. Nvn-
ow'!" a Century e;'lrlicl'. One ol"Til11ur's mOSI savage Muslims sulfen:d even worse. for Timur tnok no
praelil"cs was the crcction 01" lOwers forTlwd or ,l("COUllI Uf1l1C i\'luslim doctrine ofcolcralion_ Thc
human heads. Sotn<: could still he SCt:n whell Story lhal Ite ordered his cm'alry to ride down a
Chl\'ijo visiled Iran, and he descrihed them as "\Oil' of Christian children outside Sivas hecausc
bcillg" 'tall as lhe hei,g-ht to which onc might cast a he did nUl like thcir song is almosl certainly a

'9
 CI~nlrc
., . and 1\\'0 wings, Inslead he dn'l\ up his
troops into s('n;n di\'isions, the CClllre and wings
each ha,'ing a \'anguard \\'hilc thc cenlrc W:l$ also

• .-- . - .... sllpporwd hy a slrong rcscrv!". This rnahll·d him 10

drive oWI'oqtami$h orlhe Colden Horde when Illl.'
• lattcr broke throu/{h TilllUl'"S Jcft and attackcd il
li'om Lhc rC'II".
Timllr adoptt'd a Illll'd) ddf-rl'.i\I' formaliOll
agaill~ll1Lc- 5111t:lll nrDdhi'~ army al tll(' ballh- or
Delhi ill l:mR.l-lt·dn'w hi~ tnfop~ llpulltllt'same
hillillal Ihe British would hf>ld during till' lndi;w
East"rn wall orlb.. upJKr court ofH"ra". Chad.... Thill WIll l\llIliny 10111' amI a halfl'L'IlIUrit's l,lIel". KlIO\\in,(r
on .. oflhelllrongC'lIl fortr...lIl1..,. ........'''-rn [Link], and was buill
for Timllr'" SOn Shahrukh .... r1y in the 15110 C. (Photo Gu.a Ih:1I hi, mell would Etn' lal'Rt' lllllll],c-rs or \\ar
••..h .. r .... ri) t'kphallts, Timur had lar,l:"t' h,LrlH'c1 caltrop" SI'('-
retl~ scaltered ahcad of his pllSiliol1 al nig-lll 'II a.'
myth; hut the way his 111('11 ~laughlCl'cd up to nOl 10 al<:rt lhe Indians. His main c11,ti'll('('s ('011-
Iuo,Ooo Indian prisoners IIcal' Delhi all I:.! Dccl'm. ~iSIC'd or a ditch hiddt'll b~ hl'lI:-.ll\\ul)(!. hehind
bel' 1398 is llm-L1lOugh till': lIumbers arc cxaggc~ whiell was a \Ionc!('ll palisadl' "1I"C'Il,I.;"IIH'lIt'd wilh
r<lll'd. Hen: j\luslim prisollc!'$ enjoyed tht pri\'i- lalW' SIIIt'1c!S or malllll'\:'>. C:lpILln:d 1\ atet' bllmllot'~
kge of" havin~ their throats CII! whereas 'infidel' were tClhered ahead Oflhc litH'S ill lilt' klluwkdW'
Hindus wcre cilhn nay('d or hurned ,din', The lhal only these beasts \\t'1"(' brgl' l'n(Hlgli to llihel
Christians or Gcorg-ia \\'cre massacred ill great til{' ad\'ancing ,'kphants. O.'t:H'Ilt'd li'l't'n or t1ill'
numbers, \dlilt" Christian. lar~dy Armenian, sol- ca\'alr~ \\t'n' also posl('d on eal'h lI,mk, "'hen thl'
diers dcJcl1dillg Siv<ls lor the Ottomans \Vere massive' Indian army at!\'alll'l'{l a~aill~1 'I'illlllr
buried ali,'C ill the moat. AI Van similar Christian Ilext da~ il II'ns :llmost illlllledi:lld~ di~"llPlCd hy
.Iipalii troops wt:n.: hurled rrom the battlements herds 01' Icar-rl'ilz('d c:lmds alld bllllhlut·!> wilh
aner their (.'it)' lell. so man) being I/Hllwn that the IJlllldl('~ of hl;,zinf.:" oil·),oakcd "tr:I\\ 01' ('Ollon 011
last rew survivcd, 'heir Ihll h<:ill~ broken by til<" lIl('ir hack~. All allack :Old li~i!-\,m'd f1ighl h~
bodie.. or lhose \dlU \\('Ilt before. Small wonder Tilllurid Gl\'alry drcw the I ndian elephant<- nIl a~
thai Timur's namc ~trllck terror throughout I ran Ii'om tlll' PI"OllTtiullllrlllcir inl:llllr~ anc! illttllllc
anti Iraq, and llial the ~lamluk govcrnmClll in (,I" hma 1(' ddcnsi"c a rra y, '1 'II(' Imljan ca \ all') :1l1c!
Cain) ac('('ptrd Titnur':lo slIzl'rainly aOer he dc- inlil1ltry \I~re then assaulted h~ Ti111L1l"'S eli II'
ll'aled their lorccs ill S~ ria. hnr~('mt:ll li·om tilt' f1a II k<.. TlllIug-1t hard Ihughl,
lht, haillc rapidly tUnled illtoa roul and thL' Sultan
Tactics or Delhi':. mCIl were harried bad; 10 tilt' gatt·s or
Timur was all cxcellenl ballk laclician as well as a lltl'il' c;.pita!.
!Hral('.l.:"isl. He was l"l'cditl'd wilh Ill'\vtaclics, novel Iktiwe IIll' Imt t1l- ofAnkal'i1 ill l,pl2 'I'illlllr again
modes of deploying his Iroop.~ and IWC\'iuusly h:ld ~l fnnnidablc; cnC:lll1pnWlH l'l"l'cted wilhin a
unknown com hat Itll'malions. He was renowned ditch, pikd rocb :llLd ;1 pali~:lde" 1-1(' ;t1su had the
ror making: rapid alld rrl'qucntly changing allads Wt'lls poisoned !JcIWt'elllllnlsell'alld lIlt' :Ld\';\ll<:illg:
which clearly reflected lhe excellent discipline anc! OIlOl1llLllS, This time Ti III Ill' :nTan~{"t'c1 his ann~ ill
conllllLll1ie:lliolls wilhin the army. Like Ihe Mnn- eight di\'ilil0ns l'ollSislilLg of a left \Iilh it), \';(11-
gnls bdlJre him and the Ottomans of his own day, f.:"llard, a righl wilh ilS n.:SI'I'\T ami a ('('nll'(' ill 1\\0
Timllr used wa~g-UllS a:lo odd lortilic:llions, This pariS, one of which was under Timur him~dr. His
idea had 1101 prcviollsly hcen popular in lhe guards lornwd a IwparaH' division "Iigllll~ to JIll'
[Link] E."~l whel'e tlllbt transport n)llsisted or rear, ,,'hilt' Ill(' main r('''IT\'''S \\l'rt· stalioned
pack animals ralher lh:l1I cans. A~ainst the IWI\\'(,'t'1l Timur's arlllY and tilt' ("i(~Hkl of .\l1kal'a
Goleit'll Horde al KUlIdllzcha in 1391 'rimur which was stillllcid h~ all Oltoman garrison. TIlt'
abandunl'd tradilional Islamic formal ions of a C"Olll)W ol"lhis haltlc is opel! to disput(· lw{' ;\1:\.\
20
 ,,£lnia', bund n f r; I'tifi >d
m d wh domillG d lhis ar a during
oUlh ,lill b'c led 10 their 0 n chiers
nd lhu. b .( ming Ie:, I"lianl n
th militar p" r rlheir wn lrih m 'n. Timul',
how \"r managed to avoid lhis prabl'l11 and \i a
a I paying do e all nli n CI th . huilding, m in-
lcnan C, pI' vi i nill nd garri'OI in,' f' fi nifi-
calion' lhr ughuuI his I' 'aim, The "ilal njh: lhal
a:tl·: pia. 'I i I lhe d r; n . I pp ar a ,
h >rwi' d min t d b) 110m di tribes, h \\1 d
.iu l h '" 'lrol g Iranian inOu 'II 'wa: 11 Timur'
lulit 1" uti k,.'( me WI" buill on Ih ruin: of
orth-we tern lOwer of th lower court of Heral Citadel of hin . e, igur or Turkish rOrtl' S,. fi I' "ampk
tlerat, lh only one to hav ceramic til decoration.
fragment of inscription to the left may, however, ugge t thaI on lb northern sh rc Oflb, Issyk Kullakc high in
a band of writing originally extended along the neighbouring the' iell Sh II ~1 unlain:, lhough III I W I' 111
\ all . (Pboto G za Febervari)
Turkish fool soldier of th mid-15th C, He i probably"
11<1 '3°0 '77-1), bUI
,11'11I;,'.\ uIlht' Ot/ol/1a/l /ll'kJ Turcoman tribal warrior and has mu b in conunon with
infantrym -0 in orne p ..hap early TiJnurid picrures of Ihe
almOSI (','nainl) Lipped in Til Hlr' r::I\' ur wh 11 a Faun AJbunJ , (e .F, R. Martin Coil, pre ent whereabouts
I:lrge pari 01' llaY'[Link]·~ Turn mall auxiliari s unknown)
('hang' I ~i I 'S.
SO amazing an lunch' k I \\ ere Timur s \'i
lori .. thaI lllall) 'U:I ' Il'cI Itim 1', ra tising- bta-k
nl<H~ic alld. d('.", ill> !t. t Hi hi Il\'l'rsi n (If' 11( 't
or lIlt' \\' "I 'I'll stepp' n ma Is 10 Islam, ,haman-
i'li, ma/!;i riLUal, \\t're ,Iill lI,ecl, 'Rain 51 n ';,,',
pitT(', ol'rOl'k Iwli '\' , 110 It \'., \\' 'I' t 'hal gc Ihe
\\(':11111'1', were rr>pnrle I~' u ,:d . "<lin'l Timul" ill

I: 1"5 \\!t,'11 his arm) \\:t, ddt-al I in a: a urrain-

~Ild kll mud b) th' t':lSL Tn Jagalai. In fa I
l'il11ul"'s '\\ ('alh r-I I k' I I him down II a nundJer
01'01' '(lSiOIlS, m( st n )labJ ' \\'I1('1l hi.. ma ':i\" .um)
\\'as bOg'ge I 10\\ 11 ill Sil \\ 011 it. \\ (I) l in\ ade
:hin:l, This lim' Ihe \\ealher had tlte la l W I'd,
l~\' 'I Tim Ir's iron 'onslillllion linall) Ink Lh
gr 'al (' nqu n I' drill..... in th' nO\.\ bt lind J r -
vincial ]JOllac . or lntr.

Sieg warfare
( 11(' of'Ih ' main dilli.:r Ill'" lel\ lht: armies ur
C 'Il
Til11ul" 'lll 1 )f hi: pl'cd nghi: Khan \Va'
Til Ill''''' SUt I" 'Ill skill ill siege \Var!;trc. Th ~Ion­
A

~lll' ha 1 bC('t (;11' b II -r at thil> Ihan is ~cl1er lIy

n'('og;niscd hut Timur r ull 1."\\\ up n I n
1·!ami\·;1. \q,1I a.. 'ill( -l\roll~ol Ira ili IllS. In r: I
illf~lIl1ry, :kilk I si '~' cllginl' '!"S, hug numJ 1'. f
un ,kil!t... d piolleer: as \V II a. 'Jig-hi troo s' and a
mobil' g 'Ilclarnwril' all pla)"d a maj)r 1"" 111
Tilllul'\ lllilil'U) ()r~allis,\ti( •.
:21
the lowlands. Cbvijo, \\'ho callle l"l'OlH a land of battering rams, siollc·throwing engines, Greek
splendid r<lsllcs, described the fortress of"Firuzkuh Fire and a huge mobile siege tower that Timur's
ill the west ol"Tilllur's empire as a multi-concentric troops sent againsl the Citadel. The walls were
citadel all an isolated hill, so strong that none hcatcd with fire thell rapidly cooled, it ,vas said,
could carry it by assault. According to Clavijo with vinegar so that thcirsloncs could bc splil wilh
ther(" wcn: many good castles dotted abOllt hammers. One tower did in filct collapse, killing a
f\rmenia, whereOlll' is known to have been held by numberofTimur's Iranian int:"lntry,
a lad}' who acknowlcdgnl Timur as her sovereign. The power of late mediC"al StolH··throwing
During Titllur's first forays illlO Iran his army trebuchets was illustrated by an incidcnl whell a
had been unable to lake defended cities but hy the stone, hurled by the defenders ofa l'vlamluk castle
latter pan of his reign his army was fi\1ned for the in northern Syria. rolled right into Timur's ten I.
number and power of its siege engines. Fire· On another occasion the discipline of Timur's
Ihrowing aroda balistas and stone-throwing lIuwga- troops enabled him loseize Baghdad by making an
lIik Ircbuc!u.:ts wC!"e llsed against Sivas in !.J-oo, assault under the rull noonday sun or all Iraqi
local prisoners also bcing lorced 10 work as summer. J\lost of the 'defenders' lining the city
pioneers. Elscwhere therc was Ill('ntion of ];Il"/{c walls were in reality only helmets propped up on
mantlcts of wovcn wattle to protect Timul"S Illen sticks, Sllch a coup de main also shows the quality
3gain~t the garrison's archers while they attacked ofTimul"S spy nelwork inside Baghdad! f\rchae-
the Georgian capital of'Tbilisi. The need for a full- ological evidence proves the suddenness with
scale siege could be avoided if the garrison was which the Colden Horde capital or Sarai fi.:J1 10
lured into the open and then dclcated in hattie, as Timur. The invaders had pl'eviou~l)' fallen upon
happened outsidc Damascus in 1401. Even herc, neighbouring Astrakhan. this time in the deplh of
howevcr, nu mort' thall .~o heroic defenders could wintcr when the defenders had attempted LO build
maintain resistance in the Citadel of Damascus for a wall of ice-blocks from the frozen Rivcr Volga.
a further month, despitc mining and sapping, Timur's capture of Izmir 011 the Aegean coast of
Tllrkey pitted him against some of the best
Crusading troops li'om Europe. Timur's a rillY had
alrcady fought \"cslerners when they capt ured 1he
Genoese trading post at Kani\ on the nurtlJent
shore of the Black Sea, hut K:dtl had only becn
protected by a small lortified area ncar lhe pOl'l.
l . . mir had recently been strengthened ullder thl:
direction ofHospitallers l'rolllncarby Rhodes. TIle
Crusaders had never taken Izmir's Citadel, \\'hieh
made Timur's task much easicr. NOlie thi' It:ss he
used the full range ofsiege engines, mobile towers,
artificial hills of earth li'om '''hich his men could
shoot down into the city. and huge fires to crack
the SlOne walls. ~Iosl dramatic of' all, a causeway
was thrust across thc harbour mouth to blotk
reinforcement by sea. Even more remarkable for a
Cenlral Asian army, Timur's Ilwn had sent fire-
boats frOlll the Amu Dat'ya Ri"cl' along the Uzboy

In this Persian miniature of 1436 AD the Macrdonian con_

queror [Link] the Great appears in hill Istamic form all
Sikandu slaying a dragon with hi .. bull_headed maCe, The
bero Wear" norm",t mid-15th C. Turco-Iranian armOur which
now include.. early mail_and_plate knee and thigh defencell.
Sikand.,r ...1"0 hall hingrd gr .....v.,11 o".,r his IIhinli. (Z..l .....
nanu.h (?). e..-F. R, Marlin CoIl., prell.,nt wherrllboutll
unknown)
 :halll1 I againsl lh limb 1': r\'ari U' Shahrllkh's SOil ulld nomillal SUCCI'SSPI", h~IS('d his
:a, piall p rt , p()\\('r on Transu, 'Illia ralher th;11l ('aslel"lI Irall as
T11I.: quc lioll I' whelhel" Timur's : I'In)' used hi~ r: lit T had dOl l' an I 111' hal" I thl" warlike'
lin'arm I' main: In I . r.. \d\' need pyl"Otc ·lllli attitudes orhi. '[ lln-o-~rnng-ol suhjlTLs, YeL Iugh
Il'ChllOI ~yhadb II ,'ailabl [Link] Beg wa" IlO! a ';lIl' ,'ssf'u! warrior. hC'ing' h :t
India throuRholit the I ph . nlury, \\hile tlt A
rcnll'mb 'l"l' I [(II" hi inlt'I'('sL ill aSI nlllOlll) an 1 (f l' a
~lall1l11ks "I'E?;ypl had I e'n using cannOl . in e 1 huge OhS'l"\'alury lhat hI' 1 uilt al ,':llllarqand,
II'aSl II\(' I :~bos, The tt( mans l1Ia~ lJav had gull Timurid 1 -line gT'W \\'ors,' ;II'IC,' "Iugh Beg",
h~ h· lat' ,+lh century • nel c 'n inl)' di Is) de III and \" '11 hi T lC " dYe 'Ii\'{' ~UC'('I'S:'\OI', Abu
~h I'll)' anl'1' Tilllur·· I 'alh, I Ul cI ar \'id n liJr ,'aiel, sulll:red a :erioll: ddi::ll at lit' hands Ill' thl
!{lIllpO\l c1er il Til lUI", <II.' 'I al is la -killg;, .\q U) nlllu \\ ho ha I in lurn rt'pla ('d the artl
YUltiu in \\c" tem Iran, Fragn ('lItalioll rea h I
\·irtual <lllarchy b~ the lall' ':lh n'l1l11ry: yet \' 'II
Tile Lofel TiJJ1Urid.' 110\\ llH'n: \\ 'l"l'Tinlllri I ruin:> who coull 'Iaim a
II:. ill histl ry, Th, lI1o~l hmllw, wa, Bah. 1', \\ 1m
>

ruled eilsllTIl ,\fg-hilllisl'lII <I!'ler 11l'ill~ dri\ en ["rom

Till1L1I"'s I,m,ns lo ('nSlIr' Llll' SLwC!':siOI1 al"tcl' Ii, Tr;lIlsoxania b) Llw Ull 'i\'ili~" 111..b 'gs, H \V'1ll
ekalh 1~lil(' I. His arlll)' ; I par 'l1lly \ alll' I lo ( 11 to 'I' 'al ' th . I( Ilg-li\TcI J\ IOAld Eml ire in Illdia,
l"Onlinlll' \ ilh lhe ilwa:ion r :hina bUl inslead YeL the mUSl alll"al'li\ . or 1Ill'SC' lasL Tiilllll'ids w, s
Tim II"~ OWll t'll1pirc dril'l 1 inlO 'i\·i1 \\' 1'.1 n [~l 1 Hu,arn Bayqara, ",b) h ,II KlllIl'aStlI Ii'om q!1(
eh.\( S l'rupll'd all1J(J:t \"1') lilll mC:" 'I imurid ruler ulIlil hi, leallt in I.I( " 't elate' \\ hi -It <LLo nltlrkl' 1
'11(,(,,' ·ded another. Somc ol'thc, c m n WCI" highl)' LI c cllc Ii," en I ol"lhe Tilllurid d~ lIasL~,
illl 'lIi~('11{ all I VfT) ('UILUIT 1. earning; a pi t' in H IS;IYII Ba~qara begall hi~ ,'ar '1'1 as a 11ll'I'Ct'I1-
hi~1 11') as pat I'OIIS or an if nOl as l"lH1q uer r '. Y I ar) ill 'l'illllll"i I ri\·il wal' .. \11\'1" h'Tlll1lin~ rul r 01'
lhl:' h leI" Tim 1I rids were nul \\ iLh uL milit. I' . glor), HCl"at alld ~hura an 111' d('\,(,lnpl'd illlll a lIotable
:llld lh ' (','('nl\l'd lailurc rTimur', ely' . ly owcd P ll"on I' till' tins, hill Ill' slill In I to llJ.{hl to
1111 l'\' to thl' w ak fI till htions laid by Timur maintain hi: pr'l'arilll' llll'U11l'. H,,~a)11 Ba)[Link]
hil IS ,II' than 1 I a lack or ahilily anwng his alse remained snnll'lhillg- Ill' '( "plll"l"IIl:lll 'lJlel a
..
~lICl,( .,~()rs. kl' II hUlll 'I', a I Ita ra lnistil' \\ hi h ,u· '0 c n u. -
Tilllllr":; ,UII 'hahl"ukh cn·ntu·t1I) I"eunified a m'1I1 amollg lhl' l'Ili'll' ,1I;,ltll'l'<tI') ur LIlt' lale
.ltrUllkl'll ·mpin: in ,+0+ bUl, lhough he w~ a Timurirl world. To Ih - \('1'\ lasl thc" <ll'[Link] ral.
pl',Il'lA-!O\'ing man, h still ha I lo fight a \\ h I
l'ri,,~ or war. agai ll"t lill' >ign f e:" th most 1<1Ilg 1'- -C-r onstTuct d [Link] cion and plan of wall of
Merv, arly '5th . Th wer ere led for Shahrukh. D-H-
Oll~ h{'in.~ til(' n,\,i\,('d Q, 1'a ( uyunlu Tur oman,. fortification oCBukhara which, thou h datin [Link] the 16th
()II ,'In!Jl"ukh',, dl'alh lh\' Timurid ('Illpir> l"rag-
C., continue 'lyle' developed in the TiJnurid p riod- F-
elevation plan and section of Shaykh jaJaJ gat ; G-H-
Illt'ntce! illiO '1 ~ Ti 'S or ramily :tal ',. Iugh Bf'?;, elevation and 'ection ofa neighbouring wall.

A
B
..,_c~
[
__ M~
.4Il_'

E G
o F H
i;\'ClrtH:d lhe hooriiih trihal Uzhl:g"s whu Wl"l"l' SHon warEtre ensured it cOl1tinuinK Ira11iall military
10 uverwhdlll lhem, On lin: olher hand Husayn influcnec, This is clearly seen in lhc decoralion 01"
Bayqar;l\ ;d)ility tu hold his drink \\'011 !tim lhl' Shahrukh's huge Citadel at Herat which was
Uzheg"s' respecl alld tlll'y ulicll suppurted him in restorcd by 7,000 labout'crs aftcr being: virtllall)
lIi~ ljuarn:b wllh uthl'r ll11'tnIXTS of lhl' Timurid demolished by Timur. Siege lcclltliques changcd
tiUll i I y. lillk, as when Sbahrllkh bl(J('kaded EI7,injan with
TIll' forces which lilll,l{hi filr Tinlllr's SW'('l'ssors a circle of fonillcatiollS just as the 1\lolI~ol.~ had
n;llurally had llluch in common wilh Timur's own surrounded Bnghdad with a ringorwalls in 12,"18,
~lI"ln)'. '(ct tllI:rc wen: changl:s- during" tht· 151h Thc importancc of fOl'lifwd \Owns in later
ccnlury, Turks alld TUl'('ilil·d t\long"nls 1't.'lIlainl:d Titllllrid dcfensivc poliC) led S01111: rulers 10 giVl'
the most impurtanl lroops am] callle under lhe larklulII OJ' tax-exempl 'hel'o' status to cntire filii'S.
command ofa IIWfdi dinlll; or liirk dil'tllli, a kind or Large lorces wcrc also staliolHXI along the vull\er-
Rcneral stair which 1(lrllled pan of" lhe council of" "bll' northern li'otlli\'r whicb f;lccd 1I0111ad attack,
Siall', Shahrukh g\'llerally Il'Ii milit:w)" nnairs l(l Therc arc rc/i.'renccs In bclc<lp;uercd lowns being
these senior ul1iens, <lnd although Ulugh Beg kept rcsupplied wilh convoys of" grain while rebds or
slriner cOlltrol over hi,~ arlllY disciplinc declilll:c1 invaders controlled the surroullding counlryside,
by the mid-151h Ccnlury, Troops ofJa.!-\atai 1\1011- and parallels with recenl milit:try 0pl'l'alions it!
glll origin retaincd t!ttlr distinct idenlily CVi,:n in f\ Ighn nista n ;l 1'\' q II itc.: st ri ki nR. The I" tel' Tim Ll rids
Trall~o:-;allia, and the riSi' or til{' <..lara ,lIld t\q wcre. !lown'l'r, !orced 10 withdraw isolated gill'·
Qoyunlll Tun:OrlUllS 10 lhe weSI led to an increase risons rrom their Central Asian frontier although
in Turki,~h military illllut,tlce ill latcr Timurid to the very cnd Husa)'11 BaYIJ:!r:! relied 011 Ihe
artlli(·~, Nn'e"lht'!ess the "ital importance or~iege static delcnee of rons to keq) the Uzhegs al ha},
Yt.:1 lroops of"l1omadic Turco·1\lot1,~(J1 origin con-
Heral, ''''[Link].1 of Shahrukh and !llrongesl eity of Ihe 151h C.
Timurid En."ire. [Link]:.l showing u"per and lower "arl!! tinucd to hatc lo\,'ns and large lIul1lbns aban-
of forlre""j B-rcconsiruclion of up"er Citadel a" "c...n from
wall ....lw.,"n u"per and lowcr sCelions; C-"I"n ofTimurid donc.:d Ihe luter'l'illlurids, rnnl1~ d",s('rtill~ l-IusaYII
H"rII' sllOwin!: r"c'angular city "Ian with .hfl' Citad... I"gain". Bayqara 101' the Aq QO),llulll army.
norlhun wall, (Aflcr Allen, Bruno and p.,rbellini)

'!+
Tran 0 nia, mid-14th
1: Timu~i·Lenk, .l363
2: Jagatai tribe man 3
3: Thjik p a ant infantryman
 Timur' f, , Iran & Iraq, lal 14lh
1: Jalayrid heavy cavalryman
2: Thr 'oman tribal warrior
3 3: Iraqi Arab auxiliary

B
Timur's cavalry, c.1400:
1: Cavalry offi r
2: Thrkhan 'hero'
3: tandard-b ar r

2
o
E
En mie of tbe Timurid ,15th
I: Thrcoman tribesman, 2nd balf 15th
2: Thrcoman cavalryman, mid·15tb
3: Georgian ca alryman, late 15th

2 3
The Later Timurid :
1: ultan Husa)'n Bayqara, 2nd half 15th
2: Timurid guard man, mid· 15th
3: HUD man, mid 15th C
:c

The IWl of the TimIUrici"

1: Uzbeg rior,laie mtb
2: Timurld warrior. late 1Itb
3,4: Timurld lady and child, late 15th C

3
 An il1(Tcascd Wit: ofelephallls was probably lhe elleampment because thc encmy held snrrounding
1110st obviolls eh;lIIgc in 15lh celUury Timurid heights, and they also lit numerous additional
tactics. Shnluuklt scnclitlg great numberli against camp fires 10 enhance their apparent llumbers as
lhe Qara Qoyulllu, They 1I0W formed a shock torce Tirnur had done, Sudden surprise attacks. even
ahead of cnch baliaHon, much as they had long against the Mongols who were ex pen in stich
done in India. In I;lel elephants proved quite warfare, could swillg vic wry in I~lvour of' a smaller
sUl~cessruL particularly ill Ibe lhree-day baltic of force, Latcr Timurid armies still used Central
j\lashgird in 14'11. Shahrukh's <lrtlly was al.~o Asian lf'ITOr tactics b)1 massncring a nomadic foc's
recorded driving herds oreamcls or oxen ahead of' menfolk and slaughtcrillg hcrds so as to weaken a
them as tltey attackcd a stalic foe. presllmably so tribc's military pOlential. Having defcated an
thai these fi'ightCllcd beasts would disrupt the enemy in baltle Timurid armies also tended to
enemy's defensive army. In open baltic it was still withdraw elite units hack to their own heartland,
110rmal for a right wing to form the most importallt leaving auxiliary troops to complete a conquest or
olTcllsive formation, the left adopling a primarily mop up a scattered fo(,.
defensive role. I I' ddcC\ted in bnulc a Titllurid
army would often ret real into the mountains,
Ica\'inggarrisolls to hold the fortifications until tht"
main arlllY could counter-attack.
roes oft/Ie Til1zltrids
Cavalry still dominated warbre even in the
mounlains, a Tilllurid force bc.il1g defeated by a The most powerful lut's thaI TinlLlr l:u;t:d, the
similarly mounted Uzbcg army in rough Kilzakb- OttOmans aud the iVI;lInluks, arc cO"crcd in other
stall tetTaill in 1+27. Ulugh B<:g's army of 1,000 i\!clhll-Anns titles (sec Ilr/llil'':' ofl/Il' OIl(J1111111 Turk.:.
hOrSeml'1l plus :20 scoUlS had rou Icd J aga tai horsc- 13m 1774 MAA I.~o, and Till' i\!(llIIllIh lonheorn-
men high ill Ihe Tit'n Shan Mountains lWO years ing), Among others who kit tlie full weight of
earlier. During this campaign Ulugh Beg's men Tilllur's attacks were till' arlllies uf a I"ragnlellted
had erected at least one ob(l or watch-tower onaose I rail, The tradilional Islamic mililnry system or
rubble as lhey marched in search or their foes. slave-recruited profl:ssinl1al ,~/I/I/m!l or /II(jm/lik sol-
Elsewhere they Ilad thrown up a complete fonificd diers had revived in I+tll ct'lllury Iran as Mongol
nUlhorit)' wns repbccd h)' a series of local dyn-
aSlies, Urban militias, mallY hased upon SII); or
'mystical' Islamic: brutherhoods, also played a
major role. Among Ilwlll tlw wrbal!afs (sct' above)
wcre the mosl dlcctin', Warlikr Af~hall ;llld other
mounlain peoples, most of" whom had ;1 long-
infantry tradition, fOl'n1l'd lhe garrisuns (Jf many
cities in areas ruled by tll(' Karts. In Iraq and
W(':-I('1"I1 Iran tilt' l\[Link])rrids still held swny

but their nnnies set'lll to have consisted of slavc-

rcnuilcd prolCssionals rathn than Turkish or
Turco*i\longoltribeslnen,
III the Illounlnins rol" AIJ;ltolia Kllrdisll and
Turcomall tribal warrior,~ put tip the most persist-
('III resistall(T to Tilllur's illvnsiolls. The Armeni-

ailS bad by nnw lust their indepcllClence and were

caught hel\\'l:cn Til11ur and the Ql1'" Qoyulliu
The Z,.farnfiJl.m,.h i51,,' ideatised aceounl ofThnur'" life and in
thi" cnp)' made in Shiraz, '436 AD, [Link] conqueror is hunling
wilh a hawk. NOle the parllsol carr;"d by a mounl"d IIl1end_
anI and the Iypieally [Link] hal wilh an up-lurned brim,
(Zafarnamah, localion unknown)

33
 .,. 'I'itllllr"s d(,<It1J. d('\,l'lllj>('d illtll majllr rq.:iullal
pll\\('r~, 'l'llt' (~ara Q(lyunlll \\'Ct'(' 1)\'(·['tllroWll II)'
Iheir Aq (.29yunlll ri,"als hdilre Ila') could ,1('hi('\'I'

, much, hutllu: Aq Qoyulliu WI'Ill 011 tIl (',,,'\'(" out:l

state tltat Strt·tc!Jnl almost from till: l\lt'ditl't"-

---. i!:(\.; rallcan 10 (he Arabian G~l1r Tlwy dominaled the

-,I'; ridl i\[('~opotatlliall track rOlllCS, Illa;lllaillCcI
~~
polilical rdatjOll:' \\'ilh ~lllslirl1 :.1;ll("S in India and
N:~, of 0 clllti,"au,d an alliance wilh Veil ice. as hoth lhe Aq

'~i~ Q.o) Lllllll and the Vellctialls lea red the f:lst I-{t'ow-
illg Otlum;lIl Turkish Empire. Tltl' i\q (."?!JYllillu
~. also r('cog:lli~I'd lht"ir Iwed [(II" tllodl'rll firearms,
- ~
Sillt'!' tIll' O,I(llll:lll.S \\'('n' aln'ady 1~IIl1Ccl [Link]' Illeir
'. , .L(l1tl1ll'l") , :\n <l1l('1ll1" was nlack to ohl<lln anillny
from \'elli,(" in 1+71, \'ia lhe small Anato[iall
Ann", armour and hor"".arnlOur shown in thi" manuscript ('miratt: 01" Karamall which rcan:d Ouomall
from II"...." <:.1440 AD, include more 1.. 0 ..,11.... than "pp"a.." in
piclu""" fro", we"l"rn Ir.. n. Thi"could ;ml;e.l.. thai w""pon_ Entire banle-5cencOi became C:onlmOn in Timurid arl, rival
ry ...ali more old_fashioned or ren\ain ..... ond" .. !llrnng Central arn.i"", lHing arranged in ca .."rully compolled !",oup5, Here,
A"i.. n [Link]"nc" in Afghan,islan and e..Slern Iran. (510..10_ in a manuscripl or '475/6 AD, ",a5seli or liny ngur,," includ..
0 ....... 10, Royal A"iat;cSod."y, Mli. "39> L<Z06v, London) armoured cavalry",,,n, n.u"icians on hor".. or c.. n.c1_baclt,
Oag", I"andard", para"ols and a rul .... On an el ..phant. (An-
th%lP' or Ni~.....i',. Poems, Toplo"pi Lib., M,," II,.". 76..,
Turcomans, whill' ti'arill~ Ih(·local Kurds mo.,t or l"lanbul)
all. Gt'orgia \\as dC\':tslt'd in a snit's ufTimurid
Im'asiOns aml graduaJl) , .. nk illt(. anarchy. i\1i.~­
Irll~l 1'('1\\1'1.:11 lilt: Gc'ufl4iatl!; and i\rmC:lliaIIS
dCq)CllCd although both wcre Chrisliall. Georgia
\\ as. howc\'t'I', able In mal n t ai 11 clw:w III il i 1:1 ry 1i 11 ks
willi lht' Byzantin.... 'Empire' ur
Tl'ahzoll {)11 the
Black Sea whieh remaincd a ~mall bUI slrat(;gicall~'
important Slatl', It i:. alsfl worth noling lhat Ihl"l~dl
of Istanhul ([Link]' Comlantinopll') to th('
Olwman Turks ill I ~:>:~ caused Its.'> ora stir ill tht.:
~lidd1e East tllan in Ellrope" i'.kallwhih· lhl'
i\ I onWl1 Cfil,kn H nrde SIlIT;w"d Ti m II .. 's i nV:l",iollS
and, though weakened, was slill able to (Tush
attemplS h) ~uJllC of ils Russiall vassals 10 rebel.
III teresti Itgl Ycllough the Russin n pri necs ,({("Ilera II y
remaiucd loyal to their Colelt'n I-Iorelc l)vtTlords
rat Iter than sidill,l.{ with Timur's invaders, mati)' of
their troop~ fighting in \'Iongol armies, The mili-
tary organisatiOtI of tht' Coldcn Horde remailwd
essClit i;\II)' Lhe sa me as I ha t orca rl I('r !\ Iwig-ol St ate,;
thollgh lht'rc was au illcn:asillg use of infantt'y ill
some areas, particul:lrJr ill Ihe Crimca, where
h:l I Idgu liS \\ l'rc: r('pMt cd by 1493.
[n the IOllg nlll the mOSI imponanl and best
doculllented or the Titllurids' locs \'/('["(' the (1'1r01
alld Aq Qoyunlu Turcomall$ of AZ<ll'ba)jan and
caSlt"rIl Allalolia, Tla:y emcl',l.{cd uut orllte ("(llbpsc
or J'\'longol authority in IIwse an'as and, aftt'l"
 I a oull b g th'r dIn ath th rul r"
f bann r.
a cording to on n almost uniqu r ord of an q oyunlu
militar r' i·w h Id in southern Iran in J476
W I' both survives to pI' vi 1 a detailed aunt r just ne
, as w re th ir pro in ial Turcoman arm at th height or q
stilJ in u' OJ yunlu p w r. Thi. Ird-nama" d r i b ' a I'
wlli h in lud d ur m n plu a small I' numb r
of Kurd and LuI'S. Eis wh r rab ar known to
ha ~ I'm d an imp nant pan 0 the q OJ yunlu
tat. A y ar arli'r n ti n amI . ad r
I' port d th pres n of many fi t, Idiers in an
q Q yunlu arm , m st appal" nlly bing P 1'-
siaos. In the revi w d . rib din h Ard-namah Lh
troop were in thr rade,: th [Link]-dar wh
wor full armour the rdinar tirka. h-band hal' -
a arch r r
h rm dtlle bulk fth army and th
gl/.lb~glz(lzi or '. ervants' whosf' role n:mains un lear.
Th' r>vi w it ,If last'd S'V ral day' tf op
ha ing b n 'umm I ·d [I' m th· surrounding
distri t . Prc d n wa giv n to r ligiou 1 ad rs
and 7. 'alots who (()ught onl (or the glory [thcir
I" ligi n; the, ljk the alii T , h dlh il"own Aag.
bann I' and drums. Th parade start d at sunrise

Ankara
•

.
Dornol(;~U:

Mamluks , /
--- ........\
.
~
/~
..'"
".'
.-'
(
\ Arab tribes
\. ".
Makram

The Timurids & their '..,.... /a-...... \/i..-L.,;:;

'c:-.
;~,
'., v~
~
C ambo~ \ -.;;., i 9
neighbours c.1475
• I ~i

3
 simple horsl'-ardH'r.~. ,\nnoll]"('c1 hea\") I-;I\'all'}
seem. in raCl. 10 h;\\'I·liJl·mt'd around:!5 per n'lll of
lTIOtlllll'd II1C1l. Ihnll~h ii, ~11l1l(' rill'lII,l1iolh lhl')
\\'ere a~ li·\\ a"!J pt'r CellI.
Scnior mcn at thl' 5iUllan· ... coun had their m\ n
.!-\"u;ll·d~ n:~iml·nb. Tltl' "'[Link]·~ Wl'\·;ll1h. [Link]:in.c:
from lalcOllers. 1lU'S.... l'll,c:t·rs ;lInl ~lirJ'up·hf)ldl·I"" In
kitdU'lI ~Ialr. lion knpt'I'" .llId hi.!-\"Il\\,I~ ,c:uarch.
plll~ Ill;! 11) 01 hcr ('xul it' fUIIC"liOlI,lri('., .• 11,(1 paraclt-d
ill rull Illililar) t;t·:tr. The [Link]\ clIc:illt:t·l... or
.)almn \\ CI't: included "Illm,~ I he>;t· ·:.(.'na nt~-. On I ht·
,hiI'd dOl) Ihe ('lIlire arlll~ dn'\1 tip in ha"l("
rormalion 10 I>t" in~llt'cl('(l b) Ih(' sultall \\ IH' 110\\
pUI 011 his armour and rllck .110111{ Ihe ranks
bellcalll a para....ol \\llilt- Ihe I'n~al ... [Link] or
Ja"jaq f1ullcrcd behind.
Tht· hurclt's Ol"t'<llIIp Ii .11, .\\ I"'" \\ IIlI .n l [Link]·d
_\q (..!.('~lI11lu annit· \\1'1'1' (1";11'1\ ck...ni',..d b}
\i\ritlt\... \·I·l\t·li<lll \ i ilul..... Barharu . . [Link]'ll 11t"1 llll'
arlll~ h.1(1 h_otHI It'Ilt.... .![Link] 1.1\<111"\ Iml"t'·, or
\\hUIIl !.OOO \\I'n' .lrmoul"l·d, 1!.lIO(J .I.....ol'll·d hal-{-
g:a~(' anilllal .... .!';.IHHI IlOr"'I·IllI'II. :S_'XlfJ il1t:lII,r~
mO'i1 bdll)4 arehcl..... 1~[Link] \\lIllIt'll .lnd 11.00l./
dlildn·ll. '1 Ill' [Link]'r-. i'lt·ludl'd Iflbhle...,.
~milh,. >;;tddl(,rs. flt·tdlt''''' .. t ...... orll,d \ il'llIall(...... and
"pIll htT.. ril'..... \IlICJT1~ olllt'r mili 1:1 r~ dUI if'''' I hOI I 1'('11
to tilt' .\'1 (..b)~ 1I1llu a Ii"r ,Ill'i, I·OllfpH·...' 111"'011 I hlTIl
Iraq \\.h llit· nrj.{i1lli~;ttitlll ur .111 ;1111111,,1 //"/01'
Th.. la ... Timurid pC!riod ...a" a 8...ld ..n .g.. (or [Link]., ~ Illslim Pi IC;l'i rna~t· .1('1'0""'" till' dC·... CTh (.l" •\ ra hia to
[Link] .. pa.inlin8' Subj...,u b«.. me incr......ingly ..omanl;.,
bu. illulitMltion.. o( r .nd .,.rna",....·.. r .. nil! C",[Link]. Th...rl ...(Tu...,......n "'''81..ro Iran ~r"wlilyli~ed and o;...m ....
H .. r,", in .. n...lh tll .,.. n .. [Link] .round '493 AD, lur_ wh., cr..d", mililary r.~ur..o; bc:in", ~implifiC!d wilh lillie
bllnC!d infanlry ar ddC!d .... Ih .. normal armourC!d ca...alry, ...a ..; ..ly in Ih..ir eq..ipmenl. In ,hio; manuo;cr;pl ...r "., ..80 AD
drun"" ..r" and .r."nl'r."r". (Ilri.i.. h Lib., Mli. 2,;900> f.1l3''', .11 ..·....r A..I«I hdmclli, lH:nd".nf .....A"pli, <[Link]".'rnt..;I.....""r
London) Ih ..ir o;hould....... nd rda.i" ..ly plain luni.,~. In "ddilion 10 a
"lightly cur,,"" ,;ab.... 0"" ...arrior ..1>;0 hold,; a largl! wing"d
011 a Til 1I rsda} , pa,si H)4 ill rrolll ur tilL" ruler II ho sa l m." (Kh....... rn .. m .. h. M .. ~ .. un. ur Dr.,orali".. Arl,;. f.<t."
T ..h n}
upon a jewt'l,slllddnl Ihnmt: wt "n :1 c:lstl,'
bah-lin y. :\ I'( III Ilcl II in I SHJU(I hi:; "I'my com III a nders.
milil:I!'y ,tall' alld 1l1l1.,ici;l1\s. Ivith a mounted
herald 011 lbe .I{rnuml beilHI n'ady tu intrlxluct'
dignital'il'S and ullit't'rs aC('l)l"ding to their rank.
:-"Iilitary unils paraded (Ill lht· sl'clmd day, L";lch
being summoned in turTl b) /1lI'f1ji5 or statl'ofJicers
who otht'r\1 be f'i1l'Il\L"d:l MIn orCI-IQ. On tIle righl
\\ing \\;h all dill' or ht'a\') ,lrmOLlI't'd Iroopcrs
I'idin~ full} armoured hors(" ;lIld led b} a \Ihite
banner. i\'i ('ach unit 1\;1' in'pcctc'd it.. onicer
prilp:d upon hi... pra)t'r mat and Ihen olfcred girh
10 t ht' ~u Iiall. '1·llt· left \\ i n~ \\ "re rc\ il'\\ cd !lex I. an
elite heill~ annnurt'd Ihoug:h Ihere wa~ no llH'ntion
of hOI"S('·arnuHlr. Ihe hulk or Iroops again lX"inl;"
:\1 I'IT' I 'Illel ,\Inlin<l. (;j,'cn Iht' ananhi(' ~tat' (r th ' b '~t knm~ 11, IlUl thl'} an' llnlikd)" lu huvl' be-n
('('111 ral .\rabia .It this time and (h huge 111111ber~ f101 I' inti - t'nlargr I arlll( III rn, . (J lIane-r Iha t grnv
or pilgrim,> '\ Itu gill hl'r' I li'om all 0\ IT Ihl' 'a.'(('rn lip IlI'ar Tilllllr's I alan', Tilt· ~pallish Ira\' -lin
hl.ll1 iI' \\orld, lhi.. \\'<J!> a major Illililar ' rc:-p)l1- :1, \ ijo \\ iln 'S -d Tilllur in p 'Cling' WI':11 nr'
sihilil', A plTllapS unl'xp(' t'd rbi- Ihal r II lO rna Ie \ 1"1' the, I' ,illu: 'aI', ill 'Iu lill IH Ie:.
'I'llI'(' [Link] ,"\0
had risCIl t I PO\\('I' in lht' III )lIll- lltall 3, on 111"\ armCHl1 ,( Ilwl' , 1'111' ". n' Ilf r I
laiJlsor.\n<J!()li'I.I~lrrj-(mIhe,ea, ,\a:l0l{arri' II h} slIhj '('I rlll'r,', ;l' r!l<I b 'ill~ famed r r i~
li,l'l. along till'. rabian 'ull' [Link] frll llh'
ridl Ira lill~ links \lilll Inrlia, ,\q oylll1ll1'Tsseis
plied ,111'11 '\ 'lll'r", bUI ,-\ It Ilwr any eoulcl I '
I'('l!;ar I('d as \lan:hips 10 UI PITS, the en It:lli
piraq (Irth· ;ulfi. ag-. in unkno\l n.. \n inl n .. tillg
ael filion III 'I'llI' oman milil<trr Inininl{ wa' pra '-
liel' a~:1illS[ rllll-:ized cia} III J(!cl I'I'phanl' in
<II liripalioll (,rlarillg [h I:e in Sf llruklJ': army.

ArJ11 alltl AI71l0Ur

Th I I II all I I -Ill . '1I1ulir, W(T' '1 lime or
trallsilil/II ill IsLlmi \\ea\ Ollr} .ill.l a:-. L1wy w 'I" in
Europe, Thl'l'l' had IX"n a gn'al in rcase in
Iralliall arm,' produl'lioll ciuring lh" I..flh ntul'\
<Ill I ~I'llldardist'c1 \\1"lPOll:-. \\1'1" bl-illg 111, Illd~\ -
lUred on an almosl produ ti n-lil1l' ha,i.. lh
nonh, hl/\\I" cr. Ill' nomadic p('l/lle: of'lb Eura-
:-;ian :[('1 Ill' slill I~l('(' 1 cOlllr'lcliet r} n cd~ for ......... ·······1
pa:tul'(" which l'llldd onl~ Ill' ((lllnd in l1w gra<,,-
lann', alld iron whirll Illostly 'am (j.( I'll til
l(ln's(I'c1 1l101lfItaill:. 'I'll(' :t'nlnl .\:ian lril t:~
\\ /lui I. in lill'l, l~l(,(, a s('ri U.!ih rtf go' uril'( II ill III
I 5' II ( (' lillii'} .
Tl'dllSnxalli:1 Il'lti 011 'l' b' 'II rl'~arcll' I as tht'
<1I'1ll0LlI') "rthe ea. I whil tit' mountain: or : ntral
Asia had hlTl1 ,"r il1ll OrLanl 11 ininj.{ ('1111' ':-, )
Tilllllr': (illlC'. how'vn, lh' < rca had he l m
soml'lhillg' of a I aekwatel' ill terms or pro I leli III
;\Ild I('('hllolo~ , This. roupl ·d ",illt [II(' immense
ckn an Is of hi: 1.1J'~1' an I "\ ,II 'quipped' rmy,
('n 'olll'a~('(1 Tilllllr 10 Ink kil1(' arm ur r, fi' m
1111' Il'l'l'iloril'.<' Ill' rc I1qul'r 'd buck I) his I'"q ital ,r
S:ulJarqand, 'I'll . ~,,()rd'milh' or Dam'ls u. \\ IT

Reeo.. tru tiOnJi of late 11th ..... tury Turco-lranialt arnJour

m d by Dr. . Gorelik altd Mr. L. A. Paru nikov of the
[Link] of aCltce, 0 cow lLttd "OW in the Kulikovo
B ttl 11 Id Mu unt. uch ~our wouJd have beeD worn ill
th Golden Hord lLttd by Timur' troops. A-front and ',de of
a embled artnour, tb {rODt view aJ 0 owillg a tDaiJ birt
worn b neath; B-O-exterior au.d interior view of rear (B)
frollt ( ) au.d houlder (0) piece of e oud nnOur.

37
excel! 11 t mail. or th su. 'LUrban h 1m ' had alread appear d ill na-
Nl ulltain Ih nand 0 rband t lia by lh mid-14th ntur. hi. [Link] ti e
had I ng- b n lamen [or am s produ tion and 5t I was n t as ism tim s b>li>vcd, a amJuk
would serve the· q unlu a. a vital 'our (' or r: ·hi n bUI may ha e ri inal d ill Tur man
weap nr during til· 15th elltur. n a pur I. a tern nat lia < nd th au a5US. urban h 1-
tc hnolugi al ba is, ho v'r Iraq may ha > b n m ts Jat r spread t Iran in th • th enturyand
m r . dvan d lhan Ir nian and th r n nh rn ntinu d t b mmon in tl e tt man En pir
enlr s. but I 01 in mJuk ria r . g pI. La ij
impl Jow-d m d helmet' wer the most am- d s rib d the helmets in Timur' rmoury as
mon rorm in imur s da but bulb us. - all d 'r un I and high turnin I a k t point,
whit in rr nt pi om down t ~ard th fa
and nos -whi h i a plat, two fi. ger' br ad
r aching the I v 10rLh hin b I w. Thi pi n
b rais d 1'1 v cr d at will and it s rv to ward oW
a ide 'trok b a sword.' H 1m ts with anthro-
p m rphic ra -ma k vi r ar mar ora pr bl Ill.
Th yar g nerall r gard d as T rt r' (Tur
o em S
L.---I
Ion I) st Ie but had been een in east 'm Islami
art sin e 1300 - though 'urviving 'xampl s
ar mu h latr. Helm I g n rail ,gr w m re
pointed in the 15th entur some mpl being
xtra agantly tall.
B d arm ur am in diller I1t t le5, and
difTi r nt am unt ould b worn depending upon
ir urn. tan es. R Lativ I light armour wouJd r r
. ampl ,b u d in du Is b t\ een hampions.
On e again Javijo pr id'$ a d ·tailed d ripti n
ofsom typi al t le·thi j parti ularlyint rc·t-
in a. b mp r th m to well-known European
armOUl' o[ early 15th ntur pain. Th y w re
h aid f th rt tit hed n a ba king or r d
anva . To our thinking lhi. app ar d r. well
wr ught x pt that th plat s ar n t thi k
enough and th y do nth r know pr p rI to
t mp r th t I. ... Th suit ors -aJ arm ur are
mp 'd cr mu h a i· th us tom with us In
pain but they wear a 1 ng . kirt mad r a
III t riaJ th r than that whi h is ale-arm ur d
nd this am down so as to appear b 10 a
mi ht b with u a j rkin. lavij wa obviou I

Aru10ur of the TilDurid period. A-CraglDe,nts of mail-and-

plate cuirass from Kuban area between the Golden Horde
and Tirnur's Empir", late l-ith-early 15th C. (Stat" Historical
MuseUID, mv. no. 34., Moscow); B-lDaiI-and-plate dizcek
thigh and knee protection, Tirnurid late '4th-early 15th C.
The construction oCthe knee defe,nc" iB similar to a European
poleyn of the [Link] period (Military Mu eUID, mv. 413,
I tanbul); e-H-fragtnents of l-ith cent'W'y Turco-Mongol
armour of scale (e), lamellar (D, G and H) and [Link]"
(E and F) [Link] ("x-Derevyanko and Natsazgdorzh); 1-
artDour of <nail-and-plat" probably belonging to Sultan
Ya'qub ofthe Aq [Link], '478-1490 AD. (Military Museum,
mv. ,646~ ItaabuJ)
8
comparing Timurid arm{IUI"S 10 tlw ~(';lIt··[iIHXI
brigt/1/dilll'f of \\'eliterll Europe:. a form of armOlll'
lhal mi~ht itsclfhavc had Eastcrn origins.
Lamellar armOur di1>:lppenrcd from th(' j\ riddle
East during lhc !ruer 151h CCllIury though it
survived in C('lI1ral Asia and Russia, Instead il was
replaccd by a 1>pc(ifically Islamit, lorm of lnnil-
and-plale arll10ur which was probably invcnLed ill
Iraq, Herc smOlll iron platt's were linked to 0Ilt'
OllltHhcl' and to sh('cts of mail. This ingcninus
systcm gav(' fkxibilit)', cxc.:c1lcllt proleclion and
avoidt'd lilt, prcvious lIt'('d to wenr two OlrmClurs of
lamtllar and mail. t\lail-and-plille slyles con-
tinucd 10 evoke dUl'in~ lhe 1"lh ('cntm'y, hUI the
c!Wf-fl;lI(/ ('four mirrors'). in which four l;lr,~c
linkt'd pieccsofirnn protccted dH,'st and Olbdolm:n.
did nOI appear unlillhe eady 16th century.
Velletian accoulltli describe the Aq QOYllnlu as
wearillK various sons or armour; 'SOIll": WCr('
covert:d Wilh sirong thick hides lproh,d)l} bulf
Jcathcr('(KUS like lhose used by dll" l'.longolsl ahk
to s<I\'e lhe wearer from any III:<I\'Y bluw, OLh('r~
Wcrt clolhed in finl' silk with doublets quiltt:d so
thickly that tht:'~ could not be pierced \\·itb ;:\lTO\\'S
l1tough lilyLisNl, Ih~ arl ofTurc;oman W~lilern Iran c;ould ai_
Lcilhcr tht' old Islnmic kazaghand lined with mail, ~ d ..la;led. Thill ma.. u"cripl [Link]~ in enan in '''94 AU show..
or a form orsoft annour], Olhcl"s had gill cuirasses ca"alry wholl" pruumably mllil or m"il.and_plale body
armour i.. u .... ~.,n und~r Iheir lunic". Th .. hidinfl; o(armour
and t"Oall, of mail with so Illany weapons of'oncllcc [Link] Olh.. r dOlhiug was a long......lablish..d Middle EaSl-
and defcnce thai it was a marvel LO behold how ern .,.adition and lIpp..arll 10 ha".. bren normal among Ih..
I ~I.h C. [Link] Turk" and Egyptian Mamluk .. Its w ..U." the
well and skilfully they bore themselves in arms.' Turcoman Aq [Link], (Sh"hnllmlilb,IO<:1lI;On unkno_)
!\Iail was morc popular ill I raq than in Irail, where come frOIll Vcnclian visilurs, Jos('ph Bilrbal'O
vuious forms of padded or quilted 'soli armour' slatetithat, ortbc :.!,ouo al'llloured cavalry IllOUlltS
rcmaincd in us(' wdl illio Ihe late 15th century, al Olll Aq Qoyunlu review in 1474, sOllle were
Limb clelcncl's such as simple greavcs and '('ov('red wilh cel'l;\in arlllour of'iron made in liltk
vamlJran'~ tIl' iron were k'lown li'olll the Inid· I+111 squares and \\ rou~lll with gold anti silv('r, la('ked
century aile! Illay have' bc('n used by the Golden together with slllall mail which hanged down in
'-larch' ('\,Cll in the later t3th, Ne\\' and more III a III ItT 10 the ground, nlld under the gold it had a

sophi.~ticatcd types of plated limb proteelions li'inp;e, The I't'SI \\'Cl'(' C(lVt'red with some leathel'
appe;\r to have been dn'e1oped in the Caucasus :tIkI' our lVcllclian! mOlIIIl('l', somc wilh silk and
and nonh-weslern Irall in lhe 15th ceiliury and sumc with quilled work so thick thaI an arrow
may hOl\'t' nwnl somcthinl{ 10 European influence. ('ould nOI havc passed through il.' Such horse-
Complicated lllnil-and-pIOltc leg defences ap- armour was apparclllly made in the Caucasus
pcared cady in the 15th cemur)', but hand- rq.:-inn of K ubachi,
prolectill~ extcnsions to the Vtlmbrace wert' \ \','a llOII' \\ ('re :.ta nd;ll'd isc,l, llJOug'11 Illo~e orIhe
gn'atly ."ill1pli(ied during the samc period. Ltg ditt' could he highl) d""orated, Lar,~e Cjll:lIHitit's 01"
armour was, howt'\Tr. aballdullt:d in mnll) pans of l\I'phl'itt' jadt' \\tTI' hrougln lJal'k LO Trallsoxania
Irall and Transoxania by Ihe late 15th cenlury, b} L'lllKh Ikg's army lollowing: its expedition
Hor~e armour was widespr(,Old Olncl had. of a!-;aiml lhe .Ja/.\atai ~Iongols. t\losl \\:l~ for lhe
COUl"St', bet'\] used thrvughoLll tilt' Islamlt- era, decuralion ofTilllur', lumb, bUI il is inlt'rl'siing 10
On,(' "gain, ~nll1t' orth(' most dClailccl dcsnipliolls lIuh' th;lt malty splendid l~th n'llIur}' Tram-

39
 litcnlry ma'tt'rpic('t,<; a<; C]rrisloplrt'r ~Iarl(m'c's
pJa~ 'I (/Illurdfli"r II" (;"(11. Tallll'r1atlt' ha.s t't'(Ti\\·d
relati\'d) liltlt' st'dOll'; atlt'llIiun frolll \\'I"tl'fTl
~'h()lars. His dl'srcndallu, the 'l'ilJ1urid d~lla"t),
•• ane! tht'ir l'iv:ll~ 11:1\(' 1)('('11 1'\('11 111(11'\' pn\lrl~
<;t·r\'cd. I.i~tcd hd()\\ al't" l('lll.'ral hi"toril's \\ hii'll

t:-
y-
dcal \\illl till' Timurid periud nne! 'Ollle mor!..·
sp('('iali"I'd \\(Irk.., lI1:1n~ h;l\in,l{ llrit.::inall} Ix'ell
\\ rillell in R u~,ia man~ ~ (":n'" ;It.:0.

~ :\1.:\1. Alcxandrc'oCu·Der..ca,I.A1 Ca"'/Hl~lIrJl' 'I imur

\- l'll,ltlfltoli,(I-I02) Lundon 1977
T, :\11('11, Timllrul Hl'mt Wi(',bad('l1 l!tH:J

1t
,
•
\'. \ '. Ibnhold, I-'Ollr Slut/If\ M/ II" IInllJ':,r fl!Crnlml
,I.,i(l, 1'01. III 'lu,I?,II-Br,1?, I'('prillt Ll,i(h'1l Igh3
\'. \", Harthold. Hij/f)lrr ,1,1 7urn n,lnr Cmlmll'

"' treprint Philadclphi.l 1977

~1. HriOIl, I., .\/imoriul tltj Si;r!o: XII' IIrdl', /,j
The ..amn orr.,.., ... ~iev;'" 1!IIla ica";",'. II...... lO.u'vived, b.n lumlm'J, Ttlmtr/m/ 1!',lris I(l03
., the dOH or th.. Tirnurid riod 0"" sreal _ e is
preHrvt<d. Bill1ad .... 0 ... wilJo Lhe world'. 6nnt [Link] .nd .\. BrullO & C. Perhdlini. 'La F(Jf!I'ua di Heral in
alllI_,h M i. be~1 r"'lnternbered (or i .. trod"cia."e.., ... bjecu . \1~h:lllisl;lI1', ill .1 rd,,',II'1((1 I-'orl!firoltl, .11I/ til'l I
auch as &",uine poru.. il.. ~, he .1_ p..it>lM lradiLioGat
,.c",n. Uue die .[Link]" or on" or d ... 1••1 Ti... urid.. S..h .... (;OI/J?ftjJO 11I1'''''f1~lOm''t. 1~/tIcm::.n-IJ(Jlo,~fI(l IR.1I
H ...."" Ba"q.. ra, aU"Dd their ruler whue he cons.,lIs ..
h.,rmil. No...... armoured Midi",.. ha" themail ••"[Link]([Link] ,\Iar::,o 1916 htitulll [Link]" <It-i Ca.,tdli, Romc
h..I...M hooked up 0....... hi. n,,,•• I. (Briti"h Lib.. a-h. Or. 61110,
LondOd)
1978
F-B, Charmo). I';,/",Iillllll ,Ir 'I i"'Olir·i·I,,,,,k
o~i\nian ,:tlJI'C:t had rr.l~ill· alld ill1pr:tclical jade (1 am"lml) Co"lr, rOlflmlllrkr St. Pelc1"obun;:
quillo!l'. Timur him,df \\iddcd ;, bull·hcadt-'tl 1835, reprint. \1TI<;u'rclalll 19i5
mace. a pal'liall} ,} rnbulil' \\l'nptlll u!t(.'d b) Turk- Cla\ijo (Iran", (:,1,(, Stl';lIIl."((,l, 1:'m!J/I\~)' In Ttlma-
j.. h ~lIld lrallian chicrwim. for nHtl'} c('nluric~. A ItIIUI,I')j '-Iu6(L,jndon 19~B)
Iarg(' lIumber orafllll'r'~ [Link] h:Hl' been £"C)'cfopnlitl oj hl,wl ~n<l ('<IiLl: l'ntrit, in Ill('
lound in Turco-.\lol1~ol ;wel olllt'r I"lamic .HCilS of volumes so (;1 r puhl i~ht'd ineluell-: 'i-\ 10. K(I~ UIII u',
tlli:. period. Tile L1H' 01' sui'll thumh-rill).(s \\as, "HlisaYII lBa~qaral', '''ara "O)Ulrill', 'al-
hO\\l'\'el'. l"(',l{arded ;h a l>i~11 of \\t'"knl':'s though "urdj (Georgia)'
tht) \\en: useful rOI'lollg'l'all~(' shooting, Tllllmh· H, Honkham, TII!/lhurfai", Iftr (;olll/Ilmil (Loudon
rings rarely appear in flt:rsinll manuscript paint- Ig62)
ing; hut an apparellt 'Icapal'd's lail' wrapped H. H, H 0\\'011'1 h, IIhIOl)' of Iftl' ,\ IQI/.l:0/\ .{r/)m 1/11' !Jlft 10
:,round lht' arrQWS in SUlIlI' quiw'rs dot·s becoll1e lIlt 191ft (I'IIII/ril'f, l'a,l /I '1 ftl' J(1-ftIl1rtl T{/I"I(lr~ I!!
C-OlllnlOlI in the 15th ,'t'I1I11l'y, Itma) han' been to Rlwi" fIIlfl (;l'IIlml .hia (London dlRo, I'l")ll'illt
'tvaralt' diflerCllt kinds ol'al'l'ow." 01' could simpl~ New York n.d,)
have held (hc aITO\\S steady \\hcn riding, Thc Ibn 'i\rabshah (11';lns. .J. II. S:llIdtnq. 'I tllllflllIIl' III'
lIall,(/~ (II' :uTI,\\-guitk was \"t'd in Celltl'al .\sia as Till/lIf, Iftr (;,,,,1 ,Imir (London 1~3G I
laiC as tht' ('nd orttU' tf}lh ('('IIlUl') in d<.'lt:lIcc ofa P. J:tck~()ll & L. Lockhal't editJ..I, (;f//IIuri(~1!,1'
,asllt', Then' is al'l' tilt' inlen'<,ting possibilit)' of lIirlolJ' i!llr(lll: l'lJl. (j 'rltr 7 ill/urit/ (II/(I ,\(lfm'id
cros.<;I)()\\<; hdllg u,ed ill dcfcn('t' of fortified po- P,riodJ (C;lInbrid~e Igfi&
SiliollS .It this lillle, :\II',Itl\,hik lht' j:\\'c1ill sur- B, F, :\Iallz, Tkr /lisr (/1/(1 HilI, q{ 7 fUllrllmll'
\ i\'oo, 1:11'1."(:1) at- a hunt i 11K \\l',1 pOll. f fOrllH'Olll ing I
\", :\Iinorsky, '.-\ Ci\'il ane! ~Iilitary Re\ it'\\ in Fars
Furlher reading in 881/1.176', 81111,lill 1/1t S£hool ofOritnl/11 Slut/itS
[)e<;pilt' 'l'arnt'rl:IIlI"" notori(,.\ alld hi<; rolt' in such XII (1939), PI'· I.p 178
 F. Nc\' '. 'Exp s' d·s ;u rr' de Tam rlan 'I d wOrt 0\' ran ail i\"Clllail. His liras.' and arm
, hah-l nkh', Jlwwires courol/llfJ . par flaps ar' a" s al -lin d con,'lruclion cov r d with
I' .Jmtlhnil' 'QI'all' . , . tit' Bdgiqlll' Xl ( 18Go) I 'curalive I t1. H lias n) lh r del" n apan
J. ]',,1. "mith, Thl' Hi\tll~)' q! the arbndar D..VI/I1~~)'. from his ·hic:ld. whil . hi h <Iv)' WO 11 n 1 Ihk-
1"36" 1381. f D, and it~ SOllrces (Th Hag-u 'Pari br a.t~d coal and soft I ather riding' loots <lrc
I 70) tYI i (I • I1tl"l1 l\siall Turkish .'lunw. Th(,
.J. E. Woud' The :lqql{]llllllu: :/all. :l}/ifedemtiun. q ui\'cr is I. 0 in tht: c:
'11 lral A·i 'In r:.nh or than

Ell/phe (.~vljnllC'apolis I 7 1 liddlc 'astern tradition :15 iL ully Il los's lhe

"rr w. <11 d hn.'; a /lap tn kecp 0 II the W(" tl, r, Th .
hor e'~ 'uri bricll , h()\\ '\' T, i.' ill Iranian :t}'1
Ti,e Plate ( lain sour e: [Link] gc from .Shah-IIall/lllt ill
£

r(/lilt .f/blllll , Tal riz \'.1 :17~ Topkapi Lib., C\Js.

Haz ~ I 3I1'.:2'.!1> ' 10'21>. btanblll) .
• 1: TrallJ(}\auia, mid-Lith CClltl/1J':
.1 I: [Link]. c. 1363 .,12: ]a,!Z(/tlii T"I'co-.\!I/IIJ:u/lribl'lI/l/[Link]/id-I.f.11t Cl'/ltU()1
Th~ yuung' n Iller r i. h WI1 \i 'al'll1g th light [n COlltra L l() Timllr this Illan , ",rs no arm ur
armour ( l"a Tlirki. h prince. His h Imet is a simpl and ha th simpl c101h 's and riding' IlIipmt'1110f
segmrnlc I IYI l' wilh hardrlH'1 leallwr rar naps a lrit alii r. -ar'h r." 1 II I>asi allir(' had hardly

Helmet ofthe (4th and (5th C. showing the variety of styles '478-'4.90 AD (M t. Museu<T1 of Art Ro' r' Fund 04,],21',
used by I'h inlUrid. nd their rivaJs. Th yare ofba . ally New York)' G-Iate Isth-early 16th C. Iranian, 'howing
one-piece onstru rion and indicate the high standard of relnalns of inJaid de oration (Kremlin Museum, inv. 4739,
metallurgy a bievcd in Islam at this tim '. A-'4th C. Turco- Mos ow); H-'Sth C. Iranian, r -us d by Oitoman (Tower
iberian (ex-Gorclik); B-'4th [Link] (ex-Gorelik); C-'4th Arntourie, London)' I-late (5th . Iranian (National
C, Turco-West Siberian (ex- olovyev); D-'4th C. Iranian Mu cum, Cope.nJ1agen); J-'Sth C. en rr:lVed and silvered
(WaweJ Colle rion, Cracow)' E-Iate '4th-carly 15th C. helmet with a f ce-m k in Tartar' tyJe. The use of such
Iranian (HerD1itage, [Link]); F-helmet of 'turban' type visored h 1m IS remain a In. Her of debate. (Kremlin
inscribed with the naJDe of SuJlan Va qub of the Aq [Link], Mu eum, Moscow)

1//\
changed ovcr the CCtlllll'ie~, but his poinled ridill~ worn by their llomadil" or ari~lOcrali, Turcl)-
boots and flaHoppL't1 fur-lined hat wcre a later i\longol ruins. These I1lshiutls had mon° in l:um-
f;'lshiol! (1\laill sour-t'es: pa~cs frOIll unknown mOil Wilh the dress ol'the i\liddle East, lhoug-h this
malluscripl in "'(llilt .lIblll//l, Tralls()~allia or Azar- man's tall felt hat and tIlt: sh;t\d around his
hayjan, late 14th C., Tupkapi Lib.. ~ls. Hat.. ~153 shoulders mark him as all Inlllian rather thall:lll
rr.23\', 65r & 82\', Istanbul), Arab, Substantial 'bearded' a~t"i .Ippcar to ha\"C
been widespread as infantry \\eapullS thmug-hout
.'13: TranJomllUlII TtlJi~ Ptast/1llllifaTlI~nlln",mid-t-llh much uf the 1~lamit- \\ol'ld in the 11th aod 15th
unlu,)' c{"llturk'S (~Iain sour,es: pa~eo; frum 1I1Iklll)\\1l
The Tajik or I rani:tn-speal..ing: majority of Trans- manusnipl in "'tllih .l/h//IIIJ. Trallsllxania or A,.'lr-
o~ania wor(' diOi'n'lll 1>t) It'S of clothing 10 those ba)'jan, latc I ph C., Topkapi Lib.. ~"'. 11.11. .1 153
If.3\' .t-r & nr; A"I/{lImfl b) Xitami, Baqhdad
(" .1385, British Lib., ~Is. Or. 1:1297 f. I hr. Londoll).

B: T;mu,'s fOts. Ira" & Iraq, lal, 1 -Ilk ctrllu~r.­

B1: ]flla)',id "tm~r (flf'n/~plla", lat, 14th ("'Iu~r
L .. mellar ;lrmour W;lS ~oing out (If 11M' in tlH"
i\liddle East thou(o;h it \\;l~ retaillcd fOI' horses. Ii
\\ as g"'ldu:llI~ sulx· .......· ded b) mail-;lIld·[Link]. an
('ar!) form of \\ hich i, ,hm\ n here \\ urll h) a
warrior of th(' Baghdad-based J.t1ayrid d) Ilast~.
His armour is very [Link]. including a onc-
picce decorated helmct \\ ith sliding' nasal. hillgcd
vambrac('s to protect his arllls and an ('ar!) type of
mail-and-plat(' protcction lor hi.s legs. The large
medallion-likc plate 011 his cht'St i.s a rdic from
previous ~ longol styles while his holY is prot('("It-d
by a fulllamdiar bard (~Iain suurt'c: Th,u .\/rI1;r
ROlI/aT/UJ by Khwaju Kirrmll1i, Ba~hdad ('.1396.

British Lib.. ~Is. Add. t81 I3, f-:~ I \. London).

H B:!: Tit/COli/till II iba' /('(Irr;o/'. rlHlt'f11 . [Link] f -Ilh

crllfll~I'
The ahulId;IIICl' or mail and lack 01" lamellar or
platc armour worn by thili \\'atTior fi'om tlte (.lara
(lI' Aq Qoyulllu Iribal t'olltl:derOltiun$ suggt'sls
~1J"{)lIg Arab, i\lal1'1luk or OW.!lllall inlluCII("t:. I-li~

M hclllll't is ora ralher oltl·t;lshi()llt·d tt,rm Wilh 1''11'-

[Link] daggerll and Turco-Mongol ceramic 'Greek

Fire' lIlre...dea. Such obje<:u repre .."nl the e ..I.... n'e.. or
[Link] .nd dilfpo•• ble weapona;n Titnu..id ...mou ..)'. A-
[Link] ,,,Ih~.rl)' ISlh C. Tu..co-Ir.n;.n ...ilh SHded .nd t:n_
lIl... .,ed Iron JI..lp. Exe....led .1 Olflt:rrode ;n Pruni., II
p ..obabl), ..[Link] Europedur;"s _ T.n.r ;n ....lon or ,,,.oA.o
Oslerrod.. Musewn, Ea.1 Gertn.u.y); [Link])' 'Sth C.l",ni.n
I tl.i..lo..ische. Museum, D....adt:a); C-I.'e '51h C. w;lh sildM
51",1 snp lind ah"'llh mO_i. (fl.,rtni....lII:e Mus.... m, Len;n_
" d); [Link] ISlh C. lran;"n with .IH.I Itrip (fnrmerly in
T 5.. ry. [Link] [Link]: Muaeutn. I.t...bul}; E-F-
'3Ib-'5th C. rrnm Wuny u..·•.irk. T ....kul...; G-H-131b-1..1h
Co. p ..n ..ftI.a .... 101.......0 .....; J-"tb-15Ih c., p ..o .........,," un·
known; K-'3Ih-'5Ih C. (rom Toktn.k u..:o.;rk, Turk....t...;
L-M-I.. t.h-15th C. (..om We",)' 8e:r..irk_ (All Itr.....d_ ;",
[Link]••[Link].,.. Mustllm, M01IC':Ow)

f'
flaps and 1\1:: still has the medallion on his chest, but
his plated arm v;tmbran."s have an additional flap
to protect the back of the hand (i\lain source:
Gursluuj)-lIall/tlll. western I ran c. I398, British Lib ..
~vls. Or. '278o, f.213\', London).

1J3: Irafl; Arab [Link]' 1.1111 C1'l1lu~"

The bedouin Arabs played a vital milit:H)' though
minor politic;)1 role in Lhe i\liddle EaSL during
Timur's invasions, fighting as auxiliaril'S in both
.)alayrid :l1ld l\lalllluk armies. Their costume had
changed liltle since Lhc 12th century and they still
pn:ferrcd to fight in relatively light armour. mo~tly
of mail. In lact this man's curn:d sabre seems to be
his only concession LO IICW military styles ofTurco~ Bihuod'II influer":e ill ..lIIO vi"ihle in Ihi,. magnificenl huoting
"cen" painled in H"... t in '496/7 AD. Th" anin>ats ar"
iVlongnJ origin (Main source: Tllru Alelrir ROlllflflet5 IIurrounded by .. rioS of bouemen while olher riders cuI
Ihr:rn down wilh arrow", Or a ma"" and tnen on fOOl carry
by Khwnju Kirmani. Baghdad c.1396, British Lib. away the carca"""... (Anthol06Y of Poems by Mashadi, Top-
~vls. Arid. IH113, t'.S6v, London). kapi Lib., ~h. Hao:. 676, hlanbul)

c: Timur's A rmy-Ille ((wolf)', r. I'll)() II D: hns a seale~lined cuirass o\'er a mail haubcrk and
C,: C(ll'(lfry officer his arm. hand, leg and fcet defences arc \'cry
There seems to ha\'e been a Chinese influenCI' on elaborate. The horsc's a,'l1l1lur is. by contrast. in a
CCrlai" aspccts of arms. armour alld military SI ylc seen 1h roughou t CCIlI ra I ..-\~ia for ('"t'lltu ries
costU!l1e in Transoxania durin/{ the early part of (Main sources: millialllrc from a Slwlim/l//llh, Azar~
the 15th century. This might be reflected in some bayjan, latC 14-Lh C.. in Flltilt AI/)1I1II5. Topkapi Lib ..
stranKe paintings in the Ft/lill Albums (sec ahon.'). i\'1s. Ha'/.. 2153, n:35a, 52b 5:lrl & IO:la, Istnnbul).
Here a splendidly attired warrior is almost cel"~
tainly an ofliccr or larklulI/ ·hero'. His lamellar C3: Sfmulal'd-bmrer
body armour is covercd with embroidered strips of This man's equipmcnt i~ based upon C\'ic\CIlCl:
clOlh and is worn oycr a mail hauberk cut away ill from the Golden I-torde but there is lillie reason tu
1111: rcar for easl.' when riding. His tall helmet is doubt thai comparable arms and armour were
dearly in Easl~ Asian style and appears to be of used by Turco-i\lnng-ol ('lcnlt:llts ill Tilllur's arm).
segmcnled construction, while his sword is straight His helmet is an early form of Turkish (liic!wk
and double-edged rather than being a curW'd \\'hich \\Ins in tllm tilt· :lllt'cstor of 17lh C('IlI11l")"
sabre. Other\\'ise his weapons are typically Turco- European 'Cromw('lIiall' hdllll·I~. The only booy
i\"on~ol (i\lain sources: miniatures from unidCllti- annuli" is a slee\'eless scale-lined cuirass with
fied manllsnipt in Falili Alblllll.l. Transoxallia Qr substanti<ll l1Imill<llcd Ihigh and groin prlltccling"
Ai'.arhayjan, late 14th early 15th C .. Topkapi tassets (Main sour«': i\1. V. Corclik. MctliilWI
Lib., i\ls. Ha/.. 2153, f.13Bv. & Ms. 1-l:lz. 2160, li/ollgol;m/ II rll/S. U In n Ba lor I 97H, & in Tlte }lllllir oj
f.ij8r, bwnblll). I,'/llikof/tl in llir Hi~/Qn'
. {/luI Cllfl/lft of
. OIl( ,V(llirlll,
i\losc(lw Ig83}.
C2: TarklwTI'llf'ro'
This man has heen given the fullest armour seen in /): Till/Iff'$ Am~I'" 11/1' ;11!i1/l11)'. (. f.l0t.) AD:
latc l,ph ami early 15th cenLury Iranian eastern /) 1:II r//lollml illfill/t~VIII(/1I
Islamic SOUIY!'S. He is obviously prcpared fOl' dose Timur's later successcs in siegt: ",arfart' sllgg-esl
combal lhough he still carries archery equipmellt. that his infantry must hnve been good. They
TIll' lamellar IwCk-gU,ll'd worn OVCI" a mail avcn· appeal' in a number of piclOrial SOUrt'CS, Lhough
tail is of i\longol derivalion while lhe anthropo- few wear armour. This man's hal ur helmct finds
morphic \'isor is in a so·c,lIlcd 'Tartar' style. H(, few parallels in the i\liddlc East though there "I"(:

'f3
 /):1: l..'lIarmQllud /mllull-lulifer
1\IOSI inlhlilry had becn llnarnwur('"d Ihroughoul
, I
, Islamic mililary history. The only li.~alllITs which
dislinguish Ihis man arC' his lop-knot hair slyle. his
I ... unusual tunic Wilh a raiscd semi-still" coll:Jr, his
\" ol}\'iollSly Cenlral Asian fur hal and his sword,
•, which a,l.{ain bClrays Chilll:sc inf1uenct' (i\lain
sources; minillillres li'olll llnidclilificd ll1allUScripls
ill Fu{ih A/bl/II/f. Trallsoxania or Azarbayjall, laiC
I,ph ('ady 15,h C., Topkapi Lib., l\h. I-Iaz, 21Y3,
11:3\' -,~r. 2gV. 771' & ~vls, Haz.:.! 160, CH8r. Istanbul;
~vlus, of Fine Arts. i\ls. 14.5.1'2. Boston).

1J3: IJmilslt or Qp/lIIu/ar

l\lllslim mYSlics apparenlly aecompaninl Tilllur's
armies ill considcrable numbcrs. Those from
Transoxani,l onen retailll:d certain prc-Islamir
'shamanist' praClices. This is rcflerled in Iheir
dress and in the objecls they ('al'ri~'d, illcludin~ lile
drum and slilirwilh smaillcallwr I>aKs cOlllaining
("harms. religious stripls and the likc (l\lain
sources: illustl"<ltiulls from unidenlified manu-
snipls in Fali/' Albl/Ills. Transoxania ur !\7-ill'bay-
jail, late [Link] and cal'ly 15th C .. l\ls, J-Jaz. :1153.
rt29v. 3fh- & 1281'. Istanbul),

E.' Till/l/f'SCOIII"I,c.!.J0j.!D:
f:,.' Till/llr liS (1/1 (lid mOil
The blood-lh i rst y conq L1Cl'or rel<1 i llt'd his viguLlr l(l
8ihl1ad and mlln)' of hi,; follower8 werC Iran"......'.,.. 10 a great age. Hefc he is shown wcarinv; lhe taller
wutern Iran after the f,,11 of tb" Timurids, There Bihl1lld
produced ,hi" porlrail of his prev;o.." rna"le .., Sullan I-Itlliayn cap which came inlo rashiull eal'l)" in thl" 15lh
BlIY'I"rlII. It ...all mad" in .he fin;! y"arll of the ,6,h C. and centur)'. Timur is also prepared Illl' hUllting, wilh a
sho...s ,he cultured [Link] pri..c" w;lh .. daggcr and Iwo
pen" in hi,. b"lt. ("".t'. H.. Marlin Coli., preli,.nl ... h",reabou'" hawkinK glove all his hand and his favourite hird
.... known)
Oil all t:laborate perch. The lllultiple belts around
bis waist scem to have been all arislocralic l~lshion
('dlO('~ ill Chilla. His mixed lamellar amI mail developed from a waiSl suppon used by nomads
arrnOll r is Sll"ll(,( u rail) simi!:l r tIl I ha I of tIle
(::1 val ry who spellt da)'" in the saddle. Timur's eJlurtlluUS
(Plate ell IIJOll!-{1t lbe brg-c c.:irClllar pit:cc of wingcd mace is largt:lr a C;el"el11onial weapon.
appal'Cll1 lanwllar rOl1Slruclioll which prO(Tts his while his sword is again straight ralher lhan bcing
bat;k is a verr strang" ill'lll (lfarnlOUr; it is !ilStel1cd a ell rvcd sabre (M ai 11 sou ret's: ill [Link] l iUI1.~ fi'om
by hooh and short pieces ol\'haill to a similar piece unidcntified manuscripts in FIlIi/, AI/JlII/H, TrallS-
on his chest. NOle lhal lhe archery equipmellt ofa oxania or Azcrba)"jan, latc 14tb carly 151h C ..
1001 soldier diners li'om Ihal ora horseman. He has Topkapi Lib., Ms. Haz. 2153, 0:6,', 471' & 1\1.~.
no bowcase alld his quiver is a diflcrelll furm Haz. 2160, r. 511', Istanbul).
(~bin SOUfCl'S: Illinialun:s from unicknlifi"d
IJ1allust..-ipb ill Ffllilt :1/111(//1\. Transoxania or Azaf-
l)ayjan, laiC I,~th I'ady 15th C., 'j"opkapi Lib., 1\ls. £2: G'lllll'dslII{/1I
J-1az, 2153, rl31.h' & Ms, J-1az. 2160, r,aBr, An elite warrior of Timllr's personal guard has
1.~lanblll). been ~iv('n a mixture' ofC('ntral Asian and Islamic
armuur. TI (' heln ct with its on '-pi ' b \ 'I an I I ~lh t:arl} 1,)111 :.. '('opbpi [Link]" ~rs. Hal.. :21-:,
mail v IHail pulled up \' I' a ,Iiding nasal i 11'.:1" .j.r, I I 1\' & ~1s, Haz, :.. I O. IT, 70\', 77\,
e 't'nliall) Iranian. Th lamjnated upp 1'- I'm ISlanl ul),
d rrl\{'c~ are lik lh : found in t1l ' lei n H rei
while L!H' 10wer-arl11 vambra 'es r~ gain lslamj . F: 7 ilJlllritll, Ijlh 1'1'1/11/1)'.'
EIII'lIlil'\ ,!/Ihl'
Th' scal ,-lin('eI uira,' i· w rn (V rash rt mail FI.' 111/(11/. IN/lilt! IlId} t?/ 1511t (('IIII1~V
• Illflllllfllilrib
haul! rkwhil'lh Ihigh, minand Ult kpr t Fift('t'nth ITnlur) Irani,1I1 and ,\nalolian mal1l1-
lions arc <l1l10ng th la:t pi c '. 1flam liar armour TripI. :hol\' lhal infi:II11C} conlillltco LO pla~ all
I be \\orn ill . tern 1 Jamie land' (~Iain ur I?:: impOl'l;lnl I"J ill \\',HI, 1", panic darly ill th'
pa/{t':> [i'om fra,gm 'nt d, Italtnamah in Falilt Albulll.~ mouillainolls n'j{ioll' or \\ h,ll had Iwell .\rm'llia.
1rail & Iraq laIc I :[Link] ., opkapi Lib" Is. Haz.
v :u h troup, \l'hethl'r Il'ib . men ur urban mililia:.
~ 15 .731' '. I 2\' . 10 I' I an ul), ha I mil h in COl1lmOIl \\ ilh Timur', ill(~ 1l11') and
lheir ·lI. IlIn1l'. (bcI 1'\,1\1' \l'cI rc:i I lal Byl:<llllil1f' or
I~': Dom illp, ,1!.irl earl~ Oltoman innul'lllT. 'rhi, man'. buttoncd
171') 1'''1' '(t~IUlll(, alTimlll"s :ourl ,\'as ex cpliClIl- lUllj' lll~l) Iw an ('xampk, His \\'1':.1])(1111'>, is 11th '1'-
all~ l'\lhllirf II _llld hI rc' lillk I'd lioll lO IradiliCJl1il! ",is t J in'dh Tlirco-Isla'li' though hi:- qlli,' 'I' is
lslami \',tlue·. 1\lany slyles, in III lin~ lhis girl's ora rill nO\\l a::>ocialccl Wilh rOOI S ldiers (t\rain
hilsi dll1hillg, nln'jollsl. (IV\' llhcirllrig;in: III long- .Il 11'1'1'; ''J'urki:h ",arrillr', P('II Ira\l'i,,!..\". I ran
l':-Iahlis)wcl Irallian '( rival' or han'lll r~dd(lns I lit l, I I:~(j, I'x-I·. R. \Iarlill :011. I r{"SI'III ",11('r('-
oth 'l'S jlldlldill~ the girl':> multi! Ie bell' t nel hcad- " bOUIS llllkIHl\\ n),
dn'-;.., S ('Ill I) ha\ be n TurkiJ h (?\lain, Ire's:
illllstrati0l1S rr l11uni knlifi ·d 11'1. IlU. ripl:> ill FI/lilt I~: T/U('(}ll/llll ({/I'll hJ'1lI fill , mid-/j/;' 1'I1//1lI)'
AI/JllIIII, Tr-tll. wnnia ur .\zarl 3) jail. hilt' The l" ,. II'} ,IiI' ({',Ill" Tlir-Of11dll arn CJ:ulllu

Tur o-Mong I archery. A-'ornpo ite bow of lnt form ed in Europ , E-rClnainB of " probably 14Lh ,leaLb"r
un trun to how w p n curvin 'harpl forward wben at bowe e from we"tern ib ri of type u ed througbout Lhe
re >t; B-bow wben trung and it main part W"ith their ur o-Mongol and most oC Lh 1s.1 JDic worlds ( - olovye );
Per'iao nrun Sj C-COUlPO it boW" fully draW"ll ho...mg F-ar ber' bronze tbun>b--ring wiLh P I' ian in CriptiOD
much longer pull than wa po sible wiLh a imple European po sibl 135~1 0 D (ity u"eUJD lLDd Art Galleries
how; D- on 01' thuuob-draw, h rc u in a rin to protect Birmingham)' G-arcber's bronze thumb-rin [roUl Golden
Lhumh end indi OIling how Iring can be puJJed baek to much Hord mid-13tb-early 15th . ( late Hi l. u eum, inv, 78067,
h rver angle than possible with the editerranean' draw Mo cow)

+
 \vith tilt' Byzanline world, their arms, :ll'mour and
modes orcom ba I beea me illcrcasi ngl y Turcified in
thc 151h century. This trooper carries typical
horlic-archcr's weaponry and is proteclt:d by a
vcrsion ofmail-:llld-plate cuirass rhat W~IS cOHlill~
to dominate armour throughoul the Ottoman
Empire, its Islamic neighbours and cvcn Russia
(~Iaill sources: {'slIller, Georgian, probably 151h
C.. l>.lanllsCTipl Inslilulc, Ms. 1\.1665, 'I'blisi;
Turkish or Russian mail-and-platc cuirass, 15lh
C., Kulikova B:lllleflcld ;vluseum).

(:: Tit/' l,lI{er Timllrids:

(;/: SIlItIIll J-1IlS(I)'1I B(l)'qara of Jlrra{, srcolld IIU~r of
/.5/h Cffll/l~V
J-1usayn Bn)'qara wail a succcssful commander as
well as all cnthusiastic huntsl1lan, Here he is shown
in COurl costullle, which had much in common
with that oftllc carly Ottoman cmpire and dcarly
sho\\'cd how CCl\lml Asian fashions had been
ahandoned in r.'lvour of traditional Islamic·
Iranianlitylcs. TIll" Sultan is using a pcllct bow, a
weapon reserved {(,I' hunting, and carries a sub-
stamial knife with which to despatch stullllcd
animals acconling to hlamic ritual. His othcr
weapons arc typical of the t5th century easlern
Tb~ military ralihionli a5 w~1I all a .. listie "Iylu or th~ lat~
Tin,urid po::riod [Link] inlo Ih~ lint y~arli or Ih~ liUb-
Islamic world (~lain source: ponrait or Sultan
Iift(u~nl Saravid dyn;Olily. li~r~, in a [Link]"~ ..;pl or '''9911500 Husayn by Bihzad, c.1500, ex-F. R. ~larlin CoIl..
AD, hO"Ii~man and inranlry lead II prin~~"5 and b~ .. ladiu on
a journey. (To).kapi Lib.,l\h. ":n:.
831,lIuanhul) !In.'sent whereabouts unknown).

alld i\q Q)~ unlll armies "'ppt'al' to ha\'(: becn G'2: Tim/lrid gU/lrdSIII/lII, mid-15/1t ulIlllry
equippt:d in a manlier doser 10 thai of dJ{' rising- This illustration gives a good impression or the
Ottomans thai I to lhe' U'oops ofTransoxania. This c10thcs worn beneath armour and heavy Turco-
mall wears illl carly lorm of stl-C<llkd 'lLlrban Mongol coats. The man has a broad-brimmed hat
helmet' which lllay havt.: bccn dc\'c1opcd in eastern to prOlect him from the sun, carries a bow over his
i\natolia. I\part from hi, pbted arm vambraees arm suggesting that much of the time he t:xpeclS to
and ma iI-a nd-pla It: kg r1t:ft:flCCS, lit' iii prOI{Ttcd by be on foot, and \\'eal's voluminous tl'ousers over a
a scait' Ill' mail lillcd tlmit"'. No(' th;\( (he rivcts shon double-breasted shirt. His weapons arc
holdillg- the illtCrJlal pn,tcclive layl'r do not extend otherwise lypical of the 15th celllUry eaSlern
hdow the wai:-.l. His horl>c's :HmClllr is of ('Ioth- Islamic world (Main sources: 'Huming sccne',
cf)\'t'rt:d Ia Jll('llar (~I ain StlU rCl'S: SIIfIIII/(I1IWIt, west- Timul'id C.1460 AD, c.x-imperial Lib., 51. Peters-
nn Iran mid-15th C., British Lib" ~Is. burg, present whereabouts unknown; SJlo!tm/1lwlt,
[Link] JO 9 50 & oS:.!, [Link]; SI/(Ill1l1l1l1oll, western iran mid-15th C., Museum of Art, Ms. 56.10,
Iran mid-J5th C.. Bfldleiall [Link]., ;\'Is. Add 176, Cleveland; Nizami Poems, Hcrat 1415/6 AD, Top-
Oxford; helml'r & leg- armt1l1r. lall' 1:I,h C., Aq kapi Lib., ~vls.l-laz. 78r, Istanbul).
Qo}'unlu. Askt:ri i\lus., l-;tanbuIJ.
G3: HUll/smail, mid-15th Wllury
F'j: (;rlll~i(//l t'1Il'fl{,JII/{lfI./a{r /.')/h crl/{II~I' The humble tribesmen who served as bcalers in the
,\It!Jou!-\"h tIll' (;t'or!-\"ialls maintaincd clOliC links enormous hunts organised by Timul'id rulers arc
u~llall y shol\' n
wearing tradi tiOllal Ir::ln ia T1 pcasa n t
costume. TIH'Y arc rarely armed with morc than a
d<lggcr though tllis man docs calT)' a herty wooden
cudgel (~lain source; 'Hunting scene', Timmid
C.1460 AD, cx·lmperi::ll Lib., 51. Pelersburg, pre·
sellt [Link] unknown).

1/: Tilt Fall/if'iI/' Timurids:

fj I: l. ':;h/',f!, worrior, lafe 151h (/'111111)'
The [Link]:o were still steppe nomads when they
dron- th(' Timurids li'om Transox<tnia and com·
plcted the Turcification of this region. Though few
iliustr:uiOIlS sun'in: from theil' early days, they
;lppeal' to havl' used very traditional equipment
illcl uti illg: la mel I a r a rmollr a lid segmcllled hel me IS
in tht· :\Iongol style (i\hin sources: rvl. V. Gorc1ik,
.lIerlif/wl MallgoliaN :I""s, Ulan Bator 1978; helmet
from Timspolski graves, l.~lh C .. location un·
known; JVi:;allli PotlllS. I ran Illid- 15th C .. Topkapi
Lib., i\1s. Haz. 76:2, IW\llbul).

1/2: 7 ill/llrid w([Link] 1.5lh amllll)'

This \\ cll-\:quipped cavalryman has been captured
alld his hand bOllnd to a wooden yoke. as showil in
varioll!> mnnuscripts. The: quality and style of his
helmet. scah' cuimss, platcd V;:1l11 braces and mail·
and·plalc lcg armour COlllrast stl'ongly with the Th.. rise or Ih .. p .. rs;an Sar.. vid ... also llpeh doom ror the
Turcom... Aq [Link] dyna..ty or I ...... and weStern Ira...
old-fa:.hioned armour of his captor (Main sourccs: H.,r., ,he Turcorna.. Sultan Murad ill .. hown all. prilloner or
;:a./rif-mlllwh. Hf'ral 1·.1'~95 AD, i\lus. of Fine Arts, Shah '-"mail in '5oa AD, th .. y.... r that th .. Aq [Link] Were
r..... Uy d.,r"ated i .. th .. greal battl.. orShurur. (..".F. R. Martin
Boston; .(a./rlr-1IfIllwh. Herat (".1'~95 AD. Pierpollt Coil., pre""nt whereabout." unknown)
i\lorgan Lih.• Nc\\' York).

1/3 &.j.' Tilllurid ladJr al/(I ([Link] 151h Willi')' COIOmrLlI dOlhcs. Children's clothing, in contrast,
'l'raditional Islamic or Iranian styles of costume appears almost unchanged for a thousand years
replaced TlIrco-tdongol fashions in wotm:n's (l\lain sources; i\lihr-1I1\1/1slwri. Transoxania early
c10lhillKjllSt as th<'y did male costume in the 15th 16th C .. Freel' Gallery, \Vnshinglon; pen drawings
Century 'l'imurid rcalms. Thus this lady's drcss or COtlrt ladies by Bihzad & his school, Timllrid
conics closer to Islamic ideals of modesty, although laIC 15th cady 16th C .. c.x-F. R. Martin ColI..
15th <'cn t llry ("astern Isla mic women still wore very present whereabouts UnkIIQWn).

+)
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Co~unu..,j from btJek rove' 59 Sud."Campaog"~ IBBI98
IloCI [Link] ~ Guard Int~nlf')' l1J
no us
Army 1B'll).1920
9S The6o>.erRet>eU,,,,,
~~ NilpIGe,[Link]~(!)
4) Naps German [Link],~ 11) THE WORLD WARS
90 Nap I Ce,man AlhMl)) 80 T~Gerrnan Army 1914 16
106 Nap IGetl'Nn NI,es(4) 81 TheBrot"hNmyI91<[Link]
In NapIGermanAII..... \Sl 245 B"t"hTernlor,aIUM,1914 18
." Nap'\~,a:'\1 rroops 269 [Link] 1914 la
111 Nap'so.."o;caIArmf 208 ldw~r>Ce and lhe Ar.b ReVQlIS
117 N<lIl" Sea Sold'e<'!> 182 8"'I"n Banle In"gM'
88 Nap', ~al'an Troops. (I) 191<4.18
116 AUI\r~n A,my (I): Infant...,. 187 (2) 1939 <45
181 AUll""n Armf (2)- Clval')' 1'4 TheSpat>,sl>(,,,dWd'
111 AvW.,,, Spe<:.al'\l Troop'; 111 The PoI,sh Army 1939-<45
151 Pruss,an u~ "'lantry 112 8nfi~ 8atl'edre,s 1917 61
149 Pruss,an ughllntifll')' 110 A11'ed (omm~~ .. oj 'NW2
192 Prullolan R~ & Irregula~ 215 The Royal [Link]
161 PrUISl.lnCavalryl792-1807 10 us Army 19-11·45
Hl Pruss,an Cavalry IS07·IS 216 Th., Red Army 19<41 <45
'85 RUSSoan Army (I) "'fantry 246 The Rom~n,.n Army
189 RUSSIan Anny (2) Civalry 210 TheSA 1921 45
8. Well,ngt""'Genen~ 24 T~[Link]()...... "ons
II .. Well,nglon\lnlanlry(l) 166 T~ Allgeme,ne SS
II' Well,ngton",ln1antry(2) )4 The Wanen SS
151 WelllngtonIHoghl3n~ 119 Luftwaffe 1""'0 D""soons
126 Well,ngt()"', ugnt C... al')' 11<4 German Commande.. 0/ 'W'N2
1)0 Welhngton's Hea")' Cavall')' 11) [Link],ts
10« Well,ngtO'"lS Soe<;",hst T~ 1)9 G.. [Link]<neTroopl
161 8tun\wo(~ T,oopsI8O![Link] 1)1 Germany"s[ F'ontAII'l!S
98 Dutch8elg,olt\ T~ 10) Getmdny's5p.l",sh VoIunt<>f!r"l.
106 HanoverClnA,my 1792 1816 1<41 Wl,'h,,,,.,ht tore'gn Voluntl'.....
226 The Ame-rlCan Wa, IBI1-1~ 25~ W~''''MmAu~'hary~~
" Arl,lltry Equ,pmem, 238 Allied Fo~'gn VoI~n!ee"
n flag,()II~[Link]'r!;{t) 1<41 Part'S<lnWarla~ 1941..015
78 fla&sof!heNa~w"~121 169 ReSistarn:e Warfare 1940·<45
115 flags of th., Nap W.r<;(31 181 A>usFor(eS,nY~d""oal9414S
19TH CENTURY 170 FIaD oIlhe Th"d Reil:h
231 BoI,...... ~nd [Link] Mart'" (I)Wehrm'lC;ht
281 USDrOl&oon~ la3l.))
174 (2) Watfen·SS
173 AJamo&Tex.a"W.. la3S·6 171 (3) Party& Poke Units
56 Me><""n.Atnef1Wl War 18'l6-8 MODERN WARFARE
272 The Me><,can Adventur., 1861,67 In Mdlayan Campdogn 19<48 bO
61 Amen<:an·lrnl,an W~ ... 186().90 174 TheK~MWar 19SO-5J
170 Am"f'IU,n C... . d Wa' Arm'l!S 116 The Spec,.1 A" 5er'v1Ce
(I):[Link] 156 The Royal M.n~ 195(,.84
111 (2) Union t]) [Link] lor the FallJan<l1
179 (3), [Link],m, M.m\lme (I)' Land ~Of"Ces
190 (<4).Suu.. Troops 1)4 (21 Na.... ilI forcel
201 (Sr Vofunte<er M.I,t,. 1)5 ()) A,r Fo<l:es
n Army 01 Northern Vlrg,noa 150 ArgentonefOf"Cel ,n Ihe Fa,ilaods
]8 Armyofl~Potomd( 117 IltaeloArmy I9<4B·73
252 fl.g~ of the Ameocdfl C,.... ,I War 128 ArabArmocs(l) 19'18.73
(I)Conf~e 19~ ArabArmoes(2) 1971-88
258 (2): UnlQl1 165 Arm'e:s,,,LebaflOrll982.B<4
:65 13r SQt.,8 VOlunteer I~ V,elnamW.,.Armoesl%275
In Am.. '''a'' Pla,,,~ Irnloa"~ 10 VoetnamWarArm,es(2j
186 The [Link]'l 109 War In Cambodia 1970-15
168 [Link] la~9O 111 Warm Laos 1%O-7S
275 The Ta,[Link] Rebellion 1651·66 181 Modem Afron War"l.
241 Russ-an Army 0/ the C"mean War (I) Rt>odesIo1 1965·00
In Bf,u\.h Army on Campa,gn 202 (2) Angola & Moumb>Que
I); 1616-1653
196
198
I2) TI>.,Cnmea 1854 56
(3): IB57·BI
H2
159
118
(3), [Link]'lt AfrICa
Grenada 198]
RusSIa'S W.. on Afghan,stan
201 {<4),1862.1902 11 I Cenlral Amen(an W~..
212 Vocton'sE"em'..s
(I) Soothe'" Al."a GENERAL
215 (2): Northern Afr>c~ 65 The Royal Na")'
219 (l)lndoa 107 [Link],~U(ll
224 (<4) Asoa 108 Bnush Inlanlry. Equ,pts(2}
249 Can~d,.n Camp,o,gns 186().70 118 8f,tol;h C......lry Equ,plS
61 The Indian Mulmy 72 The North""!:l! from,,,,
268 B<'\ISh TI"OOPs In the 21<4 [Link]<'l"'~tl
Irnlla" MUMy U;l57·59 205 US ArmyCombal [Link]
91 BengatC......I')' [Link] 11<4 German Combal Equ,pt,
92 Indoan Inf."try Reg,menu 157 Flak)ad<ell
2]] Frend1Army 167Q.71!" In Auw"I",nA"my 1899·1975
n7 F~l\(hArmy 1870-71 2\ 16-4 Ca"ad••" Army al w.,
217 The RusloO-Tur~"hW.r Ian 161 Spa"'lh Foreogn Leg>or>
57 The Zulu War 197 Royal Can~d,an Mounled Pol"e
timm
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