CE202 Fluid Mechanics I

Summarized lecture notes on

Hydraulic Machines

1. Introduction
Hydraulic machine is a device used to convert mechanical energy to fluid energy or vice-versa. In pumps,:
mechanical energy is converted to fluid energy and in turbines, fluid energy is converted to mechanical energy.
Hydraulic machines are classified into two types based on the method of energy conversion.

a) Positive displacement machines

Any hydraulic machine where fluid pressure is changed by changing the active volume inside the machine
falls into this category. Generally, energy is transmitted to the fluid by force-displacement.
e.g.: reciprocating pumps, jack pumps, vane pumps, rotary pumps, diaphragm pumps.

b) Rotodynamic machines
Any hydraulic machine where energy is transmitted to the fluid by torque-rotation falls into this category. The
active volume inside the machine remains same. A rotodynamic machine essentially consists of a rotating
element known as impeller or runner, which is rigidly mounted on the shaft of the machine. Impeller has a
number of blades and the transfer of energy takes place between the fluid and the impeller. In a rotodynamic
pump the impeller does work on the fluid (e.g.: centrifugal pump) and in a rotodynamic turbine the fluid does
work on the runner (e.g.: Francis turbine, Pelton wheel)

Rotodynamic machines are classified into two types based on the process of energy conversion between the
fluid and the impeller.

i. Impulse machines
In an impulse machine, kinetic energy of the fluid is converted to mechanical energy while the fluid is passing
through the impeller.
e.g.: Pelton wheel turbine: A water jet impinges on a series of moving blades/cups fixed at the periphery of
the runner. Pressure across the runner is atmospheric.

ii. Reaction machines

In a reaction machine, pressure energy and kinetic energy of the fluid are changed while the fluid is passing
through the impeller. Fluid completely fills the passage in the impeller and the pressure across it changes.
The reaction machines are subdivided into three types depending upon the flow direction within the impeller
with respect to the axis of rotation:
Radial flow machine: Fluid flows in radial direction, and a given fluid particle moves in a plane perpendicular
to the impeller axis. e.g.: centrifugal pump
Axial flow machine: Fluid flows parallel to the impeller axis. A fluid particle moves at a same distance from
the impeller axis and moves on a surface of a cylinder. e.g.: axial flow pump, propeller turbine, Kaplan turbine
Mixed flow machine: In mixed-flow machines, a given fluid particle moves along a complex helical path. e.g.:
Modern Francis turbine

2. Theory of rotodynamic machines

When a fluid flows through the impeller of a rotodynamic machine, the angular momentum of the fluid is
changed. At the steady state, the rate of change in angular momentum of the fluid passing through the impeller
equals to the torque about the axis of rotation. Thus, energy transfer between the impeller and the fluid can be
estimated by considering the inlet and outlet flow conditions.
Consider an impeller of a centrifugal pump with backward facing blades (Fig 1). Let,
m : mass flow rate
r : the impeller radius
V: the absolute velocity of fluid
u: the peripheral velocity of the blade
Vr: the velocity of fluid relative to the blade at r
Cr , C are the radial and tangential components of V
α : the flow angle (the angle between V and u)
β : the blade angle
ω : the angular speed
Subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the inlet and outlet conditions

Assumptions:
Flow is steady. Flow is uniform at the inlet and outlet.
Fig. 1
Referred to the velocity diagrams,
Angular momentum of the fluid entering the impeller during a unit time  1 cos 1 r1
= mV
That of the fluid leaving the impeller during a unit time  2 cos  2 r2
= mV
Therefore, torque applied  2 cos  2 r2  mV
= mV  1 cos 1 r1
Power transferred  2 cos  2 r2  mV
= mV  1 cos 1 r1 
 2 cos  2 u2  mV
Power transferred between a unit weight of fluid (Euler head, HE) = ( mV  1 cos 1 u1 ) / mg

HE = ( C 2 u2  C 1 u1 ) / g ( for a pump)
Hydraulic efficiency = Delivery head/ Euler head ( for a pump)
= Euler head / Supply head ( for a turbine)
3. Rotodynamic pumps
Table 1 Classification of rotodynamic pumps

In a rotodynamic pump, mechanical energy

is transferred from the rotor to the fluid. If
the fluid is a gas then the machine is usually
called a fan, blower or a compressor.

Fig 2. Pump impellers

3.1 Centrifugal pumps
Centrifugal pump is a radial flow machine (Figs. 3,4). Fluid enters the impeller through the center (eye) with
a very little, if not negligible, tangential velocity component and flows outwards and leaves the impeller with
increased pressure and considerable tangential velocity component. The velocity of the fluid leaving the
impeller is more than the velocity required in the delivery pipe. Some of the kinetic energy head of this fluid
which is otherwise lost is converted to pressure head while flow is passing through the volute. In some pumps,
a set of stationary guide vanes, called diffuser, is provided surrounding the impeller to increase the efficiency
of this process.

Multi-stage

Fig. 3 Centrifugal pump Fig.4.Impeller types of centrifugal pumps

3.2 Axial flow pumps

The impeller of an axial flow pump (Fig. 5) or
propeller pump consists of a set of blades mounted Vr1
on a central boss. A set of stationary guide vanes is
provided on the outlet side of the impeller to remove
the whirl component of velocity of the fluid leaving Vr2
the impeller.
Ex: Sketch velocity diagrams and write expressions
for the Euler head.

Fig. 5.Axial flow pump

4. Hydraulic turbines
4.1 Reaction turbines
The reaction turbine consists of spiral casing, guide vanes, runner and the draft tube. Water comes through a
penstock and enters the runner through the volute (or spiral casing) and the system of stationary guide vanes.
The water after doing work on the runner leaves it through the draft tube and flows to the tailrace. Large
turbines may also have a stay ring of fixed vanes outside the ring of guide vanes. Fig. 5 shows the plan and
sectional view of a Francis type reaction turbine.
The main function of the spiral casing is to distribute the flow over the periphery of the runner such that the
entrance velocity is same all around it. Guide vanes serve to change the turbine discharge and to provide a
whirl component of velocity to the water entering the runner which consists of a number of curved blades
fixed on its periphery and is keyed to the main shaft. The function of the draft tube, which is a gradually
expanding closed passage is to transform a large part of the kinetic energy of flow leaving the runner into the
pressure energy.
a) Francis turbine
Fig. 6 shows hydraulic elements of a Francis turbine. Though the early stage Francis turbines were radial flow
machines, most of the modern Francis turbines are mixed-flow type in which the water enters the runner
radially at its outer periphery and leaves it in the axial direction.

Fig.6. Francis turbine Fig.7. Kaplan turbine

Ex: Sketch velocity diagrams for Francis and Kaplan turbines and write expressions for the Euler head

b) Propeller and Kaplan turbines

Propeller and Kaplan turbines (Fig. 7) are axial flow reaction turbines. Propeller turbines operate at high
efficiency under full load conditions, but their efficiency is considerably reduced when they are subject to
changing loads. Whereas, Kaplan turbines have runners with adjustable blades and they work efficiently under
a wide range of head and discharge. The number of vanes of a Kaplan runner varies from 3 to 6 which are
made of stainless steel.

4.2 Impulse turbines

In impulse turbines, the total energy of the water is converted into kinetic energy of the jet passing through a
nozzle before the water strikes the cups mounted on the runner. The pressures of flow at the entrance and exit
of the runner are usually atmospheric.
The Pelton turbine (Fig 8) consists of a circular disc with a number of cups or buckets fixed along the periphery
of it.

Fig. 8. Pelton turbine

5. Performance characteristics of rotodynamic machines

The performance of rotodynamic machines can be predicted from the results of scale model tests conducted
under dynamic similarity. For dynamic similarity geometric similarity and kinematic similarity are
prerequisites. The kinematic similarity between geometrically machines is satisfied when the velocity
diagrams at inlet and outlet are similar.
For a rotodynamic machine working with an incompressible liquid, the performance parameters are the energy
transferred per unit mass of fluid (gH), power transferred (P), torque on the impeller (T), efficiency (η). They
depend upon the discharge (Q), the density (ρ), viscosity (μ), impeller diameter (D), and rotational speed (N).
Ex. Using the principles of dimensional analysis, show that
gH   Q
, ND 2   ;   2  Q
2
, ND 

N 2 D2 1
 ND
3
   ND 3   ;

P Q ND 2   ; T 
 4  Q ND 2  
3 5  3  3 ,
N D 3 ,
 
2
N D 5
 ND  
 ND

Here, kinematic similarity between two geometrically similar machines is achieved when Q 
ND3
called Flow Number, is equal in two machines.
 ND 2   is proportional to the Reynolds number (Re). Flow in a rotodynamic machine is highly turbulent,
   therefore, the change in the Re has a very little effect on its performance and the Re has a

constant effect in turbulent flows. Re can be dropped from the equation.
Then, Head No, Power No, efficiency and Torque No given above will be functions of only the Flow No. That
is, if any of the above non dimensional parameters can be made equivalent in the operation of two
geometrically similar hydraulic machines they operate under dynamically similar conditions.

Ex. Draw typical performance curves for a centrifugal pump

6. Specific speed and selection of rotodynamic machines

The discharge (Q) at the given head (H) is the service that is normally expected from a pump. In the selection
of a pump type (shape) that gives highest efficiency in the above Q,H range, a parameter independent of the
pump size called type number or specific speed is used. A nondimensional parameter where impeller diameter
(D) does not appear is derived by combining the Flow No and the Head No.
1/ 2
Consider the ratio k = (Flow No)1/2 /(Head No.)3/4 Then, k  NQ
( gH )3/ 4
/
Therefore we can write =
( )

The value of k at the maximum efficiency is a unique value for a series of geometrically similar pumps (pumps
with same shape) and is called the nondimensional specific speed of the pump Kn.

/
Leaving out g, = at the maximum efficiency, which has dimensions, is called the
( )
specific speed of the pump. Using Q, H and an available pump speed (N), Kn. can be calculated and hence the
type of the pump can be selected. It is then possible to select the appropriate pump size (D) from the
performance curves of the series of the geometrically similar pumps for the given application. Table 2 gives
the ranges of specific speeds of rotodynamic pumps.
 Table 2 Classification of rotodynamic pumps
Kn Pump type Suitable applications
0.03<Kn<0.23 Centrifugal pumps High head, low-moderate discharge
0.23<Kn<0.58 Mixed flow pumps Moderate head, moderate discharge
0.583<Kn<0.87 Axial flow pumps Low head, high discharge

For a turbine a parameter to characterize the type (shape) of the turbine is derived from the Power No. and the
1/ 2
Head No. as k  NP
 1/ 2 ( gH )5 / 4

The value of k at the maximum efficiency is a unique value for a series of geometrically similar turbines
(turbines with same shape) and is called the nondimensional specific speed of the pump Kn.


Since g and ρ are constants, N s  NP
1/ 2

H 5/ 4
at the maximum efficiency, which has dimensions, is
called the specific speed of the turbine. Using P, H and a generator speed N, Kn. can be calculated and hence
the type of the turbine can be selected. It is then possible to select the appropriate turbine size (D) from the
performance curves of the series of the geometrically similar turbines for the given application. Table 3 gives
the ranges of specific speeds of rotodynamic turbines.

Table 3 Classification of rotodynamic turbines

Kn Turbine type Suitable applications
0.004<Kn<0.36 Pelton turbine High head, low discharge
0.36<Kn<0.4 Francis turbine Moderate head, moderate discharge
0.4<Kn<0.91 Propeller/Kaplan turbine Low head, high discharge