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✓ Cellular Telephony:
▰ Course Title: Data Communication
▰ Course Code: CSE-3525 ❑ Cellular telephony is designed to provide communications between two moving units,
called mobile stations (MSs), or between one mobile unit and one stationary unit, often
▰ Credit Hours: 3 called a land unit.
▰ Textbooks: 1. Data Communications AND Networking - 5th Edition
❑ A service provider must be able to locate and track a caller, assign a channel to the call, and
by Behrouz A. Forouzan transfer the channel from base station to base station as the caller moves out of range.
2. Computer Networks - 5th Edition by A. Tanenbaum
❑ Each cellular service area is divided into small regions called cells. Each cell contains an
antenna and is controlled by a solar- or AC powered network station, called the base station
(BS).

Conducted by: Engr. Muinul Islam ❑ Each base station, in turn, is controlled by a switching office, called a mobile switching
center (MSC). The MSC coordinates communication between all the base stations and the
telephone central office. It is a computerized center that is responsible for connecting calls,
recording call information, and billing.

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DATA COMMUNICATION DATA COMMUNICATION

✓ Frequency-Reuse Principle: ✓ Frequency-Reuse Principle (Contd.):

❖ In general, neighboring cells cannot use the same set of frequencies for communication
because doing so may create interference for the users located near the cell boundaries.

❖ The set of frequencies available is limited, and frequencies need to be reused. A frequency
reuse pattern is a configuration of N cells, N being the reuse factor, in which each cell uses
a unique set of frequencies. When the pattern is repeated, the frequencies can be reused.

❖ There are several different patterns. Fig in next slide shows two of them. The numbers in
the cells define the pattern. The cells with the same number in a pattern can use the same
set of frequencies. These cells are called the reusing cells.

As Fig shows, in a pattern with reuse factor 4, only one cell separates the cells using the same Figure. Frequency reuse patterns
set of frequencies. In a pattern with reuse factor 7, two cells separate the reusing cells.

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✓ Frequency-Reuse Principle (Contd.): ✓ Frequency-Reuse Principle (Contd.):
❖ Transmitting: ❖ Receiving:
❑ To place a call from a mobile station, the caller enters a code of 7 or 10 When a mobile phone is called, the telephone central office sends the number to
digits (a phone number) and presses the send button. The mobile station the MSC. The MSC searches for the location of the mobile station by sending
then scans the band, seeking a setup channel with a strong signal, and query signals to each cell in a process called paging.
sends the data (phone number) to the closest base station using that
channel. The base station relays the data to the MSC. The MSC sends the Once the mobile station is found, the MSC transmits a ringing signal and, when
data on to the telephone central office. the mobile station answers, assigns a voice channel to the call, allowing voice
communication to begin.
❑ If the called party is available, a connection is made and the result is relayed
back to the MSC. At this point, the MSC assigns an unused voice channel to ❖ Handoff
the call, and a connection is established. It may happen that, during a conversation, the mobile station moves from one cell
❑ The mobile station automatically adjusts its tuning to the new channel, and to another. When it does, the signal may become weak. To solve this problem,
communication can begin. Figure shows the basic format of a multiplexed the MSC monitors the level of the signal every few seconds.
system.

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✓ Frequency-Reuse Principle (Contd.): ✓ Frequency-Reuse Principle (Contd.):

❖ Handoff (Contd.) ❖ Soft Handoff
If the strength of the signal diminishes, the MSC seeks a new cell that can better New systems use a soft handoff. In this case, a mobile station can communicate
accommodate the communication. The MSC then changes the channel carrying with two base stations at the same time. This means that, during handoff, a
the call (hands the signal off from the old channel to a new one). mobile station may continue with the new base station before breaking off from
the old one.
❖ Hard Handoff
Early systems used a hard handoff. In a hard handoff, a mobile station only ✓ Roaming
communicates with one base station. One feature of cellular telephony is called roaming. Roaming means, in principle, that a
user can have access to communication or can be reached where there is coverage.
When the MS moves from one cell to another, communication must first be
broken with the previous base station before communication can be established A service provider usually has limited coverage. Neighboring service providers can
with the new one. This may create a rough transition. provide extended coverage through a roaming contract.

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✓ First Generation ❖ Bands (Contd.)

The first generation was designed for voice communication using analog signals. The
first-generation mobile system used in North America, AMPS.
❖ AMPS
Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) is one of the leading analog cellular
systems widely used in North America. It uses Frequency-division multiple access
(FDMA) system to separate channels in a link.
❖ Bands Fig. Cellular bands for AMPS
AMPS operates in the ISM 800-MHz band. The system uses two separate analog
channels, one for forward (base station to mobile station) communication and one Each band is divided into 832 channels. However, two providers can share an
for reverse (mobile station to base station) communication. area, which means 416 channels in each cell for each provider. Out of these
The band between 824 and 849 MHz carries reverse communication; the band 416, 21 channels are used for control, which leaves 395 channels.
between 869 and 894 MHz carries forward communication.

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❖ Bands (Contd.) ❖ Transmission

AMPS has a frequency reuse factor of 7; this means only one-seventh of these AMPS uses FM and FSK for modulation. Figure shows the transmission in the
395 traffic channels are actually available in a cell. reverse direction.
Voice channels are modulated using FM, and control channels use FSK to
Voice channels are modulated using FM, and control channels use FSK to create 30-kHz analog signals. AMPS uses FDMA to divide each 25-MHz band
create 30-kHz analog signals. AMPS uses FDMA to divide each 25-MHz band into 30-kHz channels.
into 3D-kHz channels

Figure. AMPS reverse communication band

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✓ Second Generation (2G) ✓ Second Generation (2G) (Contd.)

To provide higher-quality (less noise-prone) mobile voice communications, the
second generation of the cellular phone network was developed. While the first
❖ Transmission
generation was designed for analog voice communication, the second generation ❑ Each voice channel is digitized using a very complex PCM and compression
was mainly designed for digitized voice. Three major systems evolved in the second technique. A voice channel is digitized to 7.95 kbps. Three 7.95-kbps digital
generation: D-AMPS, GSM, and IS-95. voice channels are combined using TDMA. The result is 48.6 kbps of digital
data; much of this is overhead.
❖ D-AMPS
The product of the evolution of the analog AMPS into a digital system is digital ❑ As Figure shows, the system sends 25 frames per second, with 1944 bits
AMPS (D-AMPS). D-AMPS was designed to be backward-compatible with per frame. Each frame lasts 40 ms (1/25) and is divided into six slots shared
AMPS. This means that in a cell, one telephone can use AMPS and another D- by three digital channels; each channel is allotted two slots. Each slot holds
AMPS. D-AMPS was first defined by IS-54 (Interim Standard 54) and later 324 bits. However, only 159 bits come from the digitized voice; 64 bits are
revised by IS-136. for control and 101 bits are for error correction. In other words, each
channel drops 159 bits of data into each of the two channels assigned to it.
❖ Band
The system adds 64 control bits and 101 error-correcting bits.
D-AMPS uses the same bands and channels as AMPS.

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✓ Second Generation (2G) (Contd.) ✓ GSM

❖ Transmission (Contd.) The Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM) is a European standard that
was developed to provide a common second-generation technology for all Europe.
The aim was to replace a number of incompatible first-generation technologies.

❖ Bands
GSM uses two bands for duplex communication. Each band is 25 MHz in width,
shifted toward 900 MHz, as shown in Figure 16.11. Each band is divided into
124 channels of 200 kHz separated by guard bands.

❖ Transmission
Figure shows a GSM system. Each voice channel is digitized and compressed
to a 13-kbps digital signal. Each slot carries 156.25 bits. Eight slots share a
frame (TDMA).
Figure. D-AMPS

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✓ GSM (Contd.) ✓ GSM (Contd.)

Fig. GSM bands

Fig. GSM

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✓ Third Generation (3G) ✓ Third Generation (3G) (Contd.)

❖ The third generation of cellular telephony refers to a combination of b) Data rate of 144 kbps for access in a moving vehicle (car), 384 kbps for
technologies that provide both digital data and voice communication. access as the user walks (pedestrians), and 2 Mbps for the stationary user
(office or home).
❖ Using a small portable device, a person is able to talk to anyone else in the
c) Support for packet-switched and circuit-switched data services.
world with a voice quality similar to that of the existing fixed telephone network.
A person can download and watch a movie, download and listen to music, surf d) A band of 2 GHz.
the Internet or play games, have a video conference, and do much more.
e) Bandwidths of 2 MHz.
The third-generation concept started in 1992. The concept derive some criteria for f) Interface to the Internet.
third-generation technology as outlined below:
Goal
a) Voice quality comparable to that of the existing public telephone network. The main goal of third-generation cellular telephony is to provide universal
personal communication.

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✓ Satellite Networks ✓ Satellite Networks

❖ A satellite network is a combination of nodes, some of which are satellites, that ❖ Operation
provides communication from one point on the Earth to another. A node in the Some general issues related to the operation of satellites.
network can be a satellite, an Earth station, or an end-user terminal or ➢ Orbits
telephone. An artificial satellite needs to have an orbit, the path in which it travels
❖ Although a natural satellite, such as the Moon, can be used as a relaying node around the Earth. The orbit can be equatorial, inclined, or polar, as
in the network, the use of artificial satellites is preferred because we can install shown in Figure. The period of a satellite, the time required for a satellite
electronic equipment on the satellite to regenerate the signal that has lost its to make a complete trip around the Earth, is determined by Kepler’s law,
energy during travel. Another restriction on using natural satellites is their which defines the period as a function of the distance of the satellite
distances from the Earth, which create a long delay in communication. from the center of the Earth.
❖ Satellites can provide transmission capability to and from any location on Earth,
no matter how remote. This advantage makes high-quality communication
available to undeveloped parts of the world without requiring a huge investment
in ground-based infrastructure. Figure. Satellite orbits

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✓ Satellite Networks ✓ Categories of Satellites
❖ Operation (Contd.) Based on the location of the orbit, satellites can be divided into three categories

➢ Footprint ❖ Geostationary Earth orbit (GEO)

Satellites process microwaves with bidirectional antennas (line-of-sight). ❖ Low-Earth-orbit (LEO)
Therefore, the signal from a satellite is normally aimed at a specific area
called the footprint.
❖ Middle-Earth-orbit (MEO)

The signal power at the center of the footprint is maximum. The power Figure in the next slide, shows the satellite altitudes with respect to the surface of the
decreases as we move out from the footprint center. The boundary of Earth.
the footprint is the location where the power level is at a predefined ➢ There is only one orbit, at an altitude of 35,786 kIn for the OEO satellite.
threshold.
➢ MEO satellites are located at altitudes between 5000 and 15,000 kIn.
➢ LEO satellites are normally below an altitude of 2000 km.

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✓ Categories of Satellites (Contd.) ✓ Categories of Satellites (Contd.)
❖ GEO Satellites
❑ To ensure constant communication, the satellite must move at the same
speed as the Earth so that it seems to remain fixed above a certain spot. Such
satellites are called geostationary.
❑ Because orbital speed is based on the distance from the planet, only
one orbit can be geostationary. This orbit occurs at the equatorial plane and is
approximately 22,000 mi from the surface of the Earth.
❑ One satellite in orbit has line-of-sight contact with a vast number of
stations, but the curvature of the Earth still keeps much of the planet out of
sight.
Figure. Satellite orbit altitudes
❑ It takes a minimum of three satellites equidistant from each other in
geostationary Earth orbit (GEO) to provide full global transmission.

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✓ Categories of Satellites (Contd.) ✓ Categories of Satellites (Contd.)
❖ GEO Satellites ❖ MEO Satellites
Medium-Earth-orbit (MEO) satellites are positioned between the two Van Allen
belts. A satellite at this orbit takes approximately 6 to 8 hours to circle the
Earth.
Example: One example of a MEO satellite system is the Global Positioning
System (GPS)

❑ Global Positioning System (GPS)

The system consists of 24 satellites in six orbits and is used for land,
sea, and air navigation to provide time and location for vehicles and
Figure. Satellites in geostationary orbit
ships.
Fig shows three satellites, each 120° from another in geosynchronous orbit around
the equator. The view is from the North Pole.

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✓ Categories of Satellites (Contd.) ✓ Categories of Satellites (Contd.)
❑ Global Positioning System (GPS) (Contd.) ❖ LEO Satellites
The orbits and the locations of the satellites in each orbit are designed in ❑ Low-Earth-orbit (LEO) satellites have polar orbits. The altitude is
such a way that, at any time, four satellites are visible from any point on between 500 and 2000 km, with a rotation period of 90 to 120 min.
Earth.
❑ Satellite has a speed of 20,000 to 25,000 km/h. A LEO system usually
A GPS receiver has an almanac that tells the current position of each has a cellular type of access, similar to the cellular telephone system.
satellite. The footprint normally has a diameter of 8000 km.
❑ For LEO satellites, the round-trip time propagation delay is normally less
than 20 ms, which is acceptable for audio communication.
❑ A LEO system is made of a constellation of satellites that work together
as a network; each satellite acts as a switch. Satellites that are close to
each other are connected through intersatellite links (ISLs).
Figure. Orbits for global positioning system (GPS) satellites

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✓ Categories of Satellites (Contd.) ✓ Synchronous Optical Network (SONET): The ANSI standard is called the
❖ LEO Satellites (Contd.) Synchronous Optical Network (SONET). SONET is a synchronous network using
synchronous TDM multiplexing.
❑ A mobile system communicates with the satellite through a user mobile
link (UML). A satellite can also communicate with an Earth station ❖ Architecture of SONET
(gateway) through a gateway link (GWL).
a) Signals
❑ The first broadband LEO system was Teledesic. Teledesic is a system
b) Devices, and
of satellites that provides fiber-optic-like communication.
c) Connections.
a) Signals
SONET defines a hierarchy of electrical signaling levels called synchronous
transport signals (STSs). Each STS level (STS-l to STS-192) supports a
certain data rate, specified in megabits per second. The corresponding
optical signals are called optical carriers (OCs).
Figure. A typical LEO satellite network

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✓ Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) (Contd.): ✓ Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) (Contd.):
❖ Architecture of SONET (Contd.)
❖ Architecture of SONET (Contd.)
b) SONET Devices
SONET transmission relies on few basic devices: i) STS multiplexers/ b) SONET Devices (Contd.)
demultiplexers ii) Regenerators iii) add/drop multiplexers iv) terminals. i) STS multiplexers/demultiplexers
STS multiplexers/demultiplexers mark the beginning points and endpoints
of a SONET link. They provide the interface between an electrical tributary
network and the optical network.
An STS multiplexer multiplexes signals from multiple electrical sources
and creates the corresponding OC signal. An STS demultiplexer
demultiplexes an optical OC signal into corresponding electric signals.

Fig. A simple network using SONET equipment

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✓ Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) (Contd.): ✓ Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) (Contd.):
❖ Architecture of SONET (Contd.) ❖ Architecture of SONET (Contd.)
b) SONET Devices (Contd.) b) SONET Devices (Contd.)
ii) Regenerator iii) Add/drop Multiplexer
Regenerators extend the length of the links. A regenerator is a repeater Regenerators Add/drop multiplexers allow insertion and extraction of signals. An
that takes a received optical signal (OC-n), demodulates it into the add/drop multiplexer (ADM) can add STSs coming from different sources into a
corresponding electric signal (STS-n), regenerates the electric signal, and given path or can remove a desired signal from a path and redirect it without
finally modulates the electric signal into its correspondent OC-n signal. demultiplexing the entire signal. Add/drop multiplexers use header information
such as addresses and pointers to identify individual streams.
A SONET regenerator replaces some of the existing overhead information
(header information) with new information. In the simple configuration shown by Figure, a number of incoming electronic
signals are fed into an STS multiplexer, where they are combined into a single
optical signal.

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✓ Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) (Contd.): ✓ Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) (Contd.):
❖ Architecture of SONET (Contd.) ❖ Architecture of SONET (Contd.)
b) SONET Devices (Contd.) b) SONET Devices (Contd.)
iii) Add/drop Multiplexer (Contd.) iv) Terminals
The optical signal is transmitted to a regenerator, where it is recreated without A terminal is a device that uses the services of a SONET network.
the noise it has picked up in transit. The regenerated signals from a number of
For example, in the Internet, a terminal can be a router that needs to send
sources are then fed into an add/drop multiplexer.
packets to another router at the other side of a SONET network.
The add/drop multiplexer reorganizes these signals, if necessary, and sends
them out as directed by information in the data frames. These remultiplexed c) Connections
signals are sent to another regenerator and from there to the receiving STS Few devices used here are i) Sections, ii) Lines, and iii) Paths.
demultiplexer, where they are returned to a format usable by the receiving links.
i) Sections: Section is the optical link connecting two neighbor devices: multiplexer
to multiplexer, multiplexer to regenerator, or regenerator to regenerator.

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✓ Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) (Contd.): ✓ Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) (Contd.):
❖ Architecture of SONET (Contd.) ❖ SONET Layers
The SONET standard includes four functional layers: a) The photonic b) The
c) Connections (Contd.)
section c) The line and d) The path layer.
ii) Lines:
d) The path layer
A line is the portion of the network between two multiplexers: STS
The path layer is responsible for the movement of a signal from its optical
multiplexer to add/ drop multiplexer, two add/drop multiplexers, or two
source to its optical destination.
STS multiplexers.
At the optical source, the signal is changed from an electronic form into an
ii) Paths:
optical form, multiplexed with other signals, and encapsulated in a frame. At
A path is the end-to-end portion of the network between two STS
the optical destination, the received frame is demultiplexed, and the
multiplexers. In a simple SONET of two STS multiplexers linked directly to
individual optical signals are changed back into their electronic forms.
each other, the section, line, and path are the same.
Path layer overhead is added at this layer.

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✓ Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) (Contd.): ✓ Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) (Contd.):
❖ SONET Layers (Contd.) ❖ SONET Layers (Contd.)
c) The line layer b) The section layer
The line layer is responsible for the movement of a signal across a physical The section layer is responsible for the movement of a signal across a
line. Line layer overhead is added to the frame at this layer. STS physical section. It handles framing, scrambling, and error control. Section
multiplexers and add/drop multiplexers provide line layer functions. layer overhead is added to the frame at this layer.
a) The photonic layer
The photonic layer corresponds to the physical layer of the OSI model. It
includes physical specifications for the optical fiber channel, the sensitivity of
the receiver, multiplexing functions, and so on.
SONET uses NRZ encoding, with the presence of light representing 1 and
Figure. SONET layers compared with OSI or Internet layers the absence of light representing 0.

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✓ Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) (Contd.): ✓ Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) (Contd.):
❖ SONET Frames ❖ 1. Question. Find the data rate of an STS-1 signal.
Each synchronous transfer signal STS-n is composed of 8000 frames. Each Answer.
frame is a two-dimensional matrix of bytes with 9 rows by 90 x n columns. STS-l, like other STS signals, sends 8000 frames per second. Each STS-l frame is
made of 9 by (l X 90) bytes. Each byte is made of 8 bits. The data rate is
For example, STS-l frame is 9 rows by 90 columns (810 bytes), and an STS-3 is
STS-1 data rate = 8000 X 9 X (1 X 90) x8
9 rows by 270 columns (2430 bytes). Figure shows the general format of an
= 51.840 Mbps
STS-l and an STS-n.
❖ 2. Question. Find the data rate of an STS-3 signal.
Answer.
STS-3, like other STS signals, sends 8000 frames per second. Each STS-3 frame
is made of 9 by (3 X 90) bytes. Each byte is made of 8 bits. The data rate is
STS-3 data rate = 8000 × 9 × (3 × 90) × 8 = 155.52 Mbps
Fig. STS-1 and STS-n frames

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✓ Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) (Contd.): ✓ Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) (Contd.):
❖ 3. Question. What is the duration of an STS-l frame? STS-3 frame? STS-n ❖ STS-1 Frame Format (Contd.)
frame?
❑ The first three columns of the frame are used for section and line
Answer. overhead. The upper three rows of the first three columns are used for
In SONET, 8000 frames are sent per second. This means that the duration of an section overhead (SOH). The lower six are line overhead (LOH). The rest
STS-1, STS-3, or STS-n frame is the same and equal to 1/8000 s, or 125 μs. of the frame is called the synchronous payload envelope (SPE). It
contains user data and path overhead (POH) needed at the user data
❖ STS-1 Frame Format
level.
❑ A SONET frame is a matrix of 9 rows of 90 bytes (octets) each, for a total
of 810 bytes.

Fig. STS-1 frame overheads Fig. STS-1 frame: section overhead

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✓ Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) (Contd.): ✓ Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) (Contd.):
❖ STS Multiplexing ❖ STS Multiplexing (Contd.)
❑ The In SONET, frames of lower rate can be synchronously time-division ❑ Multiplexing is synchronous TDM, and all clocks in the network are
multiplexed into a higher-rate frame. locked to a master clock to achieve synchronization.
❑ For example, three STS-l signals (channels) can be combined into one
STS-3 signal (channel), four STS-3s can be multiplexed into one STS- ❖ Byte Interleaving
12, and so on, as shown in Figure below. Synchronous TDM multiplexing in SONET is achieved by using byte
interleaving.
For example, when three STS-I signals are multliplexed into one STS-3 signal,
each set of 3 bytes in the STS-3 signal is associated with 1 byte from each
STS-I signal. Figure 17.13 shows the interleaving.

Figure. STS multiplexing/demultiplexing

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✓ Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) (Contd.): ✓ Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) (Contd.):
❖ Byte Interleaving (Contd.) ❖ SONET Networks
SONET networks can be divided into three categories: a) Linear b)Ring, and
c) Mesh networks.

Figure. Byte interleaving

A byte in an STS-1 frame keeps its row position, but it is moved into a different
column. The reason is that while all signal frames have the same number of Figure. Taxonomy of SONET networks
rows (9), the number of columns changes.

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✓ Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) (Contd.): ✓ Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) (Contd.):
❖ SONET Networks ❖ SONET Networks
a) Linear Networks
a) Linear Networks (Contd.)
A linear SONET network can be i) Point-to-point or ii) Multipoint.
i) Point-to-point: ii) Multipoint:
A point-to-point network is normally made of an STS multiplexer, an A multipoint network uses ADMs to allow communications between
STS demultiplexer, and zero or more regenerators with no add/drop several terminals. An ADM removes the signal belonging to the
multiplexers, as shown in Fig below. terminal connected to it and adds the signal transmitted from another
terminal. Each terminal can send data to one or more downstream
The signal flow can be unidirectional or bidirectional, although Figure
terminals.
below shows only unidirectional for simplicity.
Figure shows a unidirectional scheme in which each terminal can send
data only to the downstream terminals, but a multipoint network can be
bidirectional, too.
Fig. A point-to-point SONET network

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✓ Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) (Contd.): ✓ Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) (Contd.):
❖ SONET Networks ❖ SONET Networks
a) Linear Networks (Contd.) a) Linear Networks (Contd.)
Automatic Protection Switching
ii) Multipoint (Contd.):
❑ To create protection against failure in linear networks, SONET defines
automatic protection switching (APS).
❑ APS in linear networks is defined at the line layer, which means the
protection is between two ADMs or a pair of STS
multiplexer/demultiplexers.
❑ The idea is to provide redundancy; a redundant line (fiber) can be
used in case of failure in the main one. The main line is referred to as
Fig. A multipoint SONET network the work line and the redundant line as the protection line.

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✓ Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) (Contd.): ✓ Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) (Contd.):
❖ SONET Networks ❖ SONET Networks
a) Linear Networks (Contd.) a) Linear Networks (Contd.)
Automatic Protection Switching (Contd.)
Automatic Protection Switching (Contd.)
❑ Three schemes are common for protection in linear channels: one-
plus-one, one-to-one, and one-to-many. Figure shows all three
schemes.
❑ One-plus-one APS: In this scheme, there are normally two lines: one
working line and one protection line. Both lines are active all the time.
❑ One-to-one APS: In this scheme, which looks like the one-plus-one
scheme, there is also one working line and one protection line. At this
time, the receiver, using the reverse channel, informs the sender to
use the protection line instead. Figure. Automatic protection switching in linear networks

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✓ Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) (Contd.): ✓ Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) (Contd.):
❖ SONET Networks ❖ SONET Networks
a) Linear Networks (Contd.) b) Ring Networks
Automatic Protection Switching (Contd.) ADMs make it possible to have SONET ring networks. SONET rings can
be used in either a unidirectional or a bidirectional configuration. In each
❑ One-to-Many APS: This scheme is similar to the one-to-one scheme case, we can add extra rings to make the network self-healing, capable of
except that there is only one protection line for many working lines. self-recovery from line failure.
When a failure occurs in one of the working lines, the protection line
takes control until the failed line is repaired. c) Mesh Networks
A switch in a network mesh is called a cross-connect. A cross-connect,
Here, the failure recovery is slower than that of the one-plus-scheme, like other switches we have seen, has input and output ports. In an input
but this scheme is more efficient because the protection line can be port, the switch takes an OC-n signal, changes it to an STS-n signal,
used for data transfer when it is not used to replace the working line. demultiplexes it into the corresponding STS-1 signals, and sends each
Note that one-to-one switching is done at the line layer. STS-1 signal to the appropriate output port.

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DATA COMMUNICATION COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE

✓ Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) (Contd.):

❖ SONET Networks

Thanks
c) Mesh Networks (Contd.)
An output port takes STS-1 signals coming from different input ports,
multiplexes them into an STS-n signal, and makes an OC-n signal for
transmission. Figure shows a mesh SONET network, and the structure of
a switch.

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