Environmental and Energy Management

EM6763

Lecture # 02

Course Teacher: Dr. Ghulam Asghar

 Today’s Lecture
 Heat Transfer

 Introduction to Thermodynamic Principles:

Entropy Analysis

 Qualitative Review of the Second Law

 Describing Equations

 The Heat Exchanger Dilemma

 Heat Transfer
 The concept of heat transfer was first introduced by the English
scientist Sir Isaac Newton in his 1701 paper.
 In 1843, the English physicist James P. Joule provided the relationship
between mechanical work and the nature of heat, and led to the
development of the first law of thermodynamics (i.e., the
conservation of energy) through his experiments.
 Kinetic theory states that energy or heat is created by the random
motion of atoms and molecules. The introduction of kinetic theory
helped to develop the concept of the conduction of heat.
 Later, French mathematician and physicist Joseph Fourier (1768–1830)
developed the concepts of heat flux and temperature gradient.
 Fourier subsequently developed the classic equation for heat
conduction that has come to be known as Fourier’s law.
 Heat Transfer
 Heat transfer, as an engineering practice, grew out of thermodynamics
at around the turn of the twentieth century.
 This arose because of the need to deal with the design of heat transfer
equipment required by emerging and growing industries.
 Early applications included steam generators for locomotives and
ships, and condensers for power generation plants.
 Between 1920 and 1950, the basic forms of many heat exchangers
used today were developed and refined.
 Starting in the late 1950s, at least three unrelated developments
rapidly changed the heat exchanger industry:
1. With respect to heat exchanger design and sizing, the general
availability of computers permitted the use of complex calculation
procedures that were not possible before.
 Heat Transfer
 Starting in the late 1950s, at least three unrelated developments
rapidly changed the heat exchanger industry:
2. The development of nuclear energy introduced the need for precise
design methods, especially in heat transfer calculations.

3. The energy crisis of the 1970s significantly increased the cost of

energy, by triggering a demand for more efficient heat utilization.

 As a result, heat-transfer technology suddenly became a prime

recipient of large research funds, especially during the 1960s and
1980s.
 This elevated the knowledge of heat exchanger design principles to
where it is today.
 Net Energy Analysis
 Net energy analysis deals with the analysis of the energy made
available to society by energy production processes after
accounting for energy lost to society/environment as a result of the
processes.
 Net energy analysis should not be used as the primary decision
factor.
 Other factors may generally carry more weight such as economics,
environment, national security, energy mix, transportation
capacities, needs for energy, safety concerns, etc.
 Introduction to Thermodynamic Principles:
Entropy Analysis
 Energy conservation can be achieved by a variety of means, but the
recovery of useful energy in the form of heat is the main focus.
 Heat is most efficiently recovered via the use of heat exchangers.
However, heat recovery in a cost-effective manner has not been
addressed by many practicing engineers.
 The second law of thermodynamics is referred to as the limiting law.
 Historically, the basis of the second law was developed by individuals
such as Carnot, Clausius, and Kelvin in the middle of the nineteenth
century.
 This development was made purely on a macroscopic scale and is
referred to as the “classical approach” to the second law.
 Environmental concerns involving conservation of energy issues
gained increasing prominence during and immediately after the OPEC
oil prohibition of 1973.
 Introduction to Thermodynamic Principles:
Entropy Analysis
 In addition, global population growth led to an increasing demand for
energy. Although the use of energy has resulted in great benefits, the
environmental and human health impacts of this energy use have
become a concern.
 Regardless of the types of energy involved in processes—thermal,
mechanical, electrical, elastic, magnetic, etc.—the change in the
energy of a system is equal to the difference between energy input
and energy output.
 The first law also allows free convertibility from one form of energy to
another, as long as the overall quantity is conserved.
 Thus, this law places no restriction on the conversion of work into
heat or on its counterpart—the conversion of heat into work.
However, the second law of thermodynamics is another matter.
 Qualitative Review of the Second Law
 Energy has quality as well as quantity. Because work is 100 percent
convertible to heat, but the reverse situation is not true, work is a
more valuable form of energy than heat.

 Although it is not as obvious, it can also be shown through second-law

arguments that heat also has quality in terms of the temperature at
which it is discharged from a system.

 The higher the temperature, the greater is the potential for the
transformation of energy into work.

 Thus, thermal energy stored at high temperatures is generally more

useful to society than that available at lower temperatures.

 While there is an immense quantity of energy stored in the oceans, for

example, its present availability to society for performing useful tasks
is quite low.
 Qualitative Review of the Second Law
 This implies that thermal energy loses some of its quality, or is degraded,
when it is transferred by means of heat transfer from one temperature to
a lower one.
 Other forms of energy degradation include energy transformations due to
frictional effects and electrical resistance.
 Such effects are highly undesirable if the use of energy for practical
purposes is to be maximized.
 The 2nd law provides some means of measuring this energy degradation
through a thermodynamic term referred to as entropy, and it is the 2nd
law (of thermodynamics) that serves to define this important property.
 Entropy is normally designated as S with units of energy per absolute
temperature (e.g., Btu/°R or cal/K).
 Furthermore, entropy calculations can provide quantitative information
on the “quality” of energy and energy degradation.
 Describing Equations
 Key equations pertinent to entropy calculations and energy
recovery/conservation via heat exchanger design are discussed below.
 If ΔSsyst and ΔSsurr represent the entropy change of a system and
surroundings, respectively, it can be shown that, for a particular
process (and as a consequence of the second law), the total entropy
change ΔStot is given by:

 In effect, the second law requires that for any real processes, the total
entropy change is positive; the only exception is if the process is
reversible (the driving force for heat transfer is at all times zero) and
then;

 Thus, no real process can occur for which the total entropy change is
zero or negative.
 Describing Equations
 To reexamine the concept of “quality” energy, consider the insulated
space pictured in Figure 2.1(a, b).
 Space (a) contains air and steam that are separated.
 Space (b) contains the resulting mixture when both components are
mixed.
 Describing Equations
 Both spaces are insulated (Q = 0) in this closed system with no work
term (W = 0), so that one can conclude from the first law (Q + W = ΔU)
that;

 And the result is;

 Although the energy levels in both systems are the same, one notes
that system (a) has the capability of doing useful work (because of the
high temperature, high-pressure steam) while system (b) does not.

 If an entropy analysis is performed on both systems (a) and (b), one

would deduce that:

 In effect, the entropy level has increased for the system that has lost
its ability to do useful work due to the irreversible nature of the
mixing process.
 Describing Equations
 In this manner, the concept of entropy can be used to determine a
system’s ability to do useful work or to lose its ability to do useful
work.

 Thus, the second law leads to the conclusion that the greater the
irreversibility of a process is, the greater the (rate of) entropy increase
and the greater the amount of energy that becomes unavailable for
doing useful work.

 Consider now the entropy change of gases. The entropy change of an

ideal gas undergoing a change of state from pressure P1 to P2 at a
constant temperature T is given by:

 Where R is the ideal gas law constant in consistent units.

 Describing Equations
 The entropy change of an ideal gas or liquid undergoing a change of
state from T1 to T2 at a constant pressure is given by:

 Where Cp is the heat capacity at constant pressure in consistent units.

 Correspondingly, the entropy change for an ideal gas undergoing a
change from (P1 , T1) to (P2, T2) is;

 Heat exchanger design equations are as follow.

 If represents the rate of heat transfer between a hot and cold fluid
flowing in a heat exchanger, application of the conservation law for
energy gives:
 Describing Equations
 Where the subscripts H and C refer to the hot and cold fluids,
respectively; subscripts I and O refer to the fluid inlet and outlet
temperature, respectively; represents the mass flow rate, and Cp is
once again the heat capacity at constant pressure (assumed constant).
 In addition, if there is no heat lost from the exchanger to the
surroundings,

 The following important equation relates to the average

temperature difference between the hot and cold fluids:

 This is the infamous heat exchanger design equation.

 Describing Equations
 The terms U, A, and ΔTlm represent the overall heat transfer
coefficient (a function of the resistance to heat transfer), the area
for heat transfer, and the log mean temperature difference (LMTD)
driving force, respectively.
 For some exchangers, the latter term is given by:

 Where ΔT2 and ΔT1 represent the temperature difference between the
hot and cold fluid at each end of the exchanger, respectively.
 If ΔT1 = ΔT2 = ΔT, then ΔTlm = ΔT.
 For purposes of the analysis, Equation (2.11) is rearranged in the form
of:
 The Heat Exchanger Dilemma
 The meaningful energy conservation measures can be identified in the
design and specification of process (operation) conditions for heat
exchangers.

 This can be best accomplished by the inclusion of second-law

principles in the analysis. The quantity of heat recovered in an
exchanger is not alone in influencing size and cost.

 As the energy temperature difference driving force (LMTD) in the

exchanger approaches zero, the “quality” heat recovered increases.

 Most heat exchangers are designed with the requirements or

specification that the temperature difference between the hot and
cold fluid be at all times positive and be at least 20°F.

 This temperature difference or driving force is referred to by some as

the approach temperature.
 The Heat Exchanger Dilemma
 The entropy change is also related to the driving force, with large
temperature difference driving forces resulting in large irreversibilities
and the associated large entropy changes (increases).
 The individual designing a heat exchanger is faced with two choices.
 One may decide to design with a large LMTD that results in both a
more compact (smaller area) design (see Equation 2.13) and a large
entropy increase that is accompanied by the loss of “quality” energy.
 Alternately, a design with a small driving force results in both a larger
heat exchanger and a smaller entropy change/larger recovery of
“quality” energy.
 Regarding the cooling medium for a given heat transfer duty, the
design engineer has the option of circulating a large quantity with a
small temperature change or a small quantity with a large
temperature change.
 The Heat Exchanger Dilemma
 The temperature change (or range) of the coolant affects the LMTD. If
a large coolant quantity is used, the LMTD is larger and less heat
transfer area A is required as a result of the large LMTD.

 Although this will reduce the original investment and fixed charges,
the amount of quality energy recovered will also be smaller, owing to
the greater quantity of coolant employed.

 It is therefore apparent that an optimum exists somewhere between

the two choices: too much coolant, smaller surface, and the recovery
of less quality energy or too little coolant, larger surface, and the
recovery of more quality energy.

 In the limit, as the LMTD → 0 the area requirement A → ∞, the

entropy change ΔS → 0 and the aforementioned recovered “quality”
energy increase.
 The Heat Exchanger Dilemma
 Clearly, cost must be minimized, but just as clearly, the “quality”
energy recovered must be included in the analysis. This dilemma is
quantitatively addressed below.
 Consider first the modes of operation for the three heat exchangers
shown in Figure 2.2. Note that for the purpose of analysis, mC = mH =
1.0 lb and Cp = 1.0 Btu/lb·°F.
 The Heat Exchanger Dilemma
 For operation (a):

 The entropy change for the hot fluid is:

 And

 The total entropy increase is therefore:

 The Heat Exchanger Dilemma
 For operation (b):

 The entropy change can be calculated in a manner similar to that of

operation (a):

 And

 The total entropy increase for operation (b) is therefore:

 The Heat Exchanger Dilemma
 For operation (c):

 The entropy change for the hot fluid is again:

 While

 The total entropy change for (c) is therefore:

 The Heat Exchanger Dilemma
 A summary of the results for operations (a), (b), and (c) plus the heat
exchanger requirements and quality energy (QE) analysis provided in
Table 2.1.

 One concludes that as the ΔTlm or LMTD increases, the area

requirement decreases (see Equation 2.13); however, the QE available
correspondingly decreases.

 Alternatively, if ΔTlm decreases, both A and QE increase.

Thank You