PROOF TECHNIQUES

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

 The student able to understand the structure of

mathematical proofs.
 The student will be able to determine the direct
proofs of universal and existential statements.
 The student will be able to disproving universal and
existential statements by Counterexample.
 The student will be able to construct proof by
Contradiction.
“Mathematical proofs, like diamonds, are hard and
clear, and will be touched with nothing but strict
reasoning.” -John Locke

Mathematical proofs are, in a sense, the only true

knowledge we have.

They provide us with a guarantee as well as an

explanation (and hopefully some insight).
 Why is mathematical proof are necessary?
 You must always (try to) prove that your algorithm
 terminates
 is sound, complete, optimal
 finds optimal solution

 You may also want to show that it is more efficient than

another method
 Proving certain properties of data structures may lead to
new, more efficient or simpler algorithms
 Arguments may entail assumptions. You may want to
prove that the assumptions are valid
Direct Proof and Counterexample I:
Introduction
 Even and Odd

 In order to evaluate the truth and falsity of a statement, we

must understand what the statement is about.
 Mathematicians define terms very carefully and precisely
and consider it important to learn definitions virtually word
for word.
Example

 Use the definitions of even and odd to justify your

answers to the following questions.

a. Is 0 even?
b. Is −301 odd?
c. If a and b are integers, is 6a+2b even?
d. If a and b are integers, is 10a + 8b + 1 odd?
 Prime

 A positive integer, such as 7, that cannot be written

as a product of two smaller positive integers is called
prime.
Example

a. Is 1 prime?
b. Write the first six prime numbers.
c. Write the first six composite numbers.
 Constructive Proofs of Existence

a. Prove the following: ∃ an even integer n that can be

written in two ways as a sum of two prime
numbers.
b. Suppose that r and s are integers. Prove the
following: ∃ an integer k such that 22r + 18s = 2k.
 SOLUTION:

a. Let n = 10. Then 10 = 5 + 5 = 3 + 7 and 3, 5, and 7

are all prime numbers.
b. Let k = 11r + 9s. Then k is an integer because it is a
sum of products of integers; and by substitution, 2k
= 2(11r + 9s), which equals 22r + 18s by the
distributive law of algebra.
Disproving Universal Statements by
Counterexample
 Disproof by Counterexample

 Disprove the following statement by finding a

counterexample:

∀ real numbers a and b, if a2 = b2 then a = b.

 SOLUTION:

 To disprove this statement, you need to find real

numbers a and b such that the hypothesis a2 = b2 is
true and the conclusion a = b is false. The fact that
both positive and negative integers have positive
squares helps in the search.

Statement: ∀ real numbers a and b, if 𝑎𝑎2 = 𝑏𝑏 2, then 𝑎𝑎 = 𝑏𝑏

Counterexample: Let 𝑎𝑎 = 1 and 𝑏𝑏 = −1. Then 𝑎𝑎2 = 12 = 1 and 𝑏𝑏 2 =

(−1)2= 1, and so 𝑎𝑎2 = 𝑏𝑏 2. But 𝑎𝑎 ≠ 𝑏𝑏 since 1 ≠ −1.
Direct Proof: Universal Statements
 Example: Universal Statements

 Prove that the sum of any two even integers is even.

 Starting Point: Suppose m and n are particular

but arbitrarily chosen integers that are even.
Or, in abbreviated form:
Suppose m and n are any even integers
To Show: m + n is even.
SOLUTION:
 Direct Proof : Universal Statement

 Over the years, the following rules of style have become

fairly standard for writing the final versions of proofs:

a. Copy the statement of the theorem to be proved on your paper.

b. Clearly mark the beginning of your proof with the word Proof.
c. Make your proof self-contained.
d. Write your proof in complete, gramatically correct sentences.
e. Keep your reader informed about the status of each statement in
your proof.
f. Give a reason for each assertion in your proof.
g. Include the “little words and phrases” that make the logic of your
arguments clear.
h. Display equations and inequalities.
 Showing That an Existential Statement Is
False

 Disproving an Existential Statement

Example:
Show that the following statement is false:

There is a positive integer n such that 𝑛𝑛 2 + 3𝑛𝑛 + 2 is

prime.
 Solution:

 Proving that the given statement is false is equivalent

to proving its negation is true. The negation is
For all positive integers n, n2 + 3n + 2 is not prime.
Because the negation is universal, it is proved by
generalizing from the generic particular.
 Claim: The statement “There is a positive integer n
such that n2 + 3n + 2 is prime” is false.
 Proof:

 Suppose n is any [particular but arbitrarily chosen]

positive integer. [We will show that n2 + 3n + 2 is
not prime.]
 We can factor n2 + 3n + 2 to obtain
n2 + 3n + 2 = (n + 1)(n + 2).
 We also note that n + 1 and n + 2 are integers
(because they are sums of integers) and that both
n + 1 > 1, and n + 2 > 1 (because n ≥ 1).
 Thus n2 + 3n + 2 is a product of two integers each
greater than 1, and so n2 + 3n + 2 is not prime.
 Direct Proof and Counterexample 2: Rational
Numbers

 Sums, differences, and products of integers are

integers. But most quotients of integers are not
integers. Quotients of integers are, however,
important; they are known as rational numbers.

The word rational contains the word ratio, which is another word for quotient.
A rational number can be written as a ratio of integers.
 Determining Whether Numbers Are Rational
or Irrational


 THEOREM & PROPERTY

Zero Product Property

If neither of two real numbers is zero,
then their product is also not zero

Integer
Every integer is a rational number
 Proving Properties of Rational Numbers

 A Sum of Rationals Is Rational

Example:
Prove that the sum of any two rational numbers is
rational.
 Solution:

 Begin by mentally or explicitly rewriting the

statement to be proved in the form“∀__________ ,
if__________ then___________ .”
 Starting Point: Suppose r and s are particular but
arbitrarily chosen real numbers such that r and s are
rational; or, more simply,
Suppose r and s are rational numbers.
Then ask yourself, “What must I show to complete the
proof?”
 To Show: r + s is rational.

Therefore, r + s is rational by definition of a rational number.

Direct Proof and Counterexample 3:
Divisibility
 Example: Divisibility

a. Is 21 divisible by 3? yes. ( 21=3 x 7)

b. Does 5 divide 40? Yes (40=5 x 8)
c. Does 7 | 42? Yes (42= 7 x 6)
d. Is 32 a multiple of −16? Yes (32= -16 x (-2))
e. Is 6 a factor of 54? Yes (54= 6 x 9)
f. Is 7 a factor of −7? Yes (- 7 = 7 x (-1))
 Two useful properties of divisibility are:
Theorem 1: A Positive Divisor of a Positive Integer
Theorem: Divisors of 1`
 Divisibility of Algebraic Expressions

a. If a and b are integers, is 3a + 3b divisible by 3?

b. If k and m are integers, is 10km divisible by 5?

 Solution:

a. Yes. By the distributive law of algebra, 3a + 3b = 3(a + b)

and a + b is an integer because it is a sum of two integers.

b. Yes. By the associative law of algebra, 10km = 5· (2km)

and 2km is an integer because it is a product of three
integers.
 Divisors of Zero

 If k is any nonzero integer, does k divide 0?

 Solution: Yes, because 0 = k · 0.

 Non-divisibility

 When the definition of divides is rewritten formally

using the existential quantifier, the results is

 Since the negation of an existential statement is

universal, it follows that d does not divide n (denoted
𝑑𝑑 ∤ 𝑛𝑛) if, and only if, ∀ integers k, 𝑛𝑛 ≠ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑, or in other
words, the quotient 𝑛𝑛|𝑑𝑑 is not integer.
 Example
 Does 4|15?

15
 No. = 3.75, which is not integer.
4
 Prime Numbers and Divisibility

 An alternative way to define a prime number is to say

that an integer n > 1 is prime if, and only if, its only
positive integer divisors are 1 and itself.
 Example:
5 is greater than 1
Try divisor 2,3,4,5
Its divisors are 1 and 5
 Transitivity of Divisibility

 Prove that for all integers a, b, and c, if a | b and b |

c, then a | c.
Solution:
Indirect Argument: Contradiction
 Indirect Argument: Contradiction

In a direct proof you start with the hypothesis of a

statement and make one deduction after another until you
reach the conclusion.

Indirect proofs are more roundabout. One kind of indirect

proof, argument by contradiction, is based on the fact that
either a statement is true or it is false but not both.

So if you can show that the assumption that a given

statement is not true leads logically to a contradiction,
impossibility, or absurdity, then that assumption must be
false: and, hence, the given statement must be true.
 Indirect Argument: Contradiction

This method of proof is also known as reductio ad

impossible or reductio ad absurdum because it relies
on reducing a given assumption to an impossibility or
absurdity.
 Indirect Argument: Contradiction

The point of departure for a proof by contradiction is the

supposition that the statement to be proved is false. The
goal is to reason to a contradiction. Thus proof by
contradiction has the following outline:
 Example – There Is No Greatest Integer

Use proof by contradiction to show that there is no greatest

integer.

Solution:
Most small children believe there is a greatest integer—they
often call it a “zillion.”

But with age and experience, they change their belief. At

some point they realize that if there were a greatest integer,
they could add 1 to it to obtain an integer that was greater
still.

Since that is a contradiction, no greatest integer can exist.

This line of reasoning is the heart of the formal proof.
 Example – Solution
cont’d

For the proof, the “certain property” is the property of being

the greatest integer. To prove that there is no object with this
property, begin by supposing the negation: that there is an
object with the property.

Starting Point: Suppose not. Suppose there is a greatest

integer; call it N. This means that N ≥ n for all
integers n.

To Show: This supposition leads logically to a

contradiction.
 Example – Solution
cont’d

Proof:
[We take the negation of the theorem and suppose it
to be true.] Suppose not. That is, suppose there is a
greatest integer N. [We must deduce a contradiction.]
 Example 1 – Solution
cont’d

Then N ≥ n for every integer n. Let M = N + 1. Now M

is an integer since it is a sum of integers. Also M > N
since M = N + 1. Thus M is an integer that is greater
than N.

So M is the greatest integer and N is not the greatest

integer, which is a contradiction. [This contradiction
shows that the supposition is false and, hence, that the
theorem is true.]
 Indirect Argument: Contradiction

The fact that no integer can be both even and odd

follows from the uniqueness part of the quotient-
remainder theorem.
 Indirect Argument: Contradiction

As an example, here is a proof by contradiction of

Proposition 4.6.4, namely that for any integer n, if n2 is even
then n is even.

Proof (by contradiction):

[We take the negation of the theorem and suppose it to be
true.] Suppose not. That is, suppose there is an integer n such
that n2 is even and n is not even. [We must deduce a
contradiction.]
 Indirect Argument: Contradiction

Any integer is even or odd. Hence, since n is not even it is

odd, and thus, by definition of odd, n = 2k + 1 for some
integer k. By substitution and algebra:

But 2k2 + 2k is an integer because products and sums of

integers are integers.

So n2 = 2  (an integer) + 1, and thus, by definition of odd, n2

is odd. Therefore, n2 is not even(odd).
 Indirect Argument: Contradiction

This contradicts Theorem 4.6.2, which states that no

integer can be both even and odd.

[This contradiction shows that the supposition is

false and, hence, that the proposition is true.]
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