Academic Year: 2022-2023, Semester: II

Course: MS 101
EE Lectures 06 & 07

Operational Amplifier Circuits

1. Signal basics, 2. Amplifiers, 3. Op amp, 4. Linear circuits, 5. Feedback amplifier &
oscillator, 6. Nonlinear circuits (comparator, Schmitt trigger)

Reference: A. S. Sedra, K. C. Smith, T. C. Carusone, &V. Gaudet, Microelectronic

Circuits, 8th ed., Oxford University Press, 2020. Chs. 1, 2, 11, 13,15.

Instructors: Prem C Pandey, Joseph John, Dinesh K Sharma, and Kushal R Tuckley

pcpandey at [Link] / 2023-MS101-EE-Lec06-97_PCP_Op_amps 1/30

 1. Signal Basics

Signal: Function (waveform) conveying information (resolution of uncertainty about a phenomenon of

interest).

Test signal: Function (usually deterministic) for characterizing a system.

Noise: Disturbance unrelated to the signal.
Distortion: Disturbance related to the signal.
Electric signal: Time-varying voltage or current waveform on a port with 2 terminals or a pair of
conductors.

pcpandey at [Link] / 2023-MS101-EE-Lec06-97_PCP_Op_amps 2/30

Differential signals: Each signal needs two
i1 Two diff.
conductors. +
v1 signals
−
Single-ended signals: Several signals share a i1 (each with
two
A B
common reference in case of voltage signals, & a i2 conductors)
+
common return (in case of current signals). v2
−
i2
Circuit ground: A conductor or terminal (usually
attached to a power supply terminal) serving as the i1
+ Two single-
common reference for several voltages or the ended
v1
common return path for several currents. i1 + i2 signals
A − B (common
v2 reference &
return)
+
i2

Grounded signals: Single-ended signals with circuit ground as the reference. These signals are preferred
over differential signals as they need less number of conductors & require simpler circuits. Ground
interconnection is usually not explicitly shown in circuit diagrams.

pcpandey at [Link] / 2023-MS101-EE-Lec06-97_PCP_Op_amps 3/30

Two signal representations vs
iL =
iL Rs + RL
Voltage source model
Rs RL
(Thevenin form)
vs vo RL vo = RL iL = vs
Rs + RL
𝑣0 ≈ 𝑣𝑠 , 𝑅𝐿 ≫ 𝑅𝑠
Current source model
(Norton form) iL  Rs RL 
vo = is  
vo  Rs + RL 
is Rs RL
vo  Rs 
iL = = is  
RL  Rs + RL 

Preferred representation 𝑖𝐿 ≈ 𝑖𝑠 , 𝑅𝐿 ≪ 𝑅𝑠
Rs << RL: voltage source. Rs >> RL: current source.

pcpandey at [Link] / 2023-MS101-EE-Lec06-97_PCP_Op_amps 4/30

2. Amplifiers
Amplifier: Two-port circuit or device for increasing the power of the input signal, by using the power
from dc source(s).

iin io iin io
Input vin vo Output
Input vin vo Output
iin io

Amplifier with diff. input & diff output Amplifier with grounded input & grounded output

• Voltage gain Av = vo/vin • Current gain Ai = io/iin

• Power gain Ap = (voio) / (viniin) = Av Ai . Amplification: Ap > 1. Attenuation: Ap < 1

pcpandey at [Link] / 2023-MS101-EE-Lec06-97_PCP_Op_amps 5/30

Amplifier power supplies: Amplifier delivers more power to the output load than it draws from the
input source & needs dc power sources for its operation. These dc sources supply the extra power delivered
to the load as well as any power that might be dissipated as heat in the internal circuit.

Dual supply amplifier

+ve & −ve dc sources
connected to the circuit
ground. Supplies need
not be equal

DC power consumption
Pdc = VCCICC + VEEIEE

Input & output signal swings are limited by supply voltages & circuit.

pcpandey at [Link] / 2023-MS101-EE-Lec06-97_PCP_Op_amps 6/30

 Amplifier types (single-ended)
Open-circuit voltage gain Avo
Voltage Ideal: Ri = ∞, Ro = 0
amplifier

Current
amplifier Short-circuit current gain Ais
Ideal: Ri = 0, Ro = ∞

Trans- ii io Short-circuit transconductance Gm

conductance Ro Ideal: Ri = ∞, Ro = ∞
amplifier Ri vo
Rmii

io
Trans-resistance Open-circuit transresistance Rm
amplifier vi Ri Ro vo Ideal: Ri = 0, Ro = 0
Gmvi

pcpandey at [Link] / 2023-MS101-EE-Lec06-97_PCP_Op_amps 7/30

 1
Differential amplifier vid / 2
v1
Differential mode (DM) input 1
vid = v2 − v1
Common mode (CM) input 2

viC 2
vic = (v1 + v2)/2 v2
vid / 2
Inputs in terms of DM and CM
v1 = vic− vid /2; v2 = vic+ vid /2

Differential voltage input & single-ended

voltage output amplifier
v3 = A vid

pcpandey at [Link] / 2023-MS101-EE-Lec06-97_PCP_Op_amps 8/30

3. Operational Amplifier
Operational amplifier (op amp)
Direct-coupled (dc) high-gain amplifier with differential voltage input & single-ended voltage output.
• Developed for mathematical operations on signal waveforms. It is an electronic circuit with several
internal passive & active devices, available as a single-chip device, several op amps on a single chip, or op
amps with other circuits on the same chip.
• Main objective: Circuit performance parameters decided by passive components & nearly independent of
electronic device parameters.

Op amp circuit symbol (simplified representation)

• Input terminals: 1, 2. Output terminal: 3.
• 3 single-ended ports with the circuit ground (not shown in the symbol) as
the common terminal: 2-Gnd (vi+), 1-Gnd (vi−), & 3-Gnd (vo).

pcpandey at [Link] / 2023-MS101-EE-Lec06-97_PCP_Op_amps 9/30

Op amp power supplies & pins
• Two supply terminals: +ve supply & −ve
supply (labeled VCC & VEE; VCC+ & VCC− ; or
VDD & VSS) connected to circuit ground.
• No ground terminal on the op amp IC.
• Supply voltages may not be equal. Increasing
number of applications use single-supply
circuits.

• Minimum number of pins for single op amp: 5, with additional specific-purpose pins (frequency
compensation, offset nulling).
• Minimum number of pins for IC with 4 op amps (quad op amp): 14.

pcpandey at [Link] / 2023-MS101-EE-Lec06-97_PCP_Op_amps 10/30

 Ideal op amp
• Terminal voltage: voltage between the
terminal & ground.
• Output voltage = amplification of the
difference of two input voltages.
v3 = A(v2 − v1)
• Differential gain A → ∞  Finite output
voltage for zero difference voltage.
• No effect of the voltage common to the
two terminals, i.e. (v2 + v1)/2 on the
output. Difference-mode (DM) & common-mode (CM) signals
• Zero input currents: infinite input & gains
resistances for the two inputs. DM input: vid = v2 − v1. CM input vic = (v2 + v1)/2.
• v3 independent of the load current  v3 = Avid + Acvic
zero output resistance. A → ∞ & Ac → 0.
Common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) = A/Ac → ∞

pcpandey at [Link] / 2023-MS101-EE-Lec06-97_PCP_Op_amps 11/30

 Op amp in linear operation
v3 = Avid

A → ∞ & finite output v3

 DM input vid = v2 − v1 = 0

Zero current flow into the input terminals

 Input resistances [Ri1, Ri2] → ∞:

• Virtual short across the input terminals: zero voltage & zero current flow.
• Voltage limits for linear operation
• CM input: VCC+ > VICH > [v1, v2] > VICL > VCC−. Output: VCC+ > VOH > v3 > VOL > VCC −
• Virtual short is not a basic property of op amp. It has to be satisfied by external circuit & input voltages.
Input currents may increase and output may be distorted during nonlinear operation.

pcpandey at [Link] / 2023-MS101-EE-Lec06-97_PCP_Op_amps 12/30

4. Linear circuits
i2
4.1. Inverting Amplifier Circuit vi—

Virtual short: vi− = vi+ = 0. i1 = i2. i1 R2

i2 = i1 = (vin−vi−)/R1 = vin/R1 vin
vo = vi− − R2 i2 = − (R2/R1) vin R1 vo
vi+

Circuit operation basis: Negative feedback (visited later). It opposes disturbance. Check the circuit
operation with virtual short assumption and a disturbance at the −ve input. If vi− increases, it will cause fall
in vo , hence increase in i2, and hence fall in vi−. Now check the circuit operation with the op-amp input
terminals interchanged.
Voltage gain: Av = vo / vin = − R2/R1. Current & power gains depend on load resistance (not shown). Input
resistance: Rin = vin / i1 = R1
Application: Precise inverting gain with low to moderate Rin.
Example: R1 = 10 k, R2 = 100 k. Av = −10, Rin = 10 k . Rin can be decreased by connecting a resistor
between input and ground.

pcpandey at [Link] / 2023-MS101-EE-Lec06-97_PCP_Op_amps 13/30

 4.2. Noninverting Amplifier Circuit i2
vi—
vi+ = vin
Virtual short assumption: vi− = vi+ & i1 = i2 i1 R2
i1 = (0−vi−)/R1 = −vin/R1 vo
vo = vi+ − R2 i2 = (1+R2/R1) vin
R1 vi+
vin
Voltage gain: Av = vo / vin = 1+R2/R1
i3
R3
Input resistance: Rin = vin/i3 = R3

R3 is optional. It can be selected for the desired Rin.

Basis for circuit operation: Negative feedback. Check the circuit operation, with virtual short assumption
& a disturbance at the −ve input. Next check with the op-amp input terminals interchanged.

Application: Precise noninverting gain with high, moderate, or low Rin.

Example: R1 = 10 k, R2 = 100 k, R3 = 1 M, Av = 11, Rin = 1 M .

pcpandey at [Link] / 2023-MS101-EE-Lec06-97_PCP_Op_amps 14/30

 4.3. Noninverting Unity Follower Circuit
(Unity Buffer)
It is a special case of noninverting amplifier with unity v—

voltage gain. v+ vo
vin
Voltage gain: Av = 1
Input resistance: Rin = R1
R1
Application: Buffer amplifier with very high Rin and
very low Ro. It is used for connecting a source with high
source resistance to a relatively low value load resistance
without causing voltage attenuation. It provides unity
voltage gain and large current gain.

pcpandey at [Link] / 2023-MS101-EE-Lec06-97_PCP_Op_amps 15/30

4.4. Difference Amplifier Circuit i4
Select R2/R1 = R4/R3 = α.
Virtual short assumption: i1= i2 & i3 = i4. R4
Circuit function: (i) inverting amplifier for v2, (ii) v2 i3
attenuator & noninverting amplifier for v1. v—
vo
R3 v+
vo = v1 [R2/(R1+R2] [1+R4/R3] − v2 [R4/R3]
= v1 [α /(1+α)][1+α] − v2 [α] = α (v1− v2) v1 i1
DM gain Ad = α. R1
CM gain Ac = 0 i2
Rin1= R1+ R2, Rin2= R3. R2

• Precise differential gain. Resistance matching needed. Difficult gain control. Unequal input resistances.
• A voltage (DC bias) can be added to the output by connecting R2 to this voltage in place of ground.
vo = α (v1− v2) + v3[1/(1+ α)] /(1+ α)] = α (v1− v2) + v3

pcpandey at [Link] / 2023-MS101-EE-Lec06-97_PCP_Op_amps 16/30

4.5 Summing & Difference Amplifier
v4 i4 i5
Virtual short assumption
vi− = vi+, i1 + i2= 0, i3 + i4= i5. R4 R5
For voltage gain & input resistance for each input, v3
other inputs set as 0. i3 v—
vo
R3
A1 = [R2/(R1+R2)] [1+ R5/(R3║R4)] v+
A2 = [R1/(R1+R2)] [1+ R5/(R3║R4)] v2
R2 i2
A3 = −R5/R3, A4 = −R5/R4
Rin1 = R1+ R2, Rin2 = R1+ R2 , v1
Rin3 = R3, Rin4 = R4 R1 i1

• It has convenient inverting gain controls, independently by R3 & R4, together byR5. Non-inverting gain
controls are more difficult. Circuit can be extended for multiple inputs.
• Mostly used as multi-input inverting summer or two-input difference amplifier.

pcpandey at [Link] / 2023-MS101-EE-Lec06-97_PCP_Op_amps 17/30

4.6. Current-to-Voltage (I/V) Converter i1
(Trans-resistance Amplifier)
Virtual short assumption iin R1
vi− = vi+ = 0 & i1 = iin vin
v—
vo
v+
vO = vi+− R1iin = − R1iin
Rin = 0

Application: I/V converter for input current with ground as return. Another circuit with three op amps is
needed for sensing current not having ground return.

pcpandey at [Link] / 2023-MS101-EE-Lec06-97_PCP_Op_amps 18/30

 4.7. Voltage-to-Current (V/I) Converter
io
(Transconductance Amplifier)
Re-purposed inverting amplifier circuit, for output R2
current in load R2. vin
R1 vx
iO = vIN/R1
Rin = R1
vX = −R2 iO

• R2 is limited by voltage swing at vX. This circuit is for a floating load (no restriction on connection of either
terminal). Another circuit is needed for grounded load (one terminal connected to ground).
• Current from the input source is the same as load current iO. To avoid loading the source, a buffer
amplifier may be needed before V/I converter.
• A V/I converter circuit can be used as an integrator by placing a capacitor in place of R2.

pcpandey at [Link] / 2023-MS101-EE-Lec06-97_PCP_Op_amps 19/30

 4.8. Polarity-Controlled Amplifier
S: electronically-controlled switch. R1 R2
Let R1 = R2
v2
v1
S closed: v2 = (−R2/R1) v1 = − v1
R3
A = −1
S
S open: v2 = (−R2/R1) v1 + (1+R2/R1) v1 = v1
A = +1

It is a simple example of 'programmable' or 'digitally-controlled' analog circuit.

pcpandey at [Link] / 2023-MS101-EE-Lec06-97_PCP_Op_amps 20/30

 4.9. Practical Op Amp
Op-amp linear operation has limits for CM input voltage, output voltage, & output current (due to DC
supplies & internal circuit)

• DC imperfections
- Input offset voltage (internal error voltage: 1−5 IB —

mV) causing output saturation in high-gain 1

circuits. 3
- Input bias currents: Small DC input currents (10 2
pA to 100 nA). These must be permitted by IB+ Vio
external circuit for proper operation.
Op-amp DC error model
• Finite input & output resistances.

• Finite diff. gain (typically >105 at dc, decreasing with frequency), finite CMRR. Another limitation for
large amplitude AC signals is “slew rate”, the maximum rate of change of output voltage (typically 1
V/s).

pcpandey at [Link] / 2023-MS101-EE-Lec06-97_PCP_Op_amps 21/30

 4.10. AC Amplifier Circuits
Amplification of a small time-varying (AC) component superimposed on a large constant (DC)
component. A capacitor is connected in series with the input to block the DC component & couple the AC
component. Capacitor impedance at the lowest frequency (fmin) << Input resistance Rin. Circuit must
have a DC current path from each op-amp input terminal to the ground.
R2
AC Noninverting Amplifier
1/(2 fminC1) << R3 R1
Av = 1 + R2/R1. Rin = R3
vo
vin
C1
R3

R2
AC Inverting Amplifier C1 R1
1/(2 fminC1) << R1 vin
Av = −R2/R1. Rin = R1 vo

pcpandey at [Link] / 2023-MS101-EE-Lec06-97_PCP_Op_amps 22/30

 5. Feedback Amplifier & Oscillator
• Feedback: Addition of a fraction of the output to the input for desirable system behavior.
• Negative feedback: Used in amplifiers to
- Desensitize the gain, making it less sensitive to the circuit component parameters.
- Extend the bandwidth.
- Reduce nonlinear distortion.
- Reduce noise effects.
- Control the input and output resistances: raise or lower Rin and Ro by appropriate feedback topology.
The desirable properties are obtained at the expense of gain reduction.
• Positive feedback: Used to realize oscillators (function generators) & bistable circuits.
• Negative & positive feedback combination: Used in filters (circuits with specific frequency
response) for signal processing.

pcpandey at [Link] / 2023-MS101-EE-Lec06-97_PCP_Op_amps 23/30

General Feedback Structure
• Signal-flow diagram, quantities may be voltage
or current.
• Basic amplifier: output xo, input xi,
open-loop gain A.  xo = Axi
• Feedback network: feedback signal xf, feedback
factor .  xf =  xo

• Feedback amplifier with an adder for subtracting the feedback signal xf from the source signal xs.
• Basic amplifier input xi = xs − xf.  xo = Axi = A(xs− xf ) = A(xs− xo)  xo(1+A ) = Axs
• Loop-gain = A
x A 1 1 1
• Closed-loop gain: Af = o =
xs 1+A
=
 1 + 1/(A)  Af 
 for A >> 1, or A >> 1/.
• Large loop-gain  closed-loop gain determined by the feedback factor.
As A depends on electronic device parameters, it may have large variation.  depending on passive
components can be precise, resulting in precise closed-loop gain. Closed-loop gain error decreases with
increasing loop-gain.

pcpandey at [Link] / 2023-MS101-EE-Lec06-97_PCP_Op_amps 24/30

Noninverting Amplifier as a Negative Feedback Amplifier (circuit & feedback model)

Open-loop gain = op-amp differential gain. Feedback factor is set by resistive attenuator (R1, R2).
Feedback subtraction is at the op-amp differential input.
V R R𝟐 R𝟐
 = V f = R +𝟏R  Af  1/ = 1+ R , if A >> 1+ R
o 𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝟏

Closed-loop gain is precise if it is much smaller than the open-loop gain. Gain precision is at the expense of
significant gain reduction. Other advantages (based on further analysis): very high Rin, very low Ro,
increased bandwidth.

pcpandey at [Link] / 2023-MS101-EE-Lec06-97_PCP_Op_amps 25/30

Sinusoidal Oscillator
Amplifier, +ve feedback, frequency-
selective network

Closed-loop gain
x A
Af = o =
xs 1 − A

A = 1  Af = ∞  Finite output for zero input  Sustained sinusoidal oscillation if the loop−gain is 1
at a single frequency and less than 1 at other frequencies.

Condition for oscillation: Loop−gain phase should be zero, and loop−gain magnitude should be unity.
Known as "Barkhausen criterion".

Oscillator circuit has frequency-selective network for satisfying Barkhausen criterion at a single frequency.
Oscillation starts due to presence of noise or power-on impulse. Output level is decided by amplifier
nonlinearity (present in the circuit or designed).

pcpandey at [Link] / 2023-MS101-EE-Lec06-97_PCP_Op_amps 26/30

6. Nonlinear Circuits
Voltage Comparator
Op-amp like device for open-loop
operation & precise binary output
levels
vp > vn: vo = VOH (high-level voltage)
vp < vn: vo = VOL (low-level voltage)

• Circuit symbol: same as op amp, with analog inputs, binary output. Transfer characteristic: Very high
gain at vp = vn with sharp transition between the two output levels
• Input swing and output levels generally dependent on VCC+ and VEE−.
• A comparator is designed for very low input currents despite large differential input voltage. Buffers at
each input before the differential high-gain. An op amp can be used as a comparator with due consideration
for finite differential input voltage.

pcpandey at [Link] / 2023-MS101-EE-Lec06-97_PCP_Op_amps 27/30

Schmitt Trigger
Comparator with hysteresis: high-
gain differential amplifier with +ve
feedback. Bistable circuit.

• Inverting Schmitt trigger: clockwise

hysteresis.

• Noninverting Schmitt trigger:

counterclockwise hysteresis.

Applications: Chatter elimination, waveform generation, signal processing.

pcpandey at [Link] / 2023-MS101-EE-Lec06-97_PCP_Op_amps 28/30

pcpandey at [Link] / 2023-MS101-EE-Lec06-97_PCP_Op_amps 29/30
 That's all for now.

Thanks.

pcpandey at [Link] / 2023-MS101-EE-Lec06-97_PCP_Op_amps 30/30